Saladin Anatomy and Physiology The Unity of Form and Function 2 Episode 7 pps

Adipocytes are also found in areolar tissue, either singly or in True or False explanation of the false statements only 3.. blood-brain barrier BBB A barrier between thebloodstream and n

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Fertilization and Preembryonic

Development (p 1090)

1 Sperm must travel to the distal

one-third of the uterine tube if they are to

encounter the egg before it dies This

traveling, or sperm migration, may be

aided by the cervical mucus, female

orgasm, and chemical attractants

emitted by the egg.

2 Freshly ejaculated sperm cannot

fertilize an egg They undergo

capacitation, becoming capable of

fertilization, as they migrate.

3 When a sperm encounters an egg, it

releases enzymes from its acrosome

(the acrosomal reaction), enabling it

to penetrate the cumulus oophorus,

zone pellucida, and egg membrane.

Hundreds of sperm may be needed to

clear a path for the one that fertilizes

the egg.

4 The egg has a fast block and a slow

block to prevent fertilization by more

than one sperm (polyspermy) The

fast block employs a change in egg

membrane voltage that inhibits the

binding of additional sperm The

slow block involves exocytosis of

the egg’s cortical granules to produce

an impenetrable fertilization

membrane around the egg.

5 The fertilized egg completes meiosis

II and casts off a second polar body.

The sperm and egg nuclei swell and

form pronuclei When the pronuclei

rupture and their chromosomes

mingle, the egg is a diploid zygote.

6 The first two weeks of development,

called the preembryonic stage,

consists of cleavage, implantation,

and embryogenesis, resulting in an

embryo.

7 Cleavage is the mitotic division of the

zygote into cells called blastomeres.

The stage that arrives at the uterus is

a morula of about 16 blastomeres It

develops into a hollow ball called the

blastocyst, with an outer cell mass

called the trophoblast and inner cell

mass called the embryoblast.

8 Implantation is the attachment of the

blastocyst to the uterine wall The

trophoblast differentiates into a cellular mass called the

cytotrophoblast next to the embryo,

and a multinucleate mass called the

syncytiotrophoblast, which grows

rootlets into the endometrium The endometrium grows over the blastocyst and soon completely covers it.

9 The trophoblast secretes human chorionic gonadotropin, the hormone that stimulates growth and secretion

by the corpus luteum.

10 During implantation, the embryoblast

differentiates into three primary germ layers—ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm This process is embryogenesis When the three

primary germ layers have formed, 2 weeks after conception, the

2 After implantation, the conceptus is

fed by trophoblastic nutrition, in

which the trophoblast digests

decidual cells of the endometrium.

This is the dominant mode of nutrition for 8 weeks.

3 The placenta begins to form 11 days

after conception as chorionic villi of the trophoblast eat into uterine blood vessels, eventually creating a blood-

filled cavity called the placental sinus The chorionic villi grow into

branched treelike structures surrounded by the maternal blood in the sinus Nutrients diffuse from the maternal blood into embryonic blood vessels in the villi, and embryonic wastes diffuse the other way to be

disposed of by the mother Placental nutrition becomes dominant at 8

weeks and continues until birth.

4 The placenta communicates with the embryo and fetus by way of two

arteries and a vein contained in the umbilical cord.

5 Four membranes are associated with the embryo and fetus: the amnion, yolk sac, allantois, and chorion.

6 The amnion is a translucent sac that

encloses the embryo in a pool of

amniotic fluid This fluid protects the

embryo from trauma and temperature fluctuations and allows freedom of movement and symmetric development.

7 The yolk sac contributes to

development of the digestive tract and produces the first blood and germ cells of the embryo.

8 The allantois is an outgrowth of the

yolk sac that forms a structural foundation for umbilical cord development and becomes part of the urinary bladder.

9 The chorion encloses all of the other

membranes and forms the fetal part of the placenta.

10 Organogenesis is the differentiation

of the primary germ layers into all of the organs and organ systems (table 29.2) Traces of all organ systems are present by the end of 8 weeks The

individual is considered a fetus from

then until birth.

11 In the fetal stage, organs undergo growth and differentiation and become capable of functioning outside the mother’s body Major developments in the fetal stage are summarized in table 29.4.

12 The circulatory system differs most markedly from prenatal to neonatal life In the fetus, a pair of umbilical arteries arise from the internal iliac arteries and supply the placenta A single umbilical vein returns from the placenta and drains most of its blood into the inferior vena cava (IVC).

13 Three bypasses or shunts divert fetal blood from organs that are not very

functional before birth: The ductus venosus bypasses the liver and

carries most umbilical vein blood

directly to the IVC; the foramen ovale

in the interatrial septum of the heart

Chapter Review

Review of Key Concepts

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allows blood to pass directly from the

right atrium to the left atrium,

bypassing the lungs; and the ductus

arteriosus allows blood in the

pulmonary trunk to pass directly into

the aorta and bypass the lungs.

The Neonate (p 1101)

1 The first 6 to 8 hours after birth are a

transitional period marked by

increasing heart and respiratory rates

and falling temperature The first 6

weeks of postpartum life are the

neonatal period.

2 After severance of the umbilical cord,

the proximal parts of the umbilical

arteries become vesical arteries,

which supply the urinary bladder.

Other blood vessels unique to the

fetus close and become fibrous cords

or ligaments The foramen ovale and

ductus arteriosus close so that blood

from the right heart is forced to

circulate through the lungs.

3 Breathing is very difficult for the

neonate as it first inflates the

pulmonary alveoli.

4 Neonatal immunity depends heavily

on IgG acquired through the placenta

and IgA from colostrum By 6

months, the infant produces ample

IgG of its own.

5 Neonatal thermoregulation is critical

because infants lose heat easily This

heat loss is compensated for to some

extent by a form of heat-producing

adipose tissue called brown fat.

6 The neonatal kidneys are not very

efficient at concentrating urine, so

neonates have a relatively high rate of

water loss and require more fluid

intake than adults do relative to their

body weight.

7 Premature infants suffer especially

from respiratory distress syndrome,

poor thermoregulation, poor fat

digestion, and multiple dysfunctions

resulting from inadequate liver

function.

8 Congenital anomalies (birth defects)

can result from infectious diseases,

teratogens, mutagens, and genetic

disorders.

9 Some of the more common and

serious infectious diseases and

pathogens of the newborn are herpes

simplex, cytomegalovirus, HIV,

gonorrhea, and syphilis.

10 Teratogens, agents that cause

anatomical deformities, include

alcohol, nicotine, and X rays.

11 Nondisjunction, the failure of

homologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis, can result in such congenital defects as triplo-X, Klinefelter, Turner, and Down syndromes.

Aging and Senescence (p 1107)

1 Senescence is the degeneration that

occurs in an organ system as we age.

It begins at very different ages and progresses at different rates in different organ systems Senescence

of one organ system often contributes

to the senescence of others.

2 Senescence of the integumentary system is marked by graying and thinning of the hair, atrophy of sebaceous glands, thinning and loss

of elasticity in the skin, fragility of cutaneous blood vessels, decline in cutaneous sensory function, slower healing, and poorer thermoregulation.

Intrinsic aging occurs inevitably with time, while photoaging is an added

effect proportional to the amount of lifetime UV exposure Senescence of the skin contributes to lactose intolerance, bone loss, muscle weakness, and poorer glandular secretion and synaptic transmission.

3 Senescence of the skeletal system is marked by loss of bone density

(osteopenia or, when more severe, osteoporosis), increasing

susceptibility to fractures, slower healing of fractures, osteoarthritis, and other degenerative joint diseases.

4 The aging muscular system exhibits muscular atrophy, loss of strength, and easy fatigue Some loss of muscular function results from degenerative changes in the nervous system.

5 Senescence of the nervous system is marked by substantial loss of brain tissue and synapses, less efficient synaptic transmission, and declining motor coordination, intellectual function, and short-term memory, but relatively little loss of language skills and long-term memory Senescence of the sympathetic division results in less effective homeostasis in other organ systems.

6 Visual acuity and auditory sensitivity begin to decline shortly after adolescence Vision can be impaired

by cataracts, glaucoma, and reduced dark adaptation Declining inner-ear function can result in poor balance.

Taste and smell become less sensitive.

7 The endocrine system shows relatively little senescence except for the decline in reproductive hormones Reduced densities of hormone receptors can contribute to type II diabetes mellitus and poorer negative feedback control of the pituitary.

8 Senescence of the circulatory system

is a leading cause of death Anemia, atherosclerosis, thrombosis, varicose veins, hemorrhoids, and edema become more common in old age Atherosclerosis contributes to weakening of the heart, myocardial infarction, aneurysm, stroke, and atrophy of all organs.

9 Senescence of the immune system makes older people more subject to cancer and infectious diseases.

10 Pulmonary functions decline as the thoracic cage becomes less flexible and the lungs have fewer alveoli Pneumonia and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases are major causes

of death.

11 The kidneys atrophy a great deal with age, and thus elderly people are less able to maintain water balance and to clear drugs or toxins from the body Elderly men are increasingly subject

to prostatic enlargement and urine retention, and women to urinary incontinence.

12 Senescence of the digestive system includes reduced salivation, difficulty swallowing, poorer dental health, atrophy of the stomach, gastroesophageal reflux, constipation, loss of appetite, and impaired liver function.

13 Reproductive senescence is marked

in men by reduced testosterone secretion, sperm count, and libido, and in women by menopause and multiple effects of the loss of estrogen secretion.

14 Exercise slows the rate of senescence and improves the quality of life in old age by maintaining strength,

endurance, flexibility, and independence It reduces the incidence and severity of hypertension, osteoporosis, obesity, and diabetes mellitus.

15 There are numerous theories of what

causes senescence Replicative senescence, a limit on how many

times cells can divide, may stem from shortening of the chromosomal

telomeres at each cell division

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linking of proteins and DNA and the

misfolding and other structural

defects in proteins may cause

increasing cellular dysfunction The

cumulative effects of free radical

damage and increased incidence of

autoimmune disease may be other

factors in senescence.

16 Longevity is known to be partially

hereditary Natural selection has

presumably been unable to eliminate genes that cause some of the diseases

of old age because such genes have

no effects that natural selection can act on until after the individual has reproduced.

17 Life expectancy has increased in

modern times mostly because of our

ability to reduce infant and

childhood mortality Life span, the

maximum attainable age, has not markedly changed, however.

18 Death is usually clinically defined by

an absence of brain waves, reflexes,

or spontaneous respiration or heartbeat.

chorion 1098 fetus 1098 meconium 1101 lanugo 1101

vernix caseosa 1101 teratogen 1104 senescence 1107 telomere 1113

Testing Your Recall

1 When a conceptus arrives in the

uterus, it is at what stage of

2 The entry of a sperm nucleus into an

egg must be preceded by

a the cortical reaction.

b the acrosomal reaction.

c the fast block.

d implantation.

e cleavage.

3 The stage of the conceptus that

implants in the uterine wall is

4 Chorionic villi develop from

a the zona pellucida.

b the endometrium.

c the syncytiotrophoblast.

d the embryoblast.

e the corona radiata.

5 Which of these results from

6 Fetal urine accumulates in the _

and contributes to the fluid there.

7 One theory of senescence is that

it results from a lifetime of damage by

c the nervous system.

d the skeletal system.

e the cardiovascular system.

9 Which of these is not a common

effect of senescence?

a reduced synthesis of vitamin D

b atrophy of the kidneys

c atrophy of the cerebral gyri

d increased herniation of intervertebral discs

e reduced pulmonary vital capacity

10 For the first 8 weeks of gestation, a conceptus is nourished mainly by

12 Aneuploidy is caused by _, the failure of two homologous

chromosomes to separate in meiosis.

13 The maximum age attainable by a member of the human species is called the _.

14 The average age attained by humans

in a given population is called the _.

15 Fetal blood flows through growths called _, which project into the placental sinus.

16 The enzymes with which a sperm penetrates an egg are contained in an organelle called the _.

17 Stiffening of the arteries, joints, and lenses in old age may be a result of cross-linking between _

molecules.

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18 An enlarged tongue, epicanthal folds

of the eyes, and mental retardation

are characteristic of a genetic

Answers in Appendix B

True or False

Determine which five of the following

statements are false, and briefly

explain why.

1 Freshly ejaculated sperm are more

capable of fertilizing an egg than are

sperm several hours old.

2 Fertilization normally occurs in the

lumen of the uterus.

3 An egg is usually fertilized by the

first sperm that contacts it.

4 By the time a conceptus reaches the

uterus, it has already undergone

several cell divisions and consists of

16 cells or more.

5 The conceptus is first considered a fetus when all of the organ systems are present.

6 The placenta becomes increasingly permeable as it develops.

7 The endocrine system shows less senescence in old age than most other organ systems.

8 Fetal blood bypasses the nonfunctional liver by passing through the foramen ovale.

9 Blood in the umbilical vein has a higher PO2than blood in the umbilical arteries.

10 It is well established that people who exercise regularly live longer than those who do not.

Testing Your Comprehension

1 Suppose a woman had a mutation

resulting in a tough zona pellucida

that did not disintegrate after the egg

was fertilized How would this affect

her fertility? Why?

2 Suppose a drug were developed that

could slow down the rate of collagen

cross-linking with age What diseases

of old age could be made less severe

with such a drug?

3 Some health-food stores market the

enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD)

as an oral antioxidant to retard senescence Explain why it would be

a waste of your money to buy it.

4 In some children, the ductus arteriosus fails to close after birth—a condition that eventually requires surgery Predict how this condition would affect (a) pulmonary blood pressure, (b) systemic diastolic pressure, and (c) the right ventricle of the heart.

5 Only one sperm is needed to fertilize

an egg, yet a man who ejaculates fewer than 10 million sperm is usually infertile Explain this apparent contradiction Supposing 10 million sperm were ejaculated, predict how many would come within close range of the egg How likely is it that any one of these sperm would fertilize it?

Answers at the Online Learning Center

Answers to Figure Legend Questions

29.2 An unfertilized egg dies long

before it reaches the uterus.

29.7 Eight weeks

29.12 Subcutaneous fat deposition

occurs largely in the eighth month.

29.14 XXY (Klinefelter syndrome) and

YO (a zygote that would not survive)

29.16 Female, as seen from the two X chromosomes at the lower right

www.mhhe.com/saladin3

The Online Learning Center provides a wealth of information fully organized and integrated by chapter You will find practice quizzes, tive activities, labeling exercises, flashcards, and much more that will complement your learning and understanding of anatomy and physiology.

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interac-Nineteenth-century chemists discovered that when they

arranged the known elements by atomic weight, certain

properties reappeared periodically In 1869, Russian

chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published the first modern

periodic table of the elements, leaving gaps for those that

had not yet been discovered He accurately predicted

properties of the missing elements, which helped other

chemists discover and isolate them.

Each row in the table is a period and each column is a

group (family) Each period has one electron shell more

than the period above it, and as we progress from left to

right within a period, each element has one more proton

and electron than the one before The dark steplike line

from boron (5) to astatine (85) separates the metals to the left

of it (except hydrogen) from the nonmetals to the right Each

period begins with a soft, light, highly reactive alkali metal,

with one valence electron, in family IA Progressing from left to right, the metallic properties of the elements become less and less pronounced Elements in family VIIA are

highly reactive gases called halogens, with seven valence electrons Elements in family VIIIA, called noble (inert) gases, have a full valence shell of eight electrons, which

makes them chemically unreactive Ninety-one of the ments occur naturally on earth Physicists have created elements up to atomic number 118 in the laboratory, but the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry has established formal names only through element 109 to date The 24 elements with normal roles in human physiology are color-coded according to their relative abun- dance in the body (see chapter 2) Others, however, may be present as contaminants with very destructive effects (such as arsenic, lead, and radiation poisoning).

IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

Atomic number Name Symbol Atomic mass

0.8% (6 elements)0.7% (12 traceelements)

19

Potassium

K

39.098

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Appendix B

Answers to Chapter Review Questions

A-2

This appendix provides answers to the end-of-chapter Testing

Your Recall and True/False questions In the True or False

sec-tions, all statements are true except those listed and explained

here Answers to the figure legend questions are given at the end

of each chapter; answers to Think About It and Testing Your

Comprehension questions are in the Instructor’s Manual; and

answers to Testing Your Comprehension are also given at the

Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/saladin3.

True or False (explanation of the false statements only)

3 Auscultation means listening to body sounds, not inspecting its

appearance

6 Leeuwenhoek was a textile merchant who built microscopes to

examine fabric

7 A scientific theory is founded on a large body of evidence,

summarizing what is already known

8 Both the treatment and control groups consist of volunteer

patients

10 Negative feedback is a self-corrective process with a beneficial

effect on the body

4 The diaphragm is inferior to the lungs

5 The esophagus is in the ventral body cavity

6 The liver is in the hypochondriac region, superior to the lateral

abdominal region

9 The peritoneum lines the outside of the stomach and intestines

10 The sigmoid colon is in the lower left quadrant

Chapter 2

1 a 8 c 14 anabolism

2 c 9 b 15 dehydration

3 a 10 d synthesis

4 c 11 cation 16 -ose, -ase

5 a 12 free radicals 17 phospholipids

6 e 13 catalyst, 18 cyclic adenosine

7 b enzymes monophosphate

19 anaerobic 20 substratefermentation

1 The monomers of a polysaccharide are monosaccharides (simplesugars)

3 Such molecules are called isomers, not isotopes

6 A saturated fat is one to which no more hydrogen can be added

8 Above a certain temperature, enzymes denature and ceaseworking

9 These solutes have different molecular weights, so 2% solutionswould not contain the same amount of solute

1 Osmosis does not require ATP

3 Second messengers activate enzymes in the cell; they are nottransport proteins

5 A channel could not move material from the outside of a cell tothe inside unless it extended all the way across the membrane; itmust be an integral protein

6 The plasma membrane consists primarily of phospholipidmolecules

7 The brush border is composed of microvilli

5 e 12 alleles 19 growth factors

6 b 13 genetic code 20 autosomes

7 a 14 polyribosome

1 There are no ribosomes on the Golgi complex; they are on therough ER

2 There are no genes for steroids, carbohydrates, or phospholipids,but only for proteins

6 This law describes the pairing of bases between the two strands ofDNA, not between mRNA and tRNA

9 Males have only one X chromosome, but have two sexchromosomes (the X and Y)

10 Several RNA polymerase molecules at once can transcribe a gene

Chapter 5

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7 b 13 lacunae 18 matrix

8 e 14 fibers (extracellular

9 b 15 collagen material)

10 b 16 skeletal muscle 19 proteoglycans

11 necrosis 17 basement 20 simple

12 mesothelium membrane

1 The esophageal epithelium is nonkeratinized

5 Adipose tissue is an exception; cells constitute most of its volume

6 Adipocytes are also found in areolar tissue, either singly or in

3 Keratin is the protein of the epidermis; the dermis is composed

mainly of collagen

4 Vitamin D synthesis begins in the keratinocytes

7 The hypodermis is not considered to be a layer of the skin

8 Different races have about the same density of melanocytes but

different amounts of melanin

9 A genetic lack of melanin causes albinism, not pallor Pallor is a

temporary, nonhereditary paleness of the skin

3 The most common bone disease is osteoporosis, not fractures

4 Bones elongate at the epiphyseal plate, not the articular cartilage

5 Osteoclasts develop from stem cells in the bone marrow, not from

2 Each hand and foot has 14 phalanges

3 The female pelvis is wider and shallower than the male’s

7 The lumbar vertebrae have transverse processes but no transversecostal facets

8 The most frequently broken bone is the clavicle

9 Arm refers to the region containing only the humerus; leg refers to

the region containing the tibia and fibula

1 Osteoarthritis occurs in almost everyone after a certain age;rheumatoid arthritis is less common

2 A kinesiologist studies joint movements; a rheumatologist treatsarthritis

3 Synovial joints are diarthroses and amphiarthroses but neversynarthroses

7 The round ligament is somewhat slack and probably does notsecure the femoral head

9 Synovial fluid is secreted by the synovial membrane of the jointcapsule and fills the bursae

3 The mastoid process is its insertion

7 The trapezius is superficial to the scalenes

8 Normal exhalation does not employ these muscles

9 They result from rapid extension of the knee, not flexion

10 They are on opposite sides of the tibia and act as antagonists

5 a 12 complete tetanus 19 muscle tone

6 c 13 terminal cisternae 20 lactic acid

7 e 14 myosin

True or False (explanation of the false statements only)

1 A motor neuron may supply 1,000 or more muscle fibers; a motorunit consists of one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers itinnervates

2 Calcium binds to troponin, not to myosin

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6 Thick and thin filaments are present but not arranged in a way

that produces striations

7 Under natural conditions, a muscle seldom or never attains

complete tetanus

9 A muscle produces most of its ATP during this time by anaerobic

fermentation, which generates lactic acid; it does not consume

lactic acid

Chapter 12

1 e 9 d 15 oligodendrocytes

2 c 10 b 16 nodes of Ranvier

3 d 11 afferent 17 axon hillock,

4 a 12 conductivity initial segment

5 c 13 absolute 18 norepinephrine

6 e refractory period 19 facilitated zone

7 d 14 dendrites 20 neuromodulators

8 a

4 The Na⫹outflow depolarizes the neuron and the K⫹inflow

repolarizes it

5 The threshold stays the same but an EPSP brings the membrane

potential closer to the threshold

7 The effect of a neurotransmitter varies from place to place

depending on the type of receptor present

8 The signals travel rapidly through the internodes and slow down

at each node of Ranvier

9 Synaptic contacts are remodeled, added, and removed throughout

5 e 12 ramus 19 dorsal root

6 c 13 spinocerebellar 20 tibial, common

7 c 14 crossed extensor fibular

1 The gracile fasciculus is an ascending (sensory) tract

4 All spinal nerves are mixed nerves; none are purely sensory or motor

5 The dura is separated from the bone by a fat-filled epidural space

8 Dermatomes overlap each other by as much as 50%

9 Some somatic reflexes are mediated primarily through the

brainstem and cerebellum

Chapter 14

1 c 8 d 14 hydrocephalus

2 a 9 e 15 choroid plexus

3 e 10 e 16 precentral

4 a 11 corpus callosum 17 frontal

5 b 12 ventricles, 18 association areas

6 c cerebrospinal 19 categorical

7 a 13 arbor vitae 20 Broca’s area

1 This fissure separates the cerebral hemispheres, not the cerebellar

hemispheres

2 The cerebral hemispheres do not develop from neural crest tissue

5 The choroid plexuses produce only 30% of the CSF

6 Hearing is a temporal lobe function; vision resides in the occipital

lobe

10 Eye movements are controlled by the oculomotor, trochlear, and

abducens nerves; the optic nerve serves only to carry visual

5 a 12 dual innervation postganglionic

6 e 13 autonomic tone 19 cAMP

7 d 14 vagus 20 vasomotor tone

1 Both systems are always simultaneously active

3 In biofeedback and other circumstances, limited voluntary control

of the ANS is possible

4 The sympathetic division inhibits digestion

6 Waste elimination can occur by autonomic spinal reflexes withoutnecessarily involving the brain

7 All parasympathetic fibers are cholinergic

Chapter 16

1 a 8 c 15 hair cells

3 b 10 b 17 inferior colliculi

4 a 11 fovea centralis 18 taste hairs

5 e 12 ganglion 19 olfactory bulb

6 e 13 Na⫹ 20 referred pain

7 d 14 otoliths

1 These fibers end in the medulla oblongata

3 Because of hemidecussation, the right hemisphere receives signalsfrom both eyes

5 The posterior chamber, the space between iris and lens, is filledwith aqueous humor

6 Descending analgesic fibers block signals that have reached thedorsal horn of the spinal cord

10 The trochlear and abducens nerves control the superior obliqueand lateral rectus, respectively

5 Hormones are also secreted by the heart, liver, kidneys, and otherorgans not generally regarded as glands

7 The pineal gland and thymus undergo involution with age

8 Without iodine, there is no thyroid hormone (TH); without TH,there can be no negative feedback inhibition

9 The tissue at the center is the adrenal medulla

10 There are also two testes, two ovaries, and four parathyroidglands

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15 hemophilia 18 polycythemia 20 erythropoietin

16 hemostasis 19 vitamin B12

17 sickle-cell disease

3 Oxygen deficiency is the result of anemia, not its cause

4 Clotting is one mechanism of hemostasis, but hemostasis includes

others Agglutination is unrelated to either of these

6 The most abundant WBCs are neutrophils

9 The heme is excreted; the globin is broken down into amino acids

that can be reused

10 In leukemia, there is an excess of WBCs A WBC deficiency is leukopenia

7 d (coronary) sulcus 20 cardiac output

1 The coronary circulation is part of the systemic circuit; the other

division is the pulmonary circuit

3 The first two-thirds of ventricular filling occurs before the atria

contract The atria add only about 31% of the blood that fills the

ventricles

6 The first heart sound occurs at the time of the QRS complex

7 The heart has its own internal pacemaker and would continue

beating; the nerves only alter the heart rate

10 The ECG is a composite record of the electrical activity of the

entire myocardium, not a record from a single myocyte It looks

much different from an action potential

6 c capillaries 19 the arterial circle

7 e 13 anaphylactic 20 basilic, cephalic

4 Some veins have valves, but arteries do not

5 By the formula F ⬀ r4, the flow increases 16-fold

8 The capillaries normally reabsorb about 85% of the fluid they

filter; the rest is absorbed by the lymphatic system

9 An aneurysm is a weak, bulging vessel which may rupture.

10 Anaphylactic shock is a form of venous pooling shock

5 d 13 lymphadenitis site, epitope

6 b 14 diapedesis 19 clonal deletion

7 e (emigration) 20 autoimmune

8 d

1 Lysozyme is a bacteria-killing enzyme

3 Interferons promote inflammation

4 Helper T cells are also necessary to humoral immunity

9 Anergy is a loss of lymphocyte activity, whereas autoimmunediseases result from misdirected activity

10 Interferons inhibit viral replication; perforins lyse bacteria

Chapter 22

1 c 10 a 17 compliance,

2 c 11 glottis elasticity

3 a 12 bronchial tree 18 inspiratory

4 e 13 pulmonary surfactant center

1 The glottis is the superior opening into the larynx, not its inferiorexit

4 When volume increases, pressure decreases

5 Atelectasis can have other causes such as airway obstruction

8 In an average 500 mL tidal volume, 350 mL reaches the alveoli

10 Most CO2is transported as bicarbonate ion

Chapter 23

1 a 9 c 16 transport

3 b 11 micturition 17 antidiuretic

4 c 12 renal autoregulation hormone

5 b 13 trigone 18 internal urethral

6 b 14 macula densa 19 protein

7 d 15 podocytes 20 arcuate

8 e

1 Parathyroid hormone regulates calcium absorption by the PCT

2 Urine contains more urea and chloride than sodium

4 A substantial amount of tubular fluid is reabsorbed by theparacellular route, passing through leaky tight junctions

5 Glycosuria does not occur in diabetes insipidus

8 Urine can be as dilute as 50 mOsm/L

2 Aldosterone has only a small influence on blood pressure

5 PTH promotes calcium absorption but phosphate excretion

6 Protein buffers more acid than bicarbonate or phosphates do

9 More water than salt is lost, so the body fluids become hypertonic

10 Aquaporins are found in the distal tubule and collecting duct

Chapter 25

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10 a 14 enteric 18 maltase, maltose

11 occlusal 15 vagus 19 chylomicrons

12 amylase, lipase 16 gastrin 20 iron

13 parotid 17 sinusoids

1 Fat digestion begins in the stomach

2 Most of the tooth is dentin

3 Hepatocytes secrete bile into the bile canaliculi

7 Intrinsic factor is involved in the absorption of vitamin B12

10 Water, glucose, and other nutrients pass between cells, through the

1 Leptin suppresses the appetite

4 Most of the cholesterol is endogenous, not dietary

5 Excessive protein intake can cause renal damage

8 Gluconeogenesis is a postabsorptive phenomenon

9 Brown fat does not generate ATP

4 Only the testes are primary sex organs

5 Female development results from a low testosterone level, not

from estrogen

7 The pampiniform plexus prevents the testes from overheating

8 Sperm are stored in the epididymis

9 There is no such phenomenon as male menopause

7 b 14 corpus luteum 20 lochia

1 Only the ovum and corona radiata enter the uterine tube, not thewhole follicle

2 HCG is secreted by the placenta

5 Many eggs and follicles undergo atresia during childhood, so theirnumber is reduced by the age of puberty

6 Prolactin is secreted during pregnancy but does not induce lactationthen

10 Only the superficial layer (functionalis) is shed

6 e 13 life span 19 foramen ovale

7 c 14 life expectancy 20 embryo

1 Sperm require about 10 hours to become capacitated and able tofertilize an egg

2 Fertilization occurs in the uterine tube

3 Several early-arriving sperm clear a path for the one that fertilizesthe egg

8 Blood bypasses the lungs via the foramen ovale

10 Exercise improves the quality of life in old age, but has not beenshown to increase life expectancy significantly

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Appendix C

Lexicon of Biomedical Word Elements

a- no, not, without (atom, agranulocyte)

ab- away (abducens, abduction)

acetabulo- small cup (acetabulum)

acro- tip, extremity, peak (acromion,

acromegaly)

ad- to, toward, near (adsorption, adrenal)

adeno- gland (lymphadenitis,

adenohypophysis)

aero- air, oxygen (aerobic, anaerobe,

aerophagy)

af- toward (afferent)

ag- together (agglutination)

-al pertaining to (parietal, pharyngeal,

temporal)

ala- wing (ala nasi)

albi- white (albicans, linea alba, albino)

algi- pain (analgesic, myalgia)

aliment- nourishment (alimentary)

allo- other, different (allele, allosteric)

amphi- both, either (amphiphilic,

amphiarthrosis)

an- without (anaerobic, anemic)

ana- 1 up, build up (anabolic,

anaphylaxis) 2 apart (anaphase, anatomy).

3 back (anastomosis)

andro- male (androgen)

angi- vessel (angiogram, angioplasty,

hemangioma)

ante- before, in front (antebrachium)

antero- forward (anterior, anterograde)

anti- against (antidiuretic, antibody,

antagonist)

apo- from, off, away, above (apocrine,

aponeurosis)

arbor- tree (arboreal, arborization)

artic- 1 joint (articulation) 2 speech

(articulate)

-ary pertaining to (axillary, coronary)

-ase enzyme (polymerase, kinase, amylase)

ast-, astro- star (aster, astrocyte)

-ata, -ate 1 possessing (hamate, corniculate).

2 plural of -a (stomata, carcinomata)

athero- fat (atheroma, atherosclerosis)

atrio- entryway (atrium, atrioventricular)

auri- ear (auricle, binaural)

auto- self (autolysis, autoimmune)

axi- axis, straight line (axial, axoneme, axon)

baro- pressure (baroreceptor, hyperbaric)

bene- good, well (benign, beneficial)

bi- two (bipedal, biceps, bifid)

bili- bile (biliary, bilirubin)

bio- life, living (biology, biopsy, microbial)

blasto- precursor, bud, producer (fibroblast,

celi- belly, abdomen (celiac) centri- center, middle (centromere,

centriole)

cephalo- head (cephalic, encephalitis) cervi- neck, narrow part (cervix, cervical) chiasm- cross, X (optic chiasm) choano- funnel (choana) chole- bile (cholecystokinin,

cholelithotripsy)

chondro- 1 grain (mitochondria)

2 cartilage, gristle (chondrocyte,

cisterna reservoir (cisterna chyli) clast- break down, destroy (osteoclast) clavi- hammer, club, key (clavicle,

supraclavicular)

-cle little (tubercle, corpuscle) cleido- clavicle (sternocleidomastoid) cnemo- lower leg (gastrocnemius) co- together (coenzyme, cotransport) collo- 1 hill (colliculus) 2 glue (colloid,

collagen)

contra- opposite (contralateral) corni- horn (cornified, corniculate, cornu) corono- crown (coronary, corona, coronal) corpo- body (corpus luteum, corpora

quadrigemina)

corti- bark, rind (cortex, cortical) costa- rib (intercostal, subcostal) coxa- hip (os coxae, coxal) crani- helmet (cranium, epicranius) cribri- sieve, strainer (cribriform, area

auricular)

cune- wedge (cuneiform, cuneatus) cutane-, cuti- skin (subcutaneous, cuticle) cysto- bladder (cystitis, cholecystectomy) cyto- cell (cytology, cytokinesis, monocyte) de- down (defecate, deglutition,

dehydration)

demi- half (demifacet, demilune) den-, denti- tooth (dentition, dens, dental) dendro- tree, branch (dendrite,

dia- 1 across, through, separate

(diaphragm, dialysis) 2 day (circadian)

dis- 1 apart (dissect, dissociate) 2 opposite,

absence (disinfect, disability)

diure- pass through, urinate (diuretic, diuresis) dorsi- back (dorsal, dorsum, latissimus dorsi) duc- to carry (duct, adduction, abducens) dys- bad, abnormal, painful (dyspnea,

dystrophy)

e- out (ejaculate, eversion) -eal pertaining to (hypophyseal, arboreal) ec-, ecto- outside, out of, external (ectopic,

ectoderm, splenectomy)

ef- out of (efferent, effusion) -el, -elle small (fontanel, organelle, micelle) electro- electricity (electrocardiogram,

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entero- gut, intestine (mesentery, myenteric)

epi- upon, above (epidermis, epiphysis,

epididymis)

ergo- work, energy, action (allergy, adrenergic)

eryth-, erythro- red (erythema, erythrocyte)

esthesio- sensation, feeling (anesthesia,

somesthetic)

eu- good, true, normal, easy (eupnea,

aneuploidy)

exo- out (exopeptidase, exocytosis, exocrine)

facili- easy (facilitated)

fasci- band, bundle (fascia, fascicle)

fenestr- window (fenestrated)

fer- to carry (efferent, uriniferous)

ferri- iron (ferritin, transferrin)

fibro- fiber (fibroblast, fibrosis)

fili- thread (myofilament, filiform)

flagello- whip (flagellum)

foli- leaf (folic acid, folia)

-form shape (cuneiform, fusiform)

fove- pit, depression (fovea)

funiculo- little rope, cord (funiculus)

fusi- 1 spindle (fusiform) 2 pour out

(perfusion)

gamo- marriage, union (monogamy, gamete)

gastro- belly, stomach (digastric,

gastrointestinal)

-gen, -genic, -genesis producing, giving rise

to (pathogen, carcinogenic, glycogenesis)

genio- chin (geniohyoid, genioglossus)

germi- 1 sprout, bud (germinal,

germinativum) 2 microbe (germicide)

gero- old age (progeria, geriatrics,

gerontology)

gesto- 1 to bear, carry (ingest) 2 pregnancy

(gestation, progesterone)

glia- glue (neuroglia, microglia)

globu- ball, sphere (globulin, hemoglobin)

glom- ball (glomerulus)

glosso- tongue (hypoglossal,

glossopharyngeal)

glyco- sugar (glycogen, glycolysis,

hypoglycemia)

gono- 1 angle, corner (trigone) 2 seed, sex

cell, generation (gonad, oogonium,

gonorrhea)

gradi- walk, step (retrograde, gradient)

-gram recording of (sonogram,

gyro- turn, twist (gyrus)

hallu- great toe (hallux, hallucis)

hemi- half (hemidesmosome, hemisphere)

-hemia blood condition (polycythemia)

hemo- blood (hemophilia, hemoglobin,

hematology)

hetero- different, other, various

(heterozygous)

histo- tissue, web (histology, histone)

holo- whole, entire (holistic, holocrine)

homeo- constant, unchanging, uniform

hypo- below, below normal, deficient

(hypogastric, hyponatremia, hypophysis)

-ia condition (anemia, hypocalcemia,

(metabolism, rheumatism) 2 doctrine,

belief, theory (holism, reductionism, naturalism)

iso- same, equal (isometric, isotonic, isomer) -issimus most, greatest (latissimus,

longissimus)

-ite little (dendrite, somite) -itis inflammation (dermatitis, gingivitis) jug- to join (conjugated, jugular) juxta- next to (juxtamedullary,

-let small (platelet) leuko- white (leukocyte, leukemia) levato- to raise (levator labii, elevation) ligo- to bind (ligand, ligament) line- line (linea alba, linea nigra) litho- stone (otolith, lithotripsy) -logy study of (histology, physiology,

malformed)

malle- hammer (malleus, malleolus) mammo- breast (mammary, mammillary) mano- hand (manus, manipulate) manubri- handle (manubrium) masto- breast (mastoid, gynecomastia) medi- middle (medial, mediastinum,

intermediate)

medullo- marrow, pith (medulla) mega- large (megakaryocyte, hepatomegaly) melano- black (melanin, melanocyte,

metri- 1 length, measure (isometric,

emmetropic) 2 uterus (endometrium)

micro- small (microscopic, microcytic,

onychomycosis)

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op- vision (optics, myopia, photopic)

-opsy viewing, to see (biopsy, rhodopsin)

or- mouth (oral, orbicularis oris)

orbi- circle (orbicularis, orbit)

organo- tool, instrument (organ, organelle)

ortho- straight (orthopnea, orthodontics,

orthopedics)

-ose 1 full of (adipose) 2 sugar (sucrose,

glucose)

-osis 1 process (osmosis, exocytosis)

2 condition, disease (cyanosis, thrombosis).

3 increase (leukocytosis)

osmo- push (osmosis, chemiosmotic)

osse-, oste- bone (osseous, osteoporosis)

oto- ear (otolith, otitis, parotid)

-ous 1 full of (nitrogenous, edematous)

2 pertaining to (mucous, nervous) 3 like,

characterized by (squamous, filamentous)

ovo- egg (ovum, ovary, ovulation)

oxy- 1 oxygen (hypoxia, oxyhemoglobin)

2 sharp, quick (oxytocin)

palli- pale (pallor, globus pallidus)

palpebro- eyelid (palpebrae)

pan- all (panhypopituitarism, pancreas)

panni- cloth, rag (pannus, panniculus)

papillo- nipple (papilla, papillary)

par- birth (postpartum, parturition,

multiparous)

para- next to (parathyroid, parotid)

parieto- wall (parietal)

patho- 1 disease (pathology, pathogen)

pelvi- basin (pelvis, pelvic)

-penia deficiency (leukopenia,

thrombocytopenia)

penna- feather (unipennate, bipennate)

peri- around (periosteum, peritoneum,

periodontal)

perone- fibula (peroneus tertius, peroneal

nerve)

phago- eat (phagocytosis, macrophage)

philo- loving, attracted to (hydrophilic,

amphiphilic)

phobo- fearing, repelled by (hydrophobic)

phor- to carry, bear (diaphoresis,

electrophoresis)

phragm- partition (diaphragm)

phreno- diaphragm (phrenic nerve)

physio- nature, natural cause (physiology,

physician)

-physis growth (diaphysis, hypophysis)

pilo- hair (piloerection)

pino- drink, imbibe (pinocytosis)

planto- sole of foot (plantaris, plantar wart)

plasi- growth (hyperplasia)

plasm- shaped, molded (cytoplasm,

endoplasmic)

plasti- form (thromboplastin)

platy- flat (platysma)

pnea- breath, breathing (eupnea, dyspnea) pneumo- air, breath, lung (pneumonia,

(apoptosis, nephroptosis)

puncto- point (puncta) pyro- fire (pyrogen, antipyretic) quadri- four (quadriceps, quadratus) quater- fourth (quaternary)

radiat- radiating (corona radiata) rami- branch (ramus)

recto- straight (rectus abdominis, rectum) reno- kidney (renal, renin)

reti- network (reticular, rete testis) retinac- retainer, bracelet (retinaculum) retro- behind, backward (retroperitoneal,

sarco- flesh, muscle (sarcoplasm,

sarcomere)

scala- staircase (scala tympani) sclero- hard, tough (sclera, sclerosis) scopo- see (microscope, endoscopy) secto- cut (section, dissection) semi- half (semilunar, semimembranosus) sepsi- infection (asepsis, septicemia) -sis process (diapedesis, amniocentesis) sole- sandal, sole of foot, flatfish (sole, soleus) soma-, somato- body (somatic,

somatotropin)

spheno- wedge (sphenoid) spiro- breathing (inspiration, spirometry) splanchno- viscera (splanchnic) spleno- 1 bandage (splenius capitis) 2.

spleen (splenic artery)

squamo- scale, flat (squamous,

supra- above (supraspinous, supraclavicular) sura- calf of leg (triceps surae)

sym- together (sympathetic, symphysis) syn- together (synostosis, syncytium) tachy- fast (tachycardia, tachypnea) tarsi- ankle (tarsus, metatarsal) tecto- roof, cover (tectorial membrane,

tomo- 1 cut (tomography, atom, anatomy).

2 segment (dermatome, myotome,

(trapezium) 2 trapezoid (trapezius)

tri- three (triceps, triglyceride) tricho- hair (trichosiderin, peritrichial) trocho- wheel, pulley (trochlea) troph- 1 food, nourishment (trophic,

trophoblast) 2 growth (dystrophy,

vagino- sheath (invaginate, tunica

vitre- glass (in vitro, vitreous humor) vivi- life, alive (in vivo, revive) zygo- union, join, mate (zygomatic, zygote,

azygos)

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Glossary

This glossary defines approximately

1,000 terms They are not necessarily the

most important ones in the book, but

they are terms that are reintroduced most

often and, for lack of space, are not

redefined each time they arise The index

indicates where you can find definitions

or explanations of additional terms.

Terms are defined only in the sense that

they are used in this book Some have

broader meanings, even within biology

and medicine, that are beyond its scope.

Terms that are commonly abbreviated,

such as ATP and PET scan, are defined

under the full spelling See the list of

abbreviations inside the front cover for

complete spellings The glossary gives

pronunciation guides for many terms,

with accented syllables in capital letters.

A key to the pronunciation of individual

syllables and letter groups can be found

at the end of the glossary.

A

abdominal cavity The body cavity between the

diaphragm and pelvic brim fig A.7

abduction (ab-DUC-shun) Movement of a body

part away from the median plane, as in raising an

arm away from the side of the body fig 9.10

absorption 1 Process in which a chemical passes

through a membrane or tissue surface and

becomes incorporated into a body fluid or tissue

2 Any process in which one substance passes into

another and becomes a part of it Compare

adsorption

acetate The ionized form of acetic acid (CH3COO⫺)

Serves as the monomer of fatty acids and the

intermediate of aerobic metabolism that enters

the citric acid cycle

acetylcholine (ACh) (ASS-eh-till-CO-leen) A

neuro-transmitter released by somatic motor fibers,

parasympathetic fibers, and some other neurons,

composed of choline and an acetyl group fig

12.18

acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

(ASS-eh-till-CO-lin-ESS-ter-ase) An enzyme that hydrolyzes

acetyl-choline, thus halting signal transmission at a

cholinergic synapse

acid A proton (H⫹) donor; a chemical that releases

protons into solution

acidosis An acid-base imbalance in which the blood

actin A filamentous intracellular protein that providescytoskeletal support and interacts with other pro-teins, especially myosin, to cause cellular move-ment; important in muscle contraction, ciliary andflagellar beating, and membrane actions such asphagocytosis, ameboid movement, and cytokinesis

action The movement produced by the contraction

of a particular muscle

action potential A rapid voltage change in which aplasma membrane briefly reverses electricalpolarity; has a self-propagating effect that pro-duces a traveling wave of excitation in nerve andmuscle cells

active site The region of a protein that binds to aligand, such as the substrate-binding site of anenzyme or the hormone-binding site of a receptor

active transport The movement of a solute through

a cellular membrane, against its concentration dient, involving a carrier protein that expends ATP

gra-acute Pertaining to a disease with abrupt onset,

intense symptoms, and short duration Compare

chronic

adaptation 1 An evolutionary process leading to

the establishment of species characteristics that

favor survival and reproduction 2 Any

character-istic of anatomy, physiology, or behavior that

pro-motes survival and reproduction 3 A sensory

process in which a receptor adjusts its sensitivity

or response to the prevailing level of stimulation,such as dark adaptation of the eye

adduction (ah-DUC-shun) Movement of a bodypart toward the median plane, such as bringingthe feet together from a spread-legged position

fig 9.10

adenine (AD-eh-neen) A double-ringed nitrogenousbase (purine) found in such molecules as DNA,RNA, and ATP; one of the four bases of thegenetic code; complementary to thymine in thedouble helix of DNA fig 4.2

adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (ah-DEN-oh-seentri-FOSS-fate) A molecule composed of adenine,ribose, and three phosphate groups that functions

as a universal energy-transfer molecule; yieldsadenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganicphosphate group (Pi) upon hydrolysis fig 2.29a

adenylate cyclase (ah-DEN-ih-late SY-clase) Anenzyme of the plasma membrane that removes

two phosphate molecules from ATP and makescyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP); impor-tant in the activation of the cAMP second-mes-senger system

adipocyte (AD-ih-po-site) A fat cell

adipose tissue A connective tissue composed dominantly of adipocytes; fat

pre-adrenal gland (ah-DREE-nul) An endocrine gland

on the superior pole of each kidney fig 17.10

adrenergic (AD-reh-NUR-jic) Pertaining to nephrine (adrenaline) or norepinephrine (nora-drenaline), as in adrenergic neurons that secreteone of these chemicals or adrenergic effects on atarget organ

epi-adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) no-COR-tih-co-TRO-pic) A hormone secreted bythe anterior pituitary gland that stimulates theadrenal cortex

(ah-DREE-adsorption The binding of one substance to thesurface of another without becoming a part of

the latter Compare absorption.

adventitia (AD-ven-TISH-uh) Loose connective sue forming the outermost sheath around organssuch as a blood vessel or the esophagus

tis-aerobic exercise (air-OH-bic) Exercise in which gen is used to produce ATP; endurance exercise

oxy-aerobic respiration Oxidation of organic pounds in a reaction series that requires oxygenand produces ATP

com-afferent (AFF-uh-rent) Carrying toward, as in

affer-ent neurons, which carry signals toward the

cen-tral nervous system, and afferent arterioles, which carry blood toward a tissue Compare

efferent

afterload The force exerted by arterial blood sure that opposes the openings of the aortic andpulmonary valves of the heart

pres-agglutination (ah-GLUE-tih-NAY-shun) Clumping

of cells or molecules by antibodies fig 18.15

aging Any changes in the body that occur with thepassage of time, including growth, development,and senescence

agonist See prime mover.

agranulocyte Either of the two leukocyte types(lymphocytes and monocytes) that lack prominentcytoplasmic granules

albumin (al-BYU-min) A class of small proteinsconstituting about 60% of the protein fraction ofthe blood plasma; plays roles in blood viscosity,colloid osmotic pressure, and solute transport

aldosterone (AL-doe-steh-RONE, rone) A steroid hormone secreted by the adrenalcortex that acts on the kidneys to promotesodium retention and potassium excretion

al-DOSS-teh-alkalosis An acid-base imbalance in which theblood pH is higher than 7.45

Trang 16

allele (ah-LEEL) Any of the alternative forms that

one gene can take, such as dominant and

reces-sive alleles

all-or-none law The statement that a neuron either

produces an action potential of maximum

strength if it is depolarized to or above threshold,

or produces no action potential at all if the

stimu-lus is not strong enough to reach threshold; there

are no action potentials of intermediate strength

alveolus (AL-vee-OH-lus) 1 A microscopic air sac of

the lung 2 A gland acinus 3 A tooth socket 4.

Any small anatomical space

Alzheimer disease (AD) (ALTS-hy-mur) A

degenera-tive disease of the senescent brain, typically

beginning with memory lapses and progressing to

severe losses of mental and motor functions and

ultimately death

ameboid movement (ah-ME-boyd) Movement of a

cell by means of pseudopods, in a manner similar

to that of an ameba; seen in leukocytes and some

macrophages

amino acids Small organic molecules with an

amino group and a carboxyl group; the

monomers of which proteins are composed

amino group A functional group with the formula

–NH2, found in amino acids and some other

organic molecules

ampulla (am-PULL-uh) A wide or saclike portion of

a tubular organ such as a semicircular duct or

uterine tube

anabolism (ah-NAB-oh-lizm) Any metabolic

reac-tions that consume energy and construct more

complex molecules with higher free energy from

less complex molecules with lower free energy;

for example, the synthesis of proteins from amino

acids Compare catabolism.

anaerobic fermentation (AN-err-OH-bic) A

reduc-tion reacreduc-tion independent of oxygen that

con-verts pyruvic acid to lactic acid and enables

gly-colysis to continue under anaerobic conditions

anaphylactic shock A severe systemic form of

ana-phylaxis involving bronchoconstriction, impaired

breathing, vasodilation, and a rapid drop in blood

pressure with a threat of circulatory failure

anaphylaxis (AN-uh-fih-LAC-sis) A form of immediate

hypersensitivity in which an antigen triggers the

release of inflammatory chemicals, causing edema,

congestion, hives, and other, usually local, signs

anastomosis (ah-NASS-tih-MO-sis) An anatomical

convergence, the opposite of a branch; a point

where two blood vessels merge and combine their

bloodstreams or where two nerves or ducts

con-verge fig 20.1

anatomical position A reference posture that

allows for standardized anatomical terminology A

subject in anatomical position is standing with

the feet flat on the floor, arms down to the sides,

and the palms and eyes directed forward fig A.1

anatomy 1 Structure of the body 2 The study of

structure

androgen (AN-dro-jen) Testosterone or a related

steroid hormone Stimulates somatic changes at

puberty in both sexes, adult libido in both sexes,

development of male anatomy in the fetus and

adolescent, and spermatogenesis

anemia (ah-NEE-me-uh) A deficiency of

erythro-aneurysm (AN-you-rizm) A weak, bulging point inthe wall of a heart chamber or blood vessel thatpresents a threat of hemorrhage

angiogenesis (AN-jee-oh-GEN-eh-sis) The growth

of new blood vessels

angiotensin II (AN-jee-oh-TEN-sin) A hormone duced from angiotensinogen (a plasma protein)

pro-by the kidneys and lungs; raises blood pressure pro-bystimulating vasoconstriction and stimulating theadrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone

anion (AN-eye-on) An ion with more electrons thanprotons and consequently a net negative charge

antagonist 1 A muscle that opposes the agonist at

a joint 2 Any agent, such as a hormone or drug,

that opposes another

antebrachium (AN-teh-BRAY-kee-um) The regionfrom elbow to wrist; the forearm

anterior Pertaining to the front (facial-abdominalaspect) of the body; ventral

antibody A protein of the gamma globulin classthat reacts with an antigen; found in the bloodplasma, in other body fluids, and on the surfaces

of certain leukocytes and their derivatives

anticoagulant (AN-tee-co-AG-you-lent) A cal agent that opposes blood clotting

chemi-antidiuretic hormone (ADH) ic) A hormone released by the posterior lobe ofthe pituitary gland in response to low blood pres-sure; promotes water retention by the kidneys

(AN-tee-DYE-you-RET-Also known as vasopressin.

antigen (AN-tih-jen) Any large molecule capable ofbinding to an antibody and triggering an immuneresponse

antigen-presenting cell (APC) A cell that tizes an antigen and displays fragments of it on itssurface for recognition by other cells of theimmune system; chiefly macrophages and B lym-phocytes

phagocy-antioxidant A chemical that binds and neutralizesfree radicals, minimizing their oxidative damage

to a cell; for example, selenium and vitamin E

antiport A cotransport protein that moves two ormore solutes in opposite directions through a cel-lular membrane; for example, the Na⫹-K⫹pump

aorta A large artery that extends from the left cle to the lower abdominal cavity and gives rise to allother arteries of the systemic circulation fig 20.21

ventri-apical surface The uppermost surface of an lial cell, usually exposed to the lumen of anorgan fig 3.5

epithe-apocrine Pertaining to certain sweat glands withlarge lumens and relatively thick, aromatic secre-tions and to similar glands such as the mammarygland; formerly thought to form secretions bypinching off bits of apical cytoplasm

apoptosis (AP-oh-TOE-sis) Programmed cell death;

the normal death of cells that have completed

their function Compare necrosis.

appendicular (AP-en-DIC-you-lur) Pertaining tothe extremities and their supporting skeletal gir-dles fig 8.1

arcuate (AR-cue-et) Making a sharp L- or U-shaped

bend (arc), as in the arcuate arteries of the

kid-neys and uterus

areolar tissue (AIR-ee-OH-lur) A fibrous connectivetissue with loosely organized, widely spaced fibers

found under nearly every epithelium, amongother places fig 5.15

arrhythmia (ah-RITH-me-uh) An irregularity in thecardiac rhythm

arteriole (ar-TEER-ee-ole) A small artery that ties into a metarteriole or capillary

emp-artery Any blood vessel that conducts blood awayfrom the heart

articular cartilage A thin layer of hyaline cartilagecovering the articular surface of a bone at a syn-ovial joint serving to reduce friction and easejoint movement fig 9.6

articulation A skeletal joint; any point at whichtwo bones meet; may or may not be movable

ascorbic acid Vitamin C; a dietary antioxidant

aspect A particular view of the body or one of itsstructures, or a part that faces in a particulardirection, such as the anterior aspect

atheroma (ATH-ur-OH-muh) A fatty deposit(plaque) in a blood vessel consisting of lipid,smooth muscle, and macrophages; characteristic

of atherosclerosis fig 19.21

atherosclerosis (ATH-ur-oh-skleh-ROE-sis) Adegenerative disease of the blood vessels charac-terized by the presence of atheromas and oftenleading to calcification of the vessel wall

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) (AY-tree-ul tree-you-RET-ic) A hormone secreted by the heartthat lowers blood pressure by promoting sodiumexcretion and antagonizing aldosterone

NAY-atrioventricular (AV) node you-lur) A group of autorhythmic cells in theinteratrial septum of the heart that relays excita-tion from the atria to the ventricles

(AY-tree-oh-ven-TRIC-atrioventricular (AV) valves The bicuspid (right)and tricuspid (left) valves between the atria andventricles of the heart

atrophy (AT-ro-fee) Shrinkage of a tissue due toage, disuse, or disease

auditory ossicles Three small middle-ear bones thattransfer vibrations from the tympanic membrane

to the inner ear; the malleus, incus, and stapes

autoantibody An antibody that fails to distinguishthe body’s own molecules from foreign moleculesand thus attacks host tissues, causing autoim-mune diseases

autoimmune disease Any disease in which antibodiesfail to distinguish between foreign and self-antigensand attack the body’s own tissues; for example, sys-temic lupus erythematosus and rheumatic fever

autolysis (aw-TOLL-ih-sis) Digestion of cells by theirown internal enzymes

autonomic nervous system (ANS) ic) A motor division of the nervous system thatinnervates glands, smooth muscle, and cardiacmuscle; consists of sympathetic and parasympa-thetic divisions and functions largely without vol-

(AW-toe-NOM-untary control Compare somatic nervous system.

autoregulation The ability of a tissue to adjust itsown blood supply through vasomotion or angio-genesis

autorhythmic (AW-toe-RITH-mic) Pertaining tocells that spontaneously produce action poten-tials at regular time intervals, chiefly cardiac andsmooth muscle cells

autosome (AW-toe-some) Any chromosome except

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are inherited without regard to the sex of the

individual

axial (AC-see-ul) Pertaining to the head, neck, and

trunk; the part of the body excluding the

appen-dicular portion fig 8.1

axillary (ACK-sih-LERR-ee) Pertaining to the armpit

axon A process of a neuron that transmits action

potentials; also called a nerve fiber There is only

one axon to a neuron, and it is usually much

longer and much less branched than the

den-drites fig 12.4

axoneme (AC-so-neem) The core of microtubules,

usually in a “9 ⫹ 2” array, at the center of a

cil-ium or flagellum fig 3.11

B

baroreceptors (BAR-oh-re-SEP-turz) Pressure

sen-sors located in the heart, aortic arch, and carotid

sinuses that trigger autonomic reflexes in

response to fluctuations in blood pressure

basal metabolic rate (BMR) The rate of energy

consumption of a person who is awake, relaxed,

at a comfortable temperature, and has not eaten

for 12 to 14 hours; usually expressed as

kilocalo-ries per square meter of body surface per hour

Compare metabolic rate.

basal nuclei Masses of deep cerebral gray matter

that play a role in the coordination of posture

and movement fig 14.16

base 1 A chemical that binds protons from solution;

a proton acceptor 2 Any of the purines or

pyrim-idines of a nucleic acid (adenine, thymine, guanine,

cytosine, or uracil), serving in part to code for

pro-tein structure 3 The broadest part of a tapered

organ such as the uterus or the inferior aspect of

an organ such as the brain

basement membrane A thin layer of glycoproteins,

collagen, and glycosaminoglycans beneath the

deepest cells of an epithelium, serving to bind the

epithelium to the underlying tissue fig 5.33

base triplet A sequence of three DNA nucleotides

that codes indirectly (through mRNA) for one

amino acid of a protein

basophil (BAY-so-fill) A granulocyte with coarse

cytoplasmic granules that produces heparin,

his-tamine, and other chemicals involved in

inflam-mation table 18.8

belly The thick part of a skeletal muscle between its

origin and insertion fig 10.2

bicarbonate buffer system An equilibrium mixture

of carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, and hydrogen

ions (H2CO3↔ HCO3 ⫺⫹ H⫹) that stabilizes the

pH of the body fluids

bicarbonate ion An anion, HCO3 ⫺, that functions

as a base in the buffering of body fluids

bile A secretion produced by the liver, concentrated and

stored in the gallbladder, and released into the small

intestine; consists mainly of wastes such as excess

cholesterol, salts, and bile pigments but also contains

lecithin and bile acids, which aid in fat digestion

bile pigments Strongly colored organic compounds

produced by the breakdown of hemoglobin,

including biliverdin and bilirubin

bilirubin (BIL-ih-ROO-bin) A yellow to orange bile

pigment produced by the breakdown of hemoglobin

and excreted in the bile; causes jaundice and toxic effects if present in excessive concentration

neuro-biogenic amines A class of chemical messengerswith neurotransmitter and hormonal functions,synthesized from amino acids and retaining an

amino group; also called monoamines Examples

include epinephrine and thyroxine

bipedalism The habit of walking on two legs; adefining characteristic of the family Hominidaethat underlies many skeletal and other character-istics of humans

blood-brain barrier (BBB) A barrier between thebloodstream and nervous tissue of the brain that isimpermeable to many blood solutes and thus pre-vents them from affecting the brain tissue; formed

by the tight junctions between capillary lial cells, the basement membrane of the endothe-lium, and the perivascular feet of astrocytes

endothe-B lymphocyte A lymphocyte that functions as anantigen-presenting cell and, in humoral immu-nity, differentiates into an antibody-producing

plasma cell; also called a B cell.

body 1 The entire organism 2 Part of a cell, such

as a neuron, containing the nucleus and most

other organelles 3 The largest or principal part

of an organ such as the stomach or uterus; also

called the corpus.

bolus A mass of matter, especially food or fecestraveling through the digestive tract

bone 1 A calcified connective tissue; also called

osseous tissue 2 An organ of the skeleton

com-posed of osseous tissue, fibrous connective tissue,marrow, cartilage, and other tissues

Bowman’s capsule See glomerular capsule.

brachial (BRAY-kee-ul) Pertaining to the armproper, the region from shoulder to elbow

bradykinin (BRAD-ee-KY-nin) An oligopeptide duced in inflammation that stimulates vasodila-tion, increases capillary permeability, and stimu-lates pain receptors

pro-brainstem The stalklike lower portion of the brain,composed of all of the brain except the cerebrumand cerebellum (Many authorities also exclude thediencephalon and regard only the medulla oblon-gata, pons, and midbrain as the brainstem.) fig

14.8

bronchiole (BRONK-ee-ole) A pulmonary air sage that is usually 1 mm or less in diameter andlacks cartilage but has relatively abundantsmooth muscle, elastic tissue, and a simplecuboidal, usually ciliated epithelium

pas-bronchus (BRONK-us) A relatively large pulmonaryair passage with supportive cartilage in the wall;

any passage beginning with the primary bronchus

at the fork in the trachea and ending with ary bronchi, from which air continues into thebronchioles

terti-brush border A fringe of microvilli on the apicalsurface of an epithelial cell, serving to enhancesurface area and promote absorption fig 3.10

buffer 1 A mixture of chemicals that resists

changes in pH when acid or base is added to the

solution 2 A physiological system that

con-tributes to acid-base balance, specifically the piratory and urinary systems

res-bursa A sac filled with synovial fluid at a diarthrosis,serving to facilitate muscle or joint action fig 9.19

C

calcaneal tendon (cal-CAY-nee-ul) A thick tendon

at the heel that attaches the triceps surae

mus-cles to the calcaneus; also called the Achilles

ten-don fig 10.37

calcification The hardening of a tissue due to thedeposition of calcium salts

calcitonin (CAL-sih-TOE-nin) A hormone secreted

by C cells of the thyroid gland that promotes cium deposition in the skeleton and lowers bloodcalcium concentration

cal-calmodulin An intracellular protein that binds cium ions and mediates many of the second-mes-senger effects of calcium

cal-calorie The amount of thermal energy that willraise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C Also

called a small calorie.

Calorie See kilocalorie.

calorigenic (ca-LOR-ih-JEN-ic) Heat-producing, as

in the calorigenic effect of thyroid hormone

calsequestrin A protein found in smooth endoplasmicreticulum that reversibly binds and stores calciumions, rendering calcium chemically unreactive untilneeded for such processes as muscle contraction

calvaria (cal-VERR-ee-uh) The rounded bony domethat forms the roof of the cranium; the generalportion of the skull superior to the eyes and ears;skullcap

calyx (CAY-lix) (plural, calices) A cuplike structure,

as in the kidneys fig 23.4

canaliculus (CAN-uh-LIC-you-lus) A microscopiccanal, as in osseous tissue fig 7.4

capillary (CAP-ih-LERR-ee) The narrowest type of sel in the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems;engages in fluid exchanges with surrounding tissues

ves-capillary exchange The process of fluid transferbetween the bloodstream and tissue fluid

capsule The fibrous covering of a structure such asthe spleen or a diarthrosis

carbohydrate A hydrophilic organic compoundcomposed of carbon and a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen

to oxygen; includes sugars, starches, glycogen,and cellulose

carbonic anhydrase An enzyme found in cytes and kidney tubule cells that catalyzes thedecomposition of carbonic acid into carbon diox-ide and water or the reverse reaction (H2CO3↔

erythro-CO2⫹ H2O)

carboxyl group (car-BOC-sil) An organic functionalgroup with the formula –COOH, found in manyorganic acids such as amino acids and fatty acids

carcinogen (car-SIN-oh-jen) An agent capable ofcausing cancer, including certain chemicals,viruses, and ionizing radiation

cardiac center A nucleus in the medulla oblongatathat regulates autonomic reflexes for controllingthe rate and strength of the heartbeat

cardiac cycle One complete cycle of cardiac systoleand diastole

cardiac muscle Striated involuntary muscle of theheart

cardiac output (CO) The amount of blood pumped

by each ventricle of the heart in 1 minute

cardiac reserve The difference between maximumand resting cardiac output; determines a person’s

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cardiovascular system An organ system consisting

of the heart and blood vessels, serving for the

transport of blood Compare circulatory system.

carotid body (ca-ROT-id) A small cellular mass

immediately superior to the branch in the

com-mon carotid artery, containing sensory cells that

detect changes in blood pH and carbon dioxide

and oxygen content fig 20.11

carotid sinus A dilation of the common carotid

artery at the point where it branches into the

internal and external carotids; contains

barore-ceptors, which monitor changes in blood pressure

carpal Pertaining to the wrist (carpus)

carrier 1 A protein in a cellular membrane that

performs carrier-mediated transport 2 A person

who is heterozygous for a recessive allele and

does not exhibit the associated phenotype, but

may transmit this allele to his or her children; for

example, a carrier for sickle-cell disease

carrier-mediated transport A process of

transport-ing materials through a cellular membrane that

involves reversible binding to a membrane protein

cartilage A connective tissue with a rubbery matrix,

cells (chondrocytes) contained in lacunae, and no

blood vessels; covers the articular surfaces of many

bones and supports organs such as the ear and larynx

catabolism (ca-TAB-oh-lizm) Any metabolic reactions

that release energy and break relatively complex

molecules with high free energy into less complex

molecules with lower free energy; for example,

digestion and glycolysis Compare anabolism.

catalyst (CAT-uh-list) Any chemical that lowers the

activation energy of a chemical reaction and thus

makes the reaction proceed more rapidly; a role

served in cells by enzymes

catecholamine (CAT-eh-COAL-uh-meen) A subclass

of biogenic amines that includes epinephrine,

norepinephrine, and dopamine fig 12.18

cation (CAT-eye-on) An ion with more protons than

electrons and consequently a net positive charge

caudal (CAW-dul) 1 Pertaining to a tail or narrow

tail-like part of an organ 2 Pertaining to the

inferior part of the trunk of the body, where the

tail of other animals arises Compare cranial 3.

Relatively distant from the forehead, especially in

reference to structures of the brain and spinal

cord; for example, the medulla oblongata is

cau-dal to the pons Compare rostral.

celiac (SEE-lee-ac) Pertaining to the abdomen

cell The smallest subdivision of a tissue considered

to be alive; consists of a plasma membrane

enclosing cytoplasm and, in most cases, a nucleus

cellular membrane Any unit membrane enclosing a

cell or organelle See also unit membrane.

central Located relatively close to the median axis

of the body, as in the central nervous system;

opposite of peripheral

central nervous system (CNS) The brain and spinal

cord

centriole (SEN-tree-ole) An organelle composed of

a short cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules,

usually paired with another centriole

perpendicu-lar to it; origin of the mitotic spindle; identical to

the basal body of a cilium or flagellum fig 3.30

cephalic (seh-FAL-ic) Pertaining to the head

cerebellum (SERR-eh-BEL-um) A large portion of

the cerebrum, responsible for equilibrium, motorcoordination, and memory of learned motor skills

fig 14.9

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (SERR-eh-bro-SPY-nul,seh-REE-bro-SPY-nul) A liquid that fills the ven-tricles of the brain, the central canal of the spinalcord, and the space between the CNS and duramater

cerebrovascular accident (CVA) VASS-cue-lur, seh-REE-bro-VASS-cue-lur) Theloss of blood flow to any part of the brain due toobstruction or hemorrhage of an artery, leading

(SERR-eh-bro-to the necrosis of nervous tissue; also called

stroke or apoplexy.

cerebrum (SERR-eh-brum, seh-REE-brum) Thelargest and most superior part of the brain,divided into two convoluted cerebral hemispheresseparated by a deep longitudinal fissure

cervical (SUR-vih-cul) Pertaining to the neck or anycervix

cervix (SUR-vix) 1 The neck 2 A narrow or

neck-like part of an organ such as the uterus and bladder fig 28.3

gall-channel protein A protein in the plasma membranethat has a pore through it for the passage ofmaterials between the cytoplasm and extracellu-lar fluid fig 3.6

chemical bond A force that attracts one atom toanother, such as their opposite charges or thesharing of electrons

chemical digestion Hydrolysis reactions that occur

in the digestive tract and convert dietary mers into monomers that can be absorbed by thesmall intestine

poly-chemical synapse A meeting of a nerve fiber andanother cell with which the neuron communi-cates by releasing neurotransmitters fig 12.17

chemoreceptor An organ or cell specialized todetect chemicals, as in the carotid bodies andtaste buds

chemotaxis (KEM-oh-TAC-sis) The movement of acell along a chemical concentration gradient,especially the attraction of neutrophils to chemi-cals released by pathogens or inflamed tissues

chief cells The majority type of cell in an organ ortissue such as the parathyroid glands or gastricglands

choanae (co-AH-nee) Openings of the nasal cavity into

the pharynx; also called posterior nares fig 22.3

cholecystokinin (CCK) (CO-leh-SIS-toe-KY-nin) Apolypeptide employed as a hormone and neuro-transmitter, secreted by some brain neurons andcells of the digestive tract fig 12.18

cholesterol (co-LESS-tur-ol) A steroid that tions as part of the plasma membrane and as aprecursor for all other steroids in the body

func-cholinergic (CO-lin-UR-jic) Pertaining to choline (ACh), as in cholinergic nerve fibers thatsecrete ACh, cholinergic receptors that bind it, orcholinergic effects on a target organ

acetyl-chondrocyte (CON-dro-site) A cartilage cell; a mer chondroblast that has become enclosed in alacuna in the cartilage matrix fig 7.9

for-chorion (CO-ree-on) A fetal membrane external tothe amnion; forms part of the placenta and hasdiverse functions including fetal nutrition, waste

chromatid (CRO-muh-tid) One of two geneticallyidentical rodlike bodies of a metaphase chromo-some, joined to its sister chromatid at the cen-tromere fig 4.14

chromatin (CRO-muh-tin) Filamentous material inthe interphase nucleus, composed of DNA andassociated proteins

chromosome A complex of DNA and protein ing the genetic material of a cell’s nucleus Nor-mally there are 46 chromosomes in the nucleus ofeach cell except germ cells fig 4.14

carry-chronic 1 Long-lasting 2 Pertaining to a disease

that progresses slowly and has a long duration

Compare acute.

chronic bronchitis A chronic obstructive pulmonarydisease characterized by damaged and immobilizedrespiratory cilia, excessive mucus secretion, infec-tion of the lower respiratory tract, and bronchialinflammation; caused especially by cigarette smok-

ing See also chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Agroup of lung diseases (asthma, chronic bronchi-tis, and emphysema) that result in long-termobstruction of airflow and substantially reducedpulmonary ventilation; one of the leading causes

of death in old age

chylomicron (KY-lo-MY-cron) A protein-coated lipiddroplet formed in the small intestine and found inthe lymph and blood after a meal; a means of lipidtransport in the bloodstream and lymph

chyme (kime) A slurry of partially digested food inthe stomach and small intestine

cilium (SIL-ee-um) A hairlike process, with an axoneme,projecting from the apical surface of an epithelialcell; often motile and serving to propel matter acrossthe surface of an epithelium, but sometimes non-motile and serving sensory roles fig 3.12

circulatory shock A state of cardiac output quate to meet the metabolic needs of the body

inade-circulatory system An organ system consisting of

the heart, blood vessels, and blood Compare

car-diovascular system

circumduction A joint movement in which one end

of an appendage remains relatively stationary andthe other end is moved in a circle fig 9.12

cirrhosis (sih-RO-sis) A degenerative liver diseasecharacterized by replacement of functionalparenchyma with fibrous and adipose tissue;causes include alcohol, other poisons, and viral andbacterial inflammation

cisterna (sis-TUR-nuh) A fluid-filled space or sac, such

as the cisterna chyli of the lymphatic system and acisterna of the endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi com-plex fig 3.26

citric acid cycle A cyclic reaction series involvingseveral carboxylic acids in the mitochondrialmatrix; oxidizes acetyl groups to carbon dioxidewhile reducing NAD⫹to NADH and FADH toFADH2, making these reduced coenzymes avail-

able for ATP synthesis Also called the Krebs cycle

or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle fig 26.4

climacteric A period in the lives of men andwomen, usually in the early 50s, marked bychanges in the level of reproductive hormones, avariety of somatic and psychological effects, and

in women, cessation of ovulation and

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menstrua-clone A population of cells that are mitotically

descended from the same parent cell and are

iden-tical to each other geneiden-tically or in other respects

coagulation (co-AG-you-LAY-shun) The clotting of

blood, lymph, tissue fluid, or semen

codominant (co-DOM-ih-nent) A condition in

which neither of two alleles is dominant over the

other, and both are phenotypically expressed

when both are present in an individual; for

exam-ple, blood type alleles IAand IBproduce blood

type AB when inherited together

codon A series of three nucleotides in mRNA that

codes for one amino acid in a protein or, as a stop

codon, signals the end of a gene.

coenzyme (co-EN-zime) A small organic molecule,

usually derived from a vitamin, that is needed to

make an enzyme catalytically active; acts by

accepting electrons from an enzymatic reaction and

transferring them to a different reaction chain

cofactor A nonprotein such as a metal ion or

coen-zyme needed for an encoen-zyme to function

cohesion The clinging of identical molecules such

as water to each other

collagen (COLL-uh-jen) The most abundant protein

in the body, forming the fibers of many

connec-tive tissues in places such as the dermis, tendons,

and bones

colloid An aqueous mixture of particles that are too

large to pass through most selectively permeable

membranes but small enough to remain evenly

dispersed through the solvent by the thermal

motion of solvent particles; for example, the

pro-teins in blood plasma

colloid osmotic pressure (COP) A portion of the

osmotic pressure of a body fluid that is due to its

protein Compare oncotic pressure.

colostrum (co-LOS-trum) A watery, low-fat

secre-tion of the mammary gland that nourishes and

immunizes an infant for the first 2 to 3 days

postpartum, until true milk is secreted

commissure (COM-ih-shur) 1 A bundle of nerve

fibers that crosses from one side of the brain or

spinal cord to the other 2 A corner or angle at

which the eyelids, lips, or genital labia meet; in

the eye, also called the canthus fig 16.20

complement 1 To complete or enhance the

struc-ture or function of something else, as in the

coor-dinated action of two different hormones 2 A

sys-tem of plasma proteins involved in nonspecific

defense against pathogens

computerized tomography (CT) A method of

med-ical imaging that uses X rays and a computer to

create an image of a thin section of the body;

also called a CT scan.

concentration gradient A difference in chemical

concentration from one point to another, as on

two sides of a plasma membrane

conception The fertilization of an egg, producing a

zygote

conceptus All products of conception, ranging from

a fertilized egg to the full-term fetus with its

embryonic membranes, placenta, and umbilical

cord Compare embryo, fetus.

condyle (CON-dile) A rounded knob on a bone

serv-ing to produce smooth motion at a joint fig 8.2

conformation The three-dimensional structure of a

amino acid side groups, its interactions withwater, and the formation of disulfide bonds

congenital Present at birth; for example, ananatomical defect, a syphilis infection, or ahereditary disease

conjugated A state in which one organic compound

is bound to another compound of a different class,such as a protein conjugated with a carbohydrate

to form a glycoprotein

connective tissue A tissue usually composed ofmore extracellular than cellular volume and usu-ally with a substantial amount of extracellularfiber; forms supportive frameworks and capsulesfor organs, binds structures together, holds them

in place, stores energy (as in adipose tissue), ortransports materials (as in blood)

contractility 1 The ability to shorten 2 The

amount of force that a contracting muscle fibergenerates for a given stimulus; may be increased

by epinephrine, for example, while stimulusstrength remains constant

contralateral On opposite sides of the body, as inreflex arcs where the stimulus comes from oneside of the body and a response is given by mus-

cles on the other side Compare ipsilateral.

convergent Coming together, as in a convergentmuscle and a converging neuronal circuit

cooperative effects Effects in which two hormones,

or both divisions of the autonomic nervous system,work together to produce a single overall result

cornified Having a heavy deposit of keratin, as inthe stratum corneum of the epidermis

corona A halo- or crownlike structure, as in thecorona radiata or the coronal suture of the skull

coronal plane See frontal plane.

corona radiata 1 An array of nerve tracts in the

brain that arise mainly from the thalamus and fan

out to different regions of the cerebral cortex 2.

The first layer of cuboidal cells immediately nal to the zona pellucida around an egg cell

exter-coronary circulation A system of blood vessels thatserve the wall of the heart fig 19.10

corpus Body or mass; the main part of an organ, asopposed to such regions as a head, tail, or cervix

corpus callosum (COR-pus ca-LO-sum) A prominentC-shaped band of nerve tracts that connect theright and left cerebral hemispheres to each other,seen superior to the third ventricle in a mediansection of the brain fig 14.1

corpus luteum (LOO-tee-um) A yellowish cellularmass that forms in the ovary from a follicle thathas ovulated; secretes progesterone, hormonallyregulates the second half of the menstrual cycle,and is essential to sustaining the first 7 weeks ofpregnancy

cortex (plural, cortices) The outer layer of some

organs such as the adrenal gland, cerebrum,lymph node, and ovary; usually covers or enclosestissue called the medulla

corticosteroid (COR-tih-co-STERR-oyd) Any steroidhormone secreted by the adrenal cortex, such asaldosterone, cortisol, and sex steroids

costal (COSS-tul) Pertaining to the ribs

costal cartilage A bladelike plate of hyaline cartilagethat attaches the distal end of a rib to the sternum

cotransport A form of carrier-mediated transport in

simultaneously or within the same cycle ofaction; for example the sodium-glucose transportprotein and the Na⫹-K⫹pump

countercurrent A situation in which two fluids flowside by side in opposite directions, as in the coun-tercurrent multiplier of the kidney and the coun-tercurrent heat exchanger of the scrotum

cranial (CRAY-nee-ul) 1 Pertaining to the cranium.

2 In a position relatively close to the head or a

direction toward the head Compare caudal.

cranial nerve Any of 12 pairs of nerves connected

to the base of the brain and passing throughforamina of the cranium

creatine phosphate (CP) (CREE-uh-teen FOSS-fate)

An energy-storage molecule in muscle tissue thatdonates a phosphate group to ADP and thusregenerates ATP in periods of hypoxia

crista A crestlike structure, such as the crista galli ofthe ethmoid bone or the crista of a mitochondrion

cross section A cut perpendicular to the long axis

of the body or an organ

crural (CROO-rul) Pertaining to the leg proper or to

the crus of a organ See crus.

crus (cruss) (plural, crura) 1 The leg proper; the

region from the knee to the ankle 2 A leglike

extension of an organ such as the penis and toris figs 27.7, 28.8

cli-cuboidal (cue-BOY-dul) A cellular shape that isroughly like a cube or in which the height andwidth are about equal

cuneiform (cue-NEE-ih-form) Wedge-shaped, as inthe cuneiform cartilages of the larynx andcuneiform bone of the wrist

current A moving stream of charged particles such

as ions or electrons

cusp 1 One of the flaps of a valve of the heart,

veins, and lymphatic vessels 2 A conical

projec-tion on the occlusal surface of a premolar ormolar tooth

cutaneous (cue-TAY-nee-us) Pertaining to the skin

cyanosis (SY-uh-NO-sis) A bluish color of the skinand mucous membranes due to ischemia orhypoxemia

cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) A cyclicmolecule produced from ATP by the action ofadenylate cyclase; serves as a second messenger

in many hormone and neurotransmitter actions

fig 2.29b

cyclooxygenase An enzyme that converts donic acid to prostacyclin, prostaglandins, andthromboxanes

arachi-cytochromes Enzymes on the mitochondrial cristaethat transfer electrons in the final reaction chain

of aerobic respiration

cytokinesis (SY-toe-kih-NEE-sis) Division of thecytoplasm of a cell into two cells followingnuclear division

cytology The study of cell structure and function

cytolysis (sy-TOL-ih-sis) The rupture and destruction

of a cell by such agents as complement proteins andhypotonic solutions

cytoplasm The contents of a cell between itsplasma membrane and its nuclear envelope, con-sisting of cytosol, organelles, inclusions, and thecytoskeleton

cytosine A single-ringed nitrogenous base

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(pyrimi-genetic code; complementary to guanine in the

double helix of DNA fig 4.2

cytoskeleton A system of protein microfilaments,

intermediate filaments, and microtubules in a cell,

serving in physical support, cellular movement,

and the routing of molecules and organelles to

their destinations within the cell fig 3.31

cytosol A clear, featureless, gelatinous colloid in

which the organelles and other internal structures

of a cell are embedded

cytotoxic T cell A T lymphocyte that directly

attacks and destroys infected body cells,

cancer-ous cells, and the cells of transplanted tissues

D

daughter cells Cells that arise from a parent cell by

mitosis or meiosis

deamination (dee-AM-ih-NAY-shun) Removal of an

amino group from an organic molecule; a step in

the catabolism of amino acids

decomposition reaction A chemical reaction in

which a larger molecule is broken down into

smaller ones Compare synthesis reaction.

decussation (DEE-cuh-SAY-shun) The crossing of

nerve fibers from the right side of the central

nervous system to the left or vice versa, especially

in the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, and optic

chiasm

deep Relatively far from the body surface; opposite

of superficial For example, the bones are deep to

the skeletal muscles

degranulation Exocytosis and disappearance of

cytoplasmic granules, especially in platelets and

granulocytes

dehydration synthesis A reaction in which two

chemical monomers are joined together with water

produced as a by-product; also called a

condensa-tion reaccondensa-tion Compare hydrolysis.

denaturation A change in the three-dimensional

conformation of a protein that destroys its

enzy-matic or other functional properties, usually

caused by extremes of temperature or pH

dendrites Processes of a neuron that receive

infor-mation from other cells or from environmental

stimuli and conduct signals to the soma

Den-drites are usually shorter, more branched, and

more numerous than the axon and are incapable

of producing action potentials fig 12.4

dendritic cell An antigen-presenting cell of the

epi-dermis and mucous membranes fig 6.2

denervation atrophy The shrinkage of skeletal

mus-cle that occurs when its motor neuron dies or is

severed from the muscle

dense connective tissue A connective tissue with a

high density of fiber, relatively little ground

sub-stance, and scanty cells; seen in tendons and the

dermis, for example

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

(dee-OCK-see-RY-bo-new-CLAY-ic) A very large nucleotide polymer that

carries the genes of a cell; composed of a double

helix of intertwined chains of deoxyribose and

phos-phate, with complementary pairs of nitrogenous

bases facing each other between the helices fig 4.3

depolarization A shift in the electrical potential

ated with excitation of a nerve or muscle cell

Compare hyperpolarization.

dermal papillae Bumps or ridges of dermis thatextend upward to interdigitate with the epidermisand create a wavy boundary that resists stress andslippage of the epidermis

dermis The deeper of the two layers of the skin,underlying the epidermis and composed offibrous connective tissue

desmosome (DEZ-mo-some) A patchlike lar junction that mechanically links two cellstogether fig 5.29

intercellu-dextrose An isomer of glucose; the only form ofglucose with a normal role in physiology

diabetes (DY-uh-BEE-teez) Any disease ized by chronic polyuria of metabolic origin; dia-betes mellitus unless otherwise specified

character-diabetes insipidus (in-SIP-ih-dus) A form of betes that results from hyposecretion of antidi-uretic hormone; unlike other forms, it is not char-acterized by hyperglycemia or glycosuria

dia-diabetes mellitus (DM) (mel-EYE-tus) A form ofdiabetes that results from hyposecretion ofinsulin or from a deficient target cell response toit; signs include hyperglycemia and glycosuria

dialysis (dy-AL-ih-sis) 1 The separation of some

solute particles from others by diffusion through

a selectively permeable membrane 2

Hemodialy-sis, the process of separating wastes from thebloodstream and sometimes adding other sub-stances to it (such as drugs and nutrients) by cir-culating the blood through a machine with aselectively permeable membrane, used to treatcases of renal or hepatic insufficiency

diapedesis (DY-uh-peh-DEE-sis) Migration offormed elements of the blood through a capillary

or venule wall into the interstitial space fig 21.16

diaphysis (dy-AFF-ih-sis) The shaft of a long bone

fig 7.2

diarthrosis (DY-ar-THRO-sis) A freely movable ovial joint such as the knuckle, elbow, shoulder, orknee

syn-diastole (dy-ASS-tuh-lee) A period in which a heartchamber relaxes and fills with blood; especiallyventricular relaxation

diencephalon (DY-en-SEFF-uh-lon) A portion of thebrain between the midbrain and corpus callosum;

composed of the thalamus, epithalamus, andhypothalamus fig 14.12

differentiation Development of a relatively cialized cell or tissue into one with a more spe-cific structure and function

unspe-diffusion Spontaneous net movement of particlesfrom a place of high concentration to a place oflow concentration

dilation (dy-LAY-shun) Widening of an organ orpassageway such as a blood vessel or the pupil ofthe eye

diploid (2n) Pertaining to a cell or organism withchromosomes in homologous pairs

disaccharide (dy-SAC-uh-ride) A carbohydratecomposed of two simple sugars (monosaccha-rides) joined by a glycosidic bond; for example,lactose, sucrose, and maltose fig 2.17

disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)

Widespread clotting of the blood within unbrokenvessels, leading to hemorrhaging, congestion of

the vessels with clotted blood, and ischemia andnecrosis of organs

distal Relatively distant from a point of origin orattachment; for example, the wrist is distal to the

elbow Compare proximal.

disulfide bond A covalent bond between the sulfuratoms of two cysteine residues, serving to link onepolypeptide chain to another or to hold a singlechain in its three-dimensional conformation

diuretic (DY-you-RET-ic) A chemical that increasesurine output

dizygotic (DZ) twins Two individuals who oped simultaneously in one uterus but originatedfrom separate fertilized eggs and therefore arenot genetically identical

devel-dominant 1 Pertaining to a genetic allele that is

phenotypically expressed in the presence of any

other allele 2 Pertaining to a trait that results

from a dominant allele

dopamine (DOE-puh-meen) An inhibitory cholamine neurotransmitter of the central nervoussystem, especially of the basal nuclei, where it acts

cate-to suppress unwanted mocate-tor activity fig 12.18

dorsal Toward the back (spinal) side of the body

dorsal root A branch of a spinal nerve that entersthe spinal cord on its dorsal side, composed ofsensory fibers fig 13.8

dorsiflexion (DOR-sih-FLEC-shun) A movement ofthe ankle that reduces the joint angle and raisesthe toes fig 9.14

Down syndrome See trisomy-21.

duodenum (DEW-oh-DEE-num, dew-ODD-eh-num)The first portion of the small intestine extendingfor about 25 cm from the pyloric valve of thestomach to a sharp bend called the duodenojeju-nal flexure; receives chyme from the stomach andsecretions from the liver and pancreas fig 25.23

dynamic equilibrium 1 A state of continual

change that is controlled within narrow limits, as

in homeostasis and chemical equilibrium 2 The

sense of motion or acceleration of the body

dynein (DINE-een) A motor protein involved in thebeating of cilia and flagella and in the movement

of molecules and organelles within cells, as in rograde transport in a nerve fiber

ret-E

ectoderm The outermost of the three primary germlayers of an embryo; gives rise to the nervous sys-tem and epidermis

ectopic (ec-TOP-ic) In an abnormal location; forexample, ectopic pregnancy and ectopic pace-makers of the heart

edema (eh-DEE-muh) Abnormal accumulation oftissue fluid resulting in swelling of the tissue

effector A molecule, cell, or organ that carries out aresponse to a stimulus

efferent (EFF-ur-unt) Carrying away or out, such as ablood vessel that carries blood away from a tissue

or a nerve fiber that conducts signals away from

the central nervous system Compare afferent.

eicosanoids (eye-CO-sah-noyds) Twenty-carbonderivatives of arachidonic acid that function asintercellular messengers; includes prostaglandins,

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elastic fiber A connective tissue fiber, composed of

the protein elastin, that stretches under tension

and returns to its original length when released;

responsible for the resilience of organs such as

the skin and lungs

elasticity The tendency of a stretched structure to

return to its original dimensions when tension is

released

electrical synapse A gap junction that enables one

cell to stimulate another directly, without the

intermediary action of a neurotransmitter; such

synapses connect the cells of cardiac muscle and

single-unit smooth muscle

electrochemical gradient A difference in ion

concen-tration from one point to another (especially across

a plasma membrane) resulting in a gradient of both

chemical concentration and electrical charge

electrolyte A salt that ionizes in water and

pro-duces a solution that conducts electricity; loosely

speaking, any ion that results from the

dissocia-tion of such salts, such as sodium, potassium,

cal-cium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions

elevation A joint movement that raises a body part,

as in hunching the shoulders or closing the mouth

embolism (EM-bo-lizm) The obstruction of a blood

vessel by an embolus

embolus (EM-bo-lus) Any abnormal traveling object

in the bloodstream, such as agglutinated bacteria

or blood cells, a blood clot, or an air bubble

embryo A developing individual from the end of

the second week of gestation when the three

pri-mary germ layers have formed, through the end

of the eighth week when all of the organ systems

are present Compare conceptus, fetus.

emphysema (EM-fih-SEE-muh) A degenerative lung

disease characterized by a breakdown of alveoli

and diminishing surface area available for gas

exchange; occurs with aging of the lungs but is

greatly accelerated by smoking or air pollution

emulsion A suspension of one liquid in another,

such as oil in water or fat in the lymph

endocrine gland (EN-doe-crin) A ductless gland

that secretes hormones into the bloodstream; for

example, the thyroid and adrenal glands

Com-pare exocrine gland.

endocytosis (EN-doe-sy-TOE-sis) Any process in

which a cell forms vesicles from its plasma

mem-brane and takes in large particles, molecules, or

droplets of extracellular fluid; for example,

phagocytosis and pinocytosis

endoderm The innermost of the three primary germ

layers of an embryo; gives rise to the mucosae of

the digestive and respiratory tracts and to their

associated glands

endogenous (en-DODJ-eh-nus) Originating

inter-nally, such as the endogenous cholesterol

synthe-sized in the body in contrast to the exogenous

cholesterol coming from the diet Compare

exogenous

endometrium (EN-doe-MEE-tree-um) The mucosa

of the uterus; the site of implantation and source

of menstrual discharge

endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (EN-doe-PLAZ-mic

reh-TIC-you-lum) An extensive system of

inter-connected cytoplasmic tubules or channels;

clas-sified as rough ER or smooth ER depending on the

presence or absence of ribosomes on its

mem-endothelium (EN-doe-THEEL-ee-um) A simplesquamous epithelium that lines the lumens of theblood vessels, heart, and lymphatic vessels

endurance exercise A form of physical exercise, such

as running or swimming, that promotes monary efficiency and fatigue resistance more than

cardiopul-muscular strength Compare resistance exercise.

enteric (en-TERR-ic) Pertaining to the small tine, as in enteric hormones

intes-enzyme A protein that functions as a catalyst

enzyme amplification A series of chemical reactions

in which the product of one step is an enzymethat produces an even greater number of productmolecules at the next step, resulting in a rapidlyincreasing amount of reaction product Seen inhormone action and blood clotting, for example

eosinophil (EE-oh-SIN-oh-fill) A granulocyte with alarge, often bilobed nucleus and coarse cytoplas-mic granules that stain with eosin; phagocytizesantigen-antibody complexes, allergens, andinflammatory chemicals and secretes enzymesthat combat parasitic infections table 18.8

epidermis A stratified squamous epithelium thatconstitutes the superficial layer of the skin over-lying the dermis fig 6.2

epinephrine (EP-ih-NEFF-rin) A catecholamine thatfunctions as a neurotransmitter in the sympatheticnervous system and as a hormone secreted by the

adrenal medulla; also called adrenaline fig 12.18

epiphyseal plate (EP-ih-FIZZ-ee-ul) A plate of line cartilage between the epiphysis and diaphysis

hya-of a long bone in a child or adolescent, serving as

a growth zone for bone elongation fig 7.11

epiphysis (eh-PIF-ih-sis) 1 The head of a long bone 2 The pineal gland (epiphysis cerebri).

epithelium A type of tissue consisting of one or morelayers of closely adhering cells with little intercellu-lar material and no blood vessels; forms the cover-ings and linings of many organs and theparenchyma of the glands

erectile tissue A tissue that functions by swellingwith blood, as in the penis and clitoris and infe-rior concha of the nasal cavity

erythema (ERR-ih-THEE-muh) Abnormal redness ofthe skin due to such causes as burns, inflamma-tion, and vasodilation

erythrocyte (eh-RITH-ro-site) A red blood cell

erythropoiesis (eh-RITH-ro-poy-EE-sis) The tion of erythrocytes

produc-erythropoietin (eh-RITH-ro-POY-eh-tin) A hormonethat is secreted by the kidneys and liver in response

to hypoxemia and stimulates erythropoiesis

estrogens (ESS-tro-jenz) A family of steroid mones known especially for producing female sec-ondary sex characteristics and regulating variousaspects of the menstrual cycle and pregnancy;

hor-major forms are estradiol, estriol, and estrone

evolution A change in the relative frequencies ofalleles in a population over a period of time; themechanism that produces adaptations in human

form and function See also adaptation.

excitability The ability of a cell to respond to astimulus, especially the ability of nerve and mus-cle cells to produce membrane voltage changes inresponse to stimuli; irritability

excitation-contraction coupling Events that linkthe synaptic stimulation of a muscle cell to the

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) A partialdepolarization of a postsynaptic neuron or musclecell in response to a neurotransmitter, making itmore likely to reach threshold and produce anaction potential

excretion The process of eliminating metabolicwaste products from a cell or from the body

Compare secretion.

exocrine gland (EC-so-crin) A gland that secretes itsproducts into another organ or onto the body sur-face, usually by way of a duct; for example, sali-

vary and gastric glands Compare endocrine gland.

exocytosis (EC-so-sy-TOE-sis) A process in which avesicle in the cytoplasm of a cell fuses with theplasma membrane and releases its contents fromthe cell; used in the elimination of cellular wastesand in the release of gland products and neuro-transmitters

exogenous (ec-SODJ-eh-nus) Originating nally, such as exogenous (dietary) cholesterol;

exter-extrinsic Compare endogenous.

expiration 1 Exhaling 2 Dying.

extension Movement of a joint that increases theangle between articulating bones (straightens

the joint) Compare flexion fig 9.9

extracellular fluid (ECF) Any body fluid that is notcontained in the cells; for example, blood, lymph,and tissue fluid

extrinsic (ec-STRIN-sic) 1 Originating externally,

such as extrinsic blood-clotting factors; exogenous

2 Not fully contained within an organ but acting

on it, such as the extrinsic muscles of the hand and

eye Compare intrinsic.

exude (ec-SUDE) To seep out, such as fluid filteringfrom blood capillaries

F

facilitated diffusion The process of transporting achemical through a cellular membrane, down itsconcentration gradient, with the aid of a carrierthat does not consume ATP; enables substances todiffuse through the membrane that would do sopoorly, or not at all, without a carrier

facilitation Making a process more likely to occur,such as the firing of a neuron, or making it occurmore easily or rapidly, as in facilitated diffusion

fallopian tube See uterine tube.

fascia (FASH-ee-uh) A layer of connective tissuebetween the muscles (deep fascia) or separating themuscles from the skin (superficial fascia) fig 10.1

fascicle (FASS-ih-cul) A bundle of muscle or nervefibers ensheathed in connective tissue; multiplefascicles bound together constitute a muscle ornerve as a whole fig 10.1

fat 1 A triglyceride molecule 2 Adipose tissue fatty acid An organic molecule composed of achain of an even number of carbon atoms with acarboxyl group at one end and a methyl group atthe other; one of the structural subunits oftriglycerides and phospholipids

fenestrated (FEN-eh-stray-ted) Perforated withholes or slits, as in fenestrated blood capillariesand the elastic sheets of large arteries fig 20.6

fetus In human development, an individual fromthe beginning of the ninth week when all of the

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organ systems are present, through the time of

birth Compare conceptus, embryo.

fibrin (FY-brin) A sticky fibrous protein formed from

fibrinogen in blood, tissue fluid, lymph, and semen;

forms the matrix of a blood clot

fibroblast A connective tissue cell that produces

collagen fibers and ground substance; the only

type of cell in tendons and ligaments

fibrosis Replacement of damaged tissue with

fibrous scar tissue rather than by the original

tis-sue type; scarring Compare regeneration.

fibrous connective tissue Any connective tissue

with a preponderance of fiber, such as areolar,

reticular, dense regular, and dense irregular

con-nective tissues

filtrate A fluid formed by filtration, as at the renal

glomerulus and other capillaries

filtration A process in which hydrostatic pressure

forces a fluid through a selectively permeable

membrane (especially a capillary wall)

fire To produce an action potential, as in nerve and

muscle cells

fix 1 To hold a structure in place, for example, by

fix-ator muscles that prevent unwanted joint

move-ments 2 To preserve a tissue by means of a fixative.

fixative A chemical that preserves tissues from

decay, such as formalin

flagellum (fla-JEL-um) A long, motile, usually single

hairlike extension of a cell; the tail of a sperm cell is

the only functional flagellum in humans fig 27.18

flexion A joint movement that, in most cases,

decreases the angle between two bones Compare

extension fig 9.9

fluid balance See water balance.

fluid compartments Any of the major categories of

fluid in the body, separated by selectively

perme-able membranes and differing from each other in

chemical composition Primary examples are the

intracellular fluid, tissue fluid, blood, and lymph

fluid-mosaic model The current theory of the

structure of a plasma membrane, depicting it as a

bilayer of phospholipids and cholesterol with

embedded proteins, many of which are able to

move about in the lipid film fig 3.6

follicle (FOLL-ih-cul) 1 A small space, such as a hair

follicle, thyroid follicle, or ovarian follicle 2 An

aggregation of lymphocytes in a lymphatic organ

or mucous membrane

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) A hormone

secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that

stim-ulates development of the ovarian follicles and

egg cells

foramen (fo-RAY-men) A hole through a bone or

other organ, in many cases providing passage for

blood vessels and nerves

formed element An erythrocyte, leukocyte, or

platelet; any cellular component of blood or

lymph as opposed to the extracellular fluid

com-ponent

fossa (FOSS-uh) A depression in an organ or tissue,

such as the fossa ovalis of the heart or a cranial

fossa of the skull

fovea (FOE-vee-uh) A small pit, such as the fovea

capitis of the femur or fovea centralis of the retina

free energy The potential energy in a chemical that

is available to do work

free radical A particle derived from an atom or

molecule, having an unpaired electron that makes

it highly reactive and destructive to cells; duced by intrinsic processes such as aerobic respi-ration and by extrinsic agents such as chemicalsand ionizing radiation

pro-frontal plane An anatomical plane that passesthrough the body or an organ from right to left

and superior to inferior; also called a coronal

plane fig A.3

functional group A group of atoms, such as a boxyl or amino group, that determines the func-tional characteristics of an organic molecule

car-fundus The base, the broadest part, or the part thest from the opening of certain viscera such asthe stomach and uterus

far-fusiform (FEW-zih-form) Spindle-shaped; gated, thick in the middle, and tapered at bothends, such as the shape of a smooth muscle cell

elon-or a muscle spindle

G

gamete (GAM-eet) An egg or sperm cell

gametogenesis (GAM-eh-toe-JEN-eh-sis) The duction of eggs or sperm

pro-gamma-( ␥-)aminobutyric acid (GABA)

(ah-MEE-no-byu-TIRR-ic) An inhibitory neurotransmitter ofthe central nervous system in the biogenic amineclass fig 12.18

gamma ( ␥) globulins (GLOB-you-lins) A class of

relatively large proteins found in the bloodplasma and on the surfaces of immune cells,

functioning as antibodies See also globulin.

ganglion (GANG-glee-un) A cluster of nerve cellbodies in the peripheral nervous system, oftenresembling a knot in a string

gangrene Tissue necrosis resulting from ischemia

gap junction A junction between two cells consisting

of a pore surrounded by a ring of proteins in theplasma membrane of each cell, allowing solutes todiffuse from the cytoplasm of one cell to the next;

functions include cell-to-cell nutrient transfer inthe developing embryo and electrical communica-tion between cells of cardiac and smooth muscle

See also electrical synapse fig 5.29

gastric Pertaining to the stomach

gate A protein channel in a cellular membrane thatcan open or close in response to chemical, electrical,

or mechanical stimuli, thus controlling when stances are allowed to pass through the membrane

sub-gene A segment of DNA that codes for the sis of one protein

synthe-gene locus The site on a chromosome where agiven gene is located

generator potential A graded, reversible rise in thelocal voltage across the plasma membrane of anerve or muscle cell in response to a stimulus;

triggers an action potential if it reaches threshold

genetic engineering Any of several techniques thatalter the genetic constitution of a cell or organ-ism, including recombinant DNA technology andgene substitution therapy

genome (JEE-nome) All the genes of one individual,estimated at 35,000 genes in humans

genotype (JEE-no-type) The pair of alleles sessed by an individual at one gene locus on apair of homologous chromosomes; strongly influ-

pos-germ cell A gamete or any precursor cell destined

to become a gamete

germ layer Any of first three tissue layers of anembryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, or endoderm

gestation (jess-TAY-shun) Pregnancy

gland Any organ specialized to produce a secretion;

in some cases a single cell, such as a goblet cell

glaucoma (glaw-CO-muh) A visual disease in which

an excessive amount of aqueous humor lates and creates pressure that is transmittedthrough the lens and vitreous body to the retina;pressure on the blood vessels of the choroidcauses ischemia, retinal necrosis, and blindness

accumu-globulin (GLOB-you-lin) A globular protein such as

an enzyme, antibody, or albumin; especially afamily of proteins in the blood plasma thatincludes albumin, antibodies, fibrinogen, and pro-thrombin

glomerular capsule (glo-MERR-you-lur) A walled capsule around each glomerulus of thekidney; receives glomerular filtrate and emptiesinto the proximal convoluted tubule Also called

double-Bowman’s capsule fig 23.6

glomerulus A spheroid mass of blood capillaries inthe kidney that filters plasma and producesglomerular filtrate, which is further processed toform the urine fig 23.6

glucagon (GLUE-ca-gon) A hormone secreted by ␣cells of the pancreatic islets in response to hypo-glycemia; promotes glycogenolysis and othereffects that raise blood glucose concentration

glucocorticoid (GLUE-co-COR-tih-coyd) Any mone of the adrenal cortex that affects carbohy-drate, fat, and protein metabolism; chiefly corti-sol and corticosterone

hor-gluconeogenesis (GLUE-co-NEE-oh-JEN-eh-sis) Thesynthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrates such

as fats and amino acids

glucose A monosaccharide (C6H12O6) also known asblood sugar; glycogen, starch, cellulose, and malt-ose are made entirely of glucose, and glucoseconstitutes half of a sucrose or lactose molecule.The isomer involved in human physiology is also

glycerol (GLISS-er-ol) A viscous three-carbon hol that forms the structural backbone of triglyc-eride and phospholipid molecules; also called

alco-glycerin.

glycocalyx (GLY-co-CAY-licks) A layer of drate molecules covalently bonded to the phos-pholipid and protein molecules of a plasma mem-brane; forms a surface coat on all human cells

carbohy-glycogen (GLY-co-jen) A glucose polymer sized by liver, muscle, uterine, and vaginal cellsthat serves as an energy-storage polysaccharide

synthe-glycogenesis (GLY-co-JEN-eh-sis) The synthesis ofglycogen

glycogenolysis (GLY-co-jeh-NOLL-ih-sis) Thehydrolysis of glycogen, releasing glucose

glycolipid (GLY-co-LIP-id) A phospholipid moleculewith a carbohydrate covalently bonded to it,found in the plasma membranes of cells

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glycolysis (gly-COLL-ih-sis) A series of anaerobic

oxi-dation reactions that break a glucose molecule into

two molecules of pyruvic acid and produce a small

amount of ATP

glycoprotein (GLY-co-PRO-teen) A protein molecule

with a smaller carbohydrate covalently bonded to

it; found in mucus and the glycocalyx of cells, for

example

glycosaminoglycan (GAG)

(GLY-cose-am-ih-no-GLY-can) A polysaccharide composed of modified sugars

with amino groups; the major component of a

pro-teoglycan GAGs are largely responsible for the

vis-cous consistency of tissue gel and the stiffness of

cartilage

glycosuria (GLY-co-SOOR-ee-uh) The presence of

glucose in the urine, typically indicative of a

kid-ney disease, diabetes mellitus, or other endocrine

disorder

goblet cell A mucus-secreting gland cell, shaped

somewhat like a wineglass, found in the epithelia

of many mucous membranes fig 5.33

Golgi complex (GOAL-jee) An organelle composed

of several parallel cisternae, somewhat like a

stack of saucers, that modifies and packages

newly synthesized proteins and synthesizes

car-bohydrates fig 3.27

Golgi vesicle A membrane-bounded vesicle pinched

from the Golgi complex, containing its chemical

product; may be retained in the cell as a lysosome

or become a secretory vesicle that releases the

product by exocytosis

gonad The ovary or testis

gonadotropin (go-NAD-oh-TRO-pin) A pituitary

hormone that stimulates the gonads; specifically

FSH and LH

G protein A protein of the plasma membrane that is

activated by a membrane receptor and, in turn,

opens an ion channel or activates an intracellular

physiological response; important in linking

ligand-receptor binding to second-messenger systems

graded potential A variable change in voltage

across a plasma membrane, as opposed to the

all-or-none quality of an action potential

gradient A difference or change in any variable,

such as pressure or chemical concentration, from

one point in space to another; provides a basis for

molecular movements such as gas exchange,

osmosis, and facilitated diffusion, and for bulk

movements such as blood flow and airflow

granulocyte (GRAN-you-lo-site) Any of three types

of leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, or

basophils) with prominent cytoplasmic granules

granulosa cells Cells that form a stratified cuboidal

epithelium lining an ovarian follicle; source of

steroid sex hormones fig 28.14

gray matter A zone or layer of tissue in the central

nervous system where the neuron cell bodies,

den-drites, and synapses are found; forms the core of

the spinal cord, nuclei of the brainstem, basal nuclei

of the cerebrum, cerebral cortex, and cerebellar

cortex fig 14.6

gross anatomy Bodily structure that can be

observed without magnification

growth factor A chemical messenger that

stimu-lates mitosis and differentiation of target cells

that have receptors for it; important in such

processes as fetal development, tissue

mainte-nance and repair, and hemopoiesis; sometimes acontributing factor in cancer

growth hormone (GH) A hormone of the anteriorpituitary gland with multiple effects on many tis-sues, generally promoting tissue growth

guanine A double-ringed nitrogenous base (purine)found in DNA and RNA; one of the four bases ofthe genetic code; complementary to cytosine inthe double helix of DNA fig 4.2

gyrus (JY-rus) A wrinkle or fold in the cortex of thecerebrum or cerebellum

H

hair cells Sensory cells of the cochlea, semicircularducts, utricle, and saccule, with a fringe of sur-face microvilli that respond to the relative motion

of a gelatinous membrane at their tips; ble for the senses of hearing and equilibrium

responsi-hair follicle An oblique epidermal pit that contains

a hair and extends into the dermis or hypodermis

half-life (T 1

⁄2) 1 The time required for one-half of a

quantity of a radioactive element to decay to a

sta-ble isotope (physical half-life) or to be cleared from

the body through a combination of radioactive

decay and physiological excretion (biological

half-life) 2 The time required for one-half of a quantity

of hormone to be cleared from the bloodstream

haploid (n) In humans, having 23 unpaired mosomes instead of the usual 46 chromosomes inhomologous pairs; in any organism or cell, havinghalf the normal diploid number of chromosomesfor that species

chro-helper T cell A type of lymphocyte that performs acentral coordinating role in humoral and cellularimmunity; target of the human immunodefi-ciency virus (HIV)

hematocrit (he-MAT-oh-crit) The percentage ofblood volume that is composed of erythrocytes

hematoma (HE-muh-TOE-muh) A mass of clottedblood in the tissues; forms a bruise when visiblethrough the skin

heme (heem) The nonprotein, iron-containing thetic group of hemoglobin or myoglobin; oxygenbinds to its ferrous ion fig 18.10

pros-hemocytoblast (HE-mo-SY-toe-blast) An entiated stem cell of the bone marrow that cangive rise to any of the formed elements of theblood fig 18.4

undiffer-hemoglobin (HE-mo-GLO-bin) The red gas- port pigment of an erythrocyte

trans-hemolysis (he-MOLL-ih-sis) The rupturing of throcytes from such causes as a hypotonicmedium, parasitic infection, or a complementreaction

ery-hemopoiesis (HE-mo-poy-EE-sis) Production of any

of the formed elements of blood

heparin (HEP-uh-rin) A polysaccharide secreted bybasophils and mast cells that inhibits blood clotting

hepatic (heh-PAT-ic) Pertaining to the liver

hepatic portal system A network of blood vesselsthat connect capillaries of the intestines to capil-laries (sinusoids) of the liver, thus deliveringnewly absorbed nutrients directly to the liver

hepatitis (HEP-uh-TY-tiss) Inflammation of the

heterozygous (HET-er-oh-ZY-gus) Having tical alleles at the same gene locus of two homol-ogous chromosomes

noniden-hiatus (hy-AY-tus) An opening or gap, such as theesophageal hiatus through the diaphragm

high-density lipoprotein (HDL) A lipoprotein of theblood plasma that is about 50% lipid and 50% pro-tein; functions to transport phospholipids and cho-lesterol from other organs to the liver for disposal

A high proportion of HDL to low-density tein (LDL) is desirable for cardiovascular health

lipopro-hilum (HY-lum) A point on the surface of an organwhere blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, or nervesenter and leave, usually marked by a depressionand slit; the midpoint of the concave surface ofany organ that is roughly bean-shaped, such asthe lymph nodes, kidneys, and lungs Also called

the hilus fig 23.4

histamine (HISS-ta-meen) An amino acid derivativesecreted by basophils, mast cells, and some neurons;functions as a paracrine secretion and neurotrans-mitter to stimulate effects such as gastric secretion,bronchoconstriction, and vasodilation fig 12.18

histological section A thin slice of tissue, usuallymounted on a slide and artificially stained to makeits microscopic structure more visible

histology 1 The microscopic structure of tissues

and organs 2 The study of such structure.

homeostasis (HO-me-oh-STAY-sis) The tendency of

a living body to maintain relatively stable internalconditions in spite of greater changes in its exter-nal environment

homologous (ho-MOLL-uh-gus) 1 Having the same

embryonic or evolutionary origin but not sarily the same function, such as the scrotum and

neces-labia majora 2 Pertaining to two chromosomes

with identical structures and gene loci but notnecessarily identical alleles; each member of thepair is inherited from a different parent

homozygous (HO-mo-ZY-gus) Having identical les at the same gene locus of two homologouschromosomes

alle-hormone A chemical messenger that is secretedinto the blood by an endocrine gland or isolatedgland cell and triggers a physiological response indistant cells with receptors for it

host cell Any cell belonging to the human body, asopposed to foreign cells introduced to it by suchcauses as infections and tissue transplants

human Any species of primate classified in thefamily Hominidae, characterized by bipedal loco-motion, relatively large brains, and usually articu-

late speech; currently represented only by Homo

sapiens but including extinct species of Homo

and Australopithecus.

human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) ic) A hormone of pregnancy secreted by thechorion that stimulates continued growth of thecorpus luteum and secretion of its hormones HCG

(COR-ee-ON-in ur(COR-ee-ON-ine is the basis for pregnancy test(COR-ee-ON-ing

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) A virus thatinfects human helper T cells and other cells, sup-presses immunity, and causes AIDS

hyaline cartilage (HY-uh-lin) A form of cartilagewith a relatively clear matrix and fine collagenfibers but no conspicuous elastic fibers or coarsecollagen bundles as in other types of cartilage

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hyaluronic acid (HY-uh-loo-RON-ic) A

gly-cosaminoglycan that is particularly abundant in

connective tissues, where it becomes hydrated

and forms the tissue gel

hydrogen bond A weak attraction between a

slightly positive hydrogen atom on one molecule

and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom

on another molecule, or between such atoms on

different parts of the same molecule; responsible

for the cohesion of water and the coiling of

pro-tein and DNA molecules, for example

hydrolysis (hy-DROL-ih-sis) A chemical reaction

that breaks a covalent bond in a molecule by

adding an –OH group to one side of the bond and

–H to the other side, thus consuming a water

molecule Compare dehydration synthesis.

hydrophilic (HY-dro-FILL-ic) Pertaining to

mole-cules that attract water or dissolve in it because

of their polar nature

hydrophobic (HY-dro-FOE-bic) Pertaining to molecules

that do not attract water or dissolve in it because of

their nonpolar nature; such molecules tend to

dis-solve in lipids and other nonpolar dis-solvents

hydrostatic pressure The physical force generated

by a liquid such as blood or tissue fluid, as

opposed to osmotic and atmospheric pressures

hydroxyl group (hy-DROCK-sil) A functional group

with the formula –OH found on many organic

molecules such as carbohydrates and alcohols

hypercalcemia (HY-pur-cal-SEE-me-uh) An excess

of calcium ions in the blood

hypercapnia (HY-pur-CAP-nee-uh) An excess of

carbon dioxide in the blood

hyperextension A joint movement that increases the

angle between two bones beyond 180⬚ fig 9.9

hyperglycemia (HY-pur-gly-SEE-me-uh) An excess

of glucose in the blood

hyperkalemia (HY-pur-ka-LEE-me-uh) An excess of

potassium ions in the blood

hypernatremia (HY-pur-na-TREE-me-uh) An excess

of sodium ions in the blood

hyperplasia (HY-pur-PLAY-zhuh) The growth of a

tissue through cellular multiplication, not cellular

enlargement Compare hypertrophy.

hyperpolarization A shift in the electrical potential

across a plasma membrane to a value more

nega-tive than the resting membrane potential, tending

to inhibit a nerve or muscle cell Compare

depolar-ization

hypersecretion Excessive secretion of a hormone or

other gland product; can lead to endocrine

disor-ders such as Cushing syndrome or gigantism, for

example

hypertension Excessively high blood pressure;

crite-ria vary but it is often considered to be a

condi-tion in which systolic pressure exceeds 140 mmHg

or diastolic pressure exceeds 90 mmHg

hyperthermia Excessively high core body

tempera-ture, as in heatstroke or fever

hypertonic Having a higher osmotic pressure than

human cells or some other reference solution and

tending to cause osmotic shrinkage of cells

hypertrophy (hy-PUR-tro-fee) The growth of a

tis-sue through cellular enlargement, not cellular

multiplication; for example, the growth of muscle

under the influence of exercise Compare

hyper-hypocalcemia (HY-po-cal-SEE-me-uh) A deficiency

of calcium ions in the blood

hypocapnia (HY-po-CAP-nee-uh) A deficiency ofcarbon dioxide in the blood

hypodermis (HY-po-DUR-miss) A layer of

connec-tive tissue deep to the skin; also called superficial

fascia, subcutaneous tissue, or when it is

pre-dominantly adipose, subcutaneous fat.

hypoglycemia (HY-po-gly-SEE-me-uh) A deficiency

of glucose in the blood

hypokalemia (HY-po-ka-LEE-me-uh) A deficiency

of potassium ions in the blood

hyponatremia (HY-po-na-TREE-me-uh) A ciency of sodium ions in the blood

defi-hyposecretion Inadequate secretion of a hormone

or other gland product; can lead to endocrine orders such as diabetes mellitus or pituitarydwarfism, for example

dis-hypothalamic thermostat (HY-po-thuh-LAM-ic) Anucleus in the hypothalamus that monitors bodytemperature and sends afferent signals to hypo-thalamic heat-promoting or heat-losing centers

to maintain thermal homeostasis

hypothalamus (HY-po-THAL-uh-mus) The inferiorportion of the diencephalon of the brain, formingthe walls and floor of the third ventricle and giv-ing rise to the posterior pituitary gland; controlsmany fundamental physiological functions such

as appetite, thirst, and body temperature andexerts many of its effects through the endocrineand autonomic nervous systems fig 14.12

hypothermia (HY-po-THUR-me-uh) A state ofabnormally low core body temperature

hypothesis An informed conjecture that is capable

of being tested and potentially falsified by imentation or data collection

exper-hypotonic Having a lower osmotic pressure thanhuman cells or some other reference solution andtending to cause osmotic swelling and lysis of cells

hypovolemic shock (HY-po-vo-LEE-mic) cient cardiac output resulting from a drop in

Insuffi-blood volume See also shock.

hypoxemia (HY-pock-SEE-me-uh) A deficiency ofoxygen in the bloodstream

hypoxia (hy-POCK-see-uh) A deficiency of oxygen

in any tissue

I

immune system A population of cells, includingleukocytes and macrophages, that occur in mostorgans of the body and protect against foreignorganisms, some foreign chemicals, and cancerous

or other aberrant host cells

immunity The ability to ward off a specific infection

or disease, usually as a result of prior exposure andthe body’s production of antibodies or lympho-

cytes against a pathogen Compare resistance.

immunoglobulin (IM-you-no-GLOB-you-lin) See

infarction (in-FARK-shun) 1 The sudden death of

tissue from a lack of blood perfusion; also called

an infarct 2 An area of necrotic tissue produced

by this process

inferior Lower than another structure or point ofreference from the perspective of anatomicalposition; for example, the stomach is inferior tothe diaphragm

inflammation (IN-fluh-MAY-shun) A complex oftissue responses to trauma or infection serving toward off a pathogen and promote tissue repair;recognized by the cardinal signs of redness, heat,swelling, and pain

infundibulum (IN-fun-DIB-you-lum) Any shaped passage or structure, such as the distalportion of the uterine tube and the stalk thatattaches the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus

funnel-inguinal (IN-gwih-nul) Pertaining to the groin

inhibin A hormone produced by the testes andovaries that inhibits the secretion of FSH

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) larization of a postsynaptic neuron in response to

Hyperpo-a neurotrHyperpo-ansmitter, mHyperpo-aking it less likely to reHyperpo-achthreshold and fire

innervation (IN-ur-VAY-shun) The nerve supply to

an organ

insertion The point at which a muscle attaches toanother tissue (usually a bone) and producesmovement, opposite from its stationary origin;the origin and insertion of a given muscle some-times depend on what muscle action is being

considered Compare origin.

inspiration Inhaling

insulin (IN-suh-lin) A hormone produced by ␤ cells

of the pancreatic islets in response to a rise inblood glucose concentration; accelerates glucoseuptake and metabolism by most cells of the body,thus lowering blood glucose concentration

integral (transmembrane) protein A protein thatextends through a plasma membrane and contactsboth the extracellular and intracellular fluid fig 3.7

integration A process in which a neuron receivesinput from multiple sources and their combinedeffects determine its output; the cellular basis ofinformation processing by the nervous system

integumentary system (in-TEG-you-MEN-tah-ree)

An organ system consisting of the skin, cutaneousglands, hair, and nails

interatrial septum (IN-tur-AY-tree-ul) The wallbetween the atria of the heart

intercalated disc (in-TUR-kuh-LAY-ted) A complex

of fascia adherens, gap junctions, and somes that join two cardiac muscle cells end toend, microscopically visible as a dark line whichhelps to histologically distinguish this muscletype; functions as a mechanical and electrical linkbetween cells fig 19.11

desmo-intercellular Between cells

intercostal (IN-tur-COSS-tul) Between the ribs, as inthe intercostal muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves

interdigitate (IN-tur-DIDJ-ih-tate) To fit togetherlike the fingers of two folded hands; for example,

at the dermal-epidermal boundary, intercalateddiscs of the heart, and pedicels of the podocytes in

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interleukin (IN-tur-LOO-kin) A hormonelike

chemi-cal messenger from one leukocyte to another,

serving as a means of communication and

coordi-nation during immune responses

interneuron (IN-tur-NEW-ron) A neuron that is

contained entirely in the central nervous system

and, in the path of signal conduction, lies

any-where between an afferent pathway and an

efferent pathway

interosseous membrane (IN-tur-OSS-ee-us) A

fibrous membrane that connects the radius to the

ulna and the tibia to the fibula along most of the

shaft of each bone fig 8.33

interphase That part of the cell cycle between one

mitotic phase and the next, from the end of

cytokinesis to the beginning of the next prophase

interstitial (IN-tur-STISH-ul) 1 Pertaining to the

extracellular spaces in a tissue 2 Located

between other structures, as in the interstitial

cells of the testis

interstitial fluid Fluid in the interstitial spaces of a

tissue, also called tissue fluid.

intervertebral disc A cartilaginous pad between the

bodies of two adjacent vertebrae

intracellular Within a cell

intracellular fluid (ICF) The fluid contained in the

cells; one of the major fluid compartments

intravenous (I.V.) 1 Present or occurring within a

vein, such as an intravenous blood clot 2

Intro-duced directly into a vein, such as an intravenous

injection or I.V drip

intrinsic (in-TRIN-sic) 1 Arising from within, such as

intrinsic blood-clotting factors; endogenous 2.

Fully contained within an organ, such as the

intrin-sic muscles of the hand and eye Compare extrinintrin-sic.

intrinsic factor A secretion of the gastric glands

required for the intestinal absorption of vitamin

B12 Hyposecretion of intrinsic factor leads to

per-nicious anemia

in vitro (in VEE-tro) In a laboratory container;

removed from the body and observed in isolation

(Latin, in glass).

in vivo (in VEE-vo) In the living state; in the body

(Latin, in life).

involuntary Not under conscious control, including

tissues such as smooth and cardiac muscle and

events such as reflexes

involution (IN-vo-LOO-shun) Shrinkage of a tissue or

organ by autolysis, such as involution of the thymus

after childhood and of the uterus after pregnancy

ion A chemical particle with unequal numbers of

electrons or protons and consequently a net

neg-ative or positive charge; it may have a single

atomic nucleus as in a sodium ion or a few atoms

as in a bicarbonate ion, or it may be a large

mole-cule such as a protein

ionic bond The force that binds a cation to an anion

ionizing radiation High-energy electromagnetic rays

that eject electrons from atoms or molecules and

convert them to ions, frequently causing cellular

damage; for example, X rays and gamma rays

ipsilateral (IP-sih-LAT-ur-ul) On the same side of

the body, as in reflex arcs in which a muscular

response occurs on the same side of the body as

the stimulus Compare contralateral.

ischemia (iss-KEE-me-uh) Insufficient blood flow to

a tissue, typically resulting in metabolite

accumu-isometric contraction A muscle contraction inwhich internal tension rises but the muscle doesnot shorten

isotonic Having the same osmotic pressure as humancells or some other reference solution

isotonic contraction A muscle contraction in whichthe muscle shortens and moves a load while itsinternal tension remains constant

K

ketone (KEE-tone) Any organic compound with acarbonyl (C⫽O) group covalently bonded to twoother carbons

ketone bodies Certain ketones (acetone, toacetic acid, and ␤-hydroxybutyric acid) pro-duced by the incomplete oxidation of fats, espe-

ace-cially when fats are being rapidly catabolized See

also ketosis.

ketonuria (KEE-toe-NEW-ree-uh) The abnormalpresence of ketones in the urine as an effect ofketosis

ketosis (kee-TOE-sis) An abnormally high tration of ketone bodies in the blood, occurring inpregnancy, starvation, diabetes mellitus, andother conditions; tends to cause acidosis and todepress the nervous system

concen-kilocalorie The amount of heat energy needed toraise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1⬚C;

1,000 calories Also called a Calorie or large

lactation The secretion of milk

lactic acid A small organic acid produced as an endproduct of the anaerobic fermentation of pyruvicacid; a contributing factor in muscle fatigue

lacuna (la-CUE-nuh) A small cavity or depression in atissue such as bone, cartilage, and the erectile tissues

lamella (la-MELL-uh) A little plate, such as thelamellae of bone fig 7.4

lamina (LAM-ih-nuh) A thin layer, such as the ina of a vertebra or the lamina propria of amucous membrane fig 8.22

lam-lamina propria (PRO-pree-uh) A thin layer of lar tissue immediately deep to the epithelium of amucous membrane fig 5.33

areo-larynx (LAIR-inks) A cartilaginous chamber in the

latent period The interval between a stimulus andresponse, especially in the action of nerve andmuscle cells

lateral Away from the midline of an organ or

median plane of the body; toward the side

Com-pare medial.

law A verbal or mathematical description of a dictable natural phenomenon or of the relation-ships between variables; for example, Boyle’s lawand the second law of thermodynamics

pre-law of mass action A law that states that the speedand direction of a reversible chemical reaction isdetermined by the relative quantities of the reac-tants A reversible reaction A ⫹ B ↔ C ⫹ D pro-ceeds left to right if the quantity of A ⫹ B isgreater than the quantity of C ⫹ D and right toleft if the latter is greater This principle governssuch reactions as the binding and dissociation ofoxygen and hemoglobin

leader sequence A sequence of bases in mRNA that

is not translated to protein but serves as a ing site for a ribosome

bind-length-tension relationship A law that relates thetension generated by muscle contraction to thelength of the muscle fiber prior to stimulation; itshows that the greatest tension is generatedwhen the fiber exhibits an intermediate degree ofstretch before stimulation

lesion A circumscribed zone of tissue injury, such as

a skin abrasion or myocardial infarction

leukocyte (LOO-co-site) A white blood cell

leukotrienes (LOO-co-TRY-eens) Eicosanoids thatpromote allergic and inflammatory responses such

as vasodilation and neutrophil chemotaxis; secreted

by basophils, mast cells, and damaged tissues

libido (lih-BEE-do) Sex drive

ligament A cord or band of tough collagenous sue binding one organ to another, especially onebone to another, and serving to hold organs inplace; for example, the cruciate ligaments of theknee, broad ligament of the uterus, and falciformligament of the liver

tis-ligand (LIG-and, LY-gand) A chemical that bindsreversibly to a receptor site on a protein, such as

a neurotransmitter that binds to a membranereceptor or a substrate that binds to an enzyme

ligand-regulated gate A channel protein in aplasma membrane that opens or closes when aligand binds to it, enabling the ligand to deter-mine when substances can enter or leave the cell

light microscope (LM) A microscope that producesimages with visible light

linea (LIN-ee-uh) An anatomical line, such as thelinea alba

lingual (LING-gwul) Pertaining to the tongue, as inlingual papillae

lipase (LY-pace) An enzyme that hydrolyzes atriglyceride into fatty acids and glycerol

lipid A hydrophobic organic compound composedmainly of carbon and a high ratio of hydrogen tooxygen; includes fatty acids, fats, phospholipids,steroids, and prostaglandins

lipoprotein (LIP-oh-PRO-teen) A protein-coated lipiddroplet in the blood plasma or lymph, serving as ameans of lipid transport; for example, chylomicronsand the high- and low-density lipoproteins

load 1 To pick up a gas for transport in the

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blood-lobe 1 A structural subdivision of an organ such as

a gland, a lung, or the brain, bounded by a visible

landmark such as a fissure or septum 2 The

infe-rior, noncartilaginous, often pendant part of the

ear pinna; the earlobe

lobule (LOB-yool) A small subdivision of an organ

or of a lobe of an organ, especially of a gland

locus See gene locus.

long bone A bone such as the femur or humerus

that is markedly longer than wide and that

gen-erally serves as a lever

longitudinal Oriented along the longest dimension

of the body or of an organ

loose connective tissue See areolar tissue.

low-density lipoprotein (LDL) A blood-borne

droplet of about 20% protein and 80% lipid

(mainly cholesterol) that transports cholesterol

from the liver to other tissues

lower limb The appendage that arises from the hip,

consisting of the thigh from hip to knee; the

crural region from knee to ankle; the ankle; and

the foot Loosely called the leg, although that

term properly refers only to the crural region

lumbar Pertaining to the lower back and sides,

between the thoracic cage and pelvis

lumen (LOO-men) The internal space of a hollow

organ such as a blood vessel or the esophagus, or

a space surrounded by cells as in a gland acinus

luteinizing hormone (LH) (LOO-tee-in-eye-zing) A

hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that

stimulates ovulation in females and testosterone

secretion in males

lymph The fluid contained in lymphatic vessels and

lymph nodes, produced by the absorption of

tis-sue fluid

lymphatic system (lim-FAT-ic) An organ system

consisting of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, the

tonsils, spleen, and thymus; functions include

tis-sue fluid recovery and immunity

lymph node A small organ found along the course

of a lymphatic vessel that filters the lymph and

contains lymphocytes and macrophages, which

respond to antigens in the lymph fig 21.8

lymphocytes (LIM-foe-sites) A class of relatively

small agranulocytes with numerous types and

roles in nonspecific defense, humoral immunity,

and cellular immunity table 18.8

lymphokine Any interleukin secreted by a lymphocyte

lysosome (LY-so-some) A membrane-bounded organelle

containing a mixture of enzymes with a variety of

intracellular and extracellular roles in digesting foreign

matter, pathogens, and expired organelles

lysozyme (LY-so-zime) An enzyme found in tears,

milk, saliva, mucus, and other body fluids that

destroys bacteria by digesting their cell walls Also

called muramidase.

M

macromolecule Any molecule of large size and high

molecular weight, such as a protein, nucleic acid,

polysaccharide, or triglyceride

macrophage (MAC-ro-faje) Any cell of the body,

other than a leukocyte, that is specialized for

phagocytosis; usually derived from blood

mono-cytes and often functioning as

antigen-present-macula (MAC-you-luh) A patch or spot, such as the

macula lutea of the retina.

malignant (muh-LIG-nent) Pertaining to a cell ortumor that is cancerous; capable of metastasis

maltose A disaccharide composed of two glucosemonomers

mammary gland The milk-secreting gland thatdevelops within the breast in pregnancy and lac-tation; only minimally developed in the breast of

a nonpregnant or nonlactating woman

mast cell A connective tissue cell, similar to abasophil, that secretes histamine, heparin, andother chemicals involved in inflammation; oftenconcentrated along the course of blood capillar-ies fig 5.15

matrix 1 The extracellular material of a tissue 2.

The fluid within a mitochondrion containing

enzymes of the citric acid cycle 3 The substance

or framework within which other structures areembedded, such as the fibrous matrix of a blood

clot 4 A mass of epidermal cells from which a

hair root or nail root develops

mechanoreceptor A sensory nerve ending or organspecialized to detect mechanical stimuli such astouch, pressure, stretch, or vibration

medial Toward the midline of an organ or median

plane of the body Compare lateral.

median plane The sagittal plane that divides the body

or an organ into equal right and left halves; also

called midsagittal plane fig A.3

mediastinum (ME-dee-ass-TY-num) The thickmedian partition of the thoracic cavity that sepa-rates one pleural cavity from the other and con-tains the heart, great blood vessels, and thymus

fig A.7

medulla (meh-DULE-uh, meh-DULL-uh) Tissue deep

to the cortex of certain two-layered organs such

as the adrenal glands, lymph nodes, hairs, andkidneys

medulla oblongata (OB-long-GAH-ta) The mostcaudal part of the brainstem, immediately supe-rior to the foramen magnum of the skull, con-necting the spinal cord to the rest of the brain

fig 14.1

meiosis (my-OH-sis) A form of cell division in which

a diploid cell divides twice and produces fourhaploid daughter cells; occurs only in gametoge-nesis

melanocyte A cell of the stratum basale of the dermis that synthesizes melanin and transfers it

epi-to the keratinocytes

meninges (meh-NIN-jeez) (singular, meninx) Three

fibrous membranes between the central nervoussystem and surrounding bone: the dura mater,arachnoid mater, and pia mater fig 14.5

menopause Cessation of the menstrual cycles,occurring during female climacteric

merocrine (MERR-oh-crin) Pertaining to gland cellsthat release their product by exocytosis; also

called eccrine.

mesenchyme (MEZ-en-kime) A gelatinous embryonicconnective tissue derived from the mesoderm; dif-ferentiates into all permanent connective tissuesand most muscle

mesentery (MESS-en-tare-ee) A serous membranethat binds the intestines together and suspendsthem from the abdominal wall; the visceral con-tinuation of the peritoneum fig 25.3

mesoderm (MEZ-oh-durm) The middle layer of thethree primary germ layers of an embryo; gives rise

to muscle and connective tissue

mesothelium (MEZ-oh-THEE-lee-um) A simplesquamous epithelium that covers the serousmembranes

metabolic pathway A series of linked chemicalreactions, most of which are catalyzed by a sep-arate enzyme; glycolysis, for example

metabolic rate The overall rate of the body’s bolic reactions at any given time, which deter-mines the rates of nutrient and oxygen consump-tion; often measured from the rate of oxygen

meta-consumption or heat production Compare basal

metabolic rate

metabolic waste A product of metabolism that isnot useful to the body but is potentially toxic andmust be excreted

metabolism (meh-TAB-oh-lizm) The sum of allchemical reactions in the body

metabolite (meh-TAB-oh-lite) Any chemical duced by metabolism

pro-metaplasia Transformation of one mature tissuetype into another; for example, a change frompseudostratified to stratified squamous epithe-lium in an overventilated nasal cavity

metastasis (meh-TASS-tuh-sis) The spread of cancercells from the original tumor to a new location,where they seed the development of a new tumor

microtubule An intracellular cylinder composed ofthe protein tubulin, forming centrioles, theaxonemes of cilia and flagella, and part of thecytoskeleton

microvillus An outgrowth of the plasma membranethat increases the surface area of a cell and func-tions in absorption and some sensory processes;distinguished from cilia and flagella by its smallersize and lack of an axoneme

milliequivalent One-thousandth of an equivalent,which is the amount of an electrolyte that wouldneutralize 1 mole of H⫹or OH⫺ Electrolyte con-centrations are commonly expressed in mil-liequivalents per liter (mEq/L)

mineralocorticoid (MIN-ur-uh-lo-COR-tih-coyd) Asteroid hormone, chiefly aldosterone, that issecreted by the adrenal cortex and acts to regulateelectrolyte balance

mitochondrion (MY-toe-CON-dree-un) Anorganelle specialized to synthesize ATP, enclosed

in a double unit membrane with infoldings of theinner membrane called cristae

mitosis (my-TOE-sis) A form of cell division inwhich a cell divides once and produces twogenetically identical daughter cells; sometimesused to refer only to the division of the geneticmaterial or nucleus and not to include cytokine-sis, the subsequent division of the cytoplasm

moiety (MOY-eh-tee) A chemically distinct subunit

of a macromolecule, such as the heme and globinmoieties of hemoglobin or the lipid and carbohy-drate moieties of a glycolipid

molarity A measure of chemical concentrationexpressed as moles of solute per liter of solution

mole The mass of a chemical equal to its molecularweight in grams, containing 6.023 ⫻ 1023

molecules

monocyte An agranulocyte specialized to migrateinto the tissues and transform into a macrophage.table 18.8

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monokine Any interleukin secreted by a monocyte

or macrophage

monomer (MON-oh-mur) 1 One of the identical or

similar subunits of a larger molecule in the dimer

to polymer range; for example, the glucose

monomers of starch, the amino acids of a protein,

or the nucleotides of DNA 2 One subunit of an

antibody molecule, composed of four polypeptides

monosaccharide (MON-oh-SAC-uh-ride) A simple

sugar, or sugar monomer; chiefly glucose,

fruc-tose, and galactose

monozygotic (MZ) twins Two individuals who

developed from the same fertilized egg and are

therefore genetically identical

motor end plate A depression in a muscle fiber

where it has synaptic contact with a nerve fiber

and has a high density of neurotransmitter

recep-tors fig 11.5

motor neuron A neuron that transmits signals from

the central nervous system to any effector (muscle

or gland cell); its axon is an efferent nerve fiber

motor protein Any protein that produces

move-ments of a cell or its components owing to its

ability to undergo quick repetitive changes in

con-formation and to bind reversibly to other

mole-cules; for example, myosin, dynein, and kinesin

motor unit One motor neuron and all the skeletal

muscle fibers innervated by it

mucosa (mew-CO-suh) A tissue layer that forms the

inner lining of an anatomical tract that is open to

the exterior (the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and

reproductive tracts) Composed of epithelium,

connective tissue (lamina propria), and often

smooth muscle (muscularis mucosae) fig 5.33

mucous membrane A mucosa

mucus A viscous, slimy or sticky secretion produced

by mucous cells and mucous membranes and

consisting of a hydrated glycoprotein, mucin;

serves to bind particles together, such as bits of

masticated food, and to protect the mucous

membranes from infection and abrasion

muscle fiber One skeletal muscle cell

muscle tone A state of continual, partial

contrac-tion of resting skeletal or smooth muscle

muscularis externa The external muscular wall of

certain viscera such as the esophagus and small

intestine fig 25.2

muscularis mucosae (MUSS-cue-LERR-iss

mew-CO-see) A layer of smooth muscle immediately

deep to the lamina propria of a mucosa fig 5.33

muscular system An organ system composed of the

skeletal muscles, specialized mainly for

maintain-ing postural support and producmaintain-ing movements

of the bones

muscular tissue A tissue composed of elongated,

electrically excitable cells specialized for

contrac-tion; the three types are skeletal, cardiac, and

smooth muscle

mutagen (MEW-tuh-jen) Any agent that causes a

mutation, including viruses, chemicals, and

ioniz-ing radiation

mutation Any change in the structure of a

chromo-some or a DNA molecule, often resulting in a

change of organismal structure or function

myelin (MY-eh-lin) A lipid sheath around a nerve

fiber, formed from closely spaced spiral layers of

the plasma membrane of a Schwann cell or

myofilament A protein microfilament responsiblefor the contraction of a muscle cell, composedmainly of myosin or actin fig 11.3

myoglobin (MY-oh-GLO-bin) A red oxygen-storagepigment of muscle; supplements hemoglobin inproviding oxygen for aerobic muscle metabolism

myosin A motor protein that constitutes the thickmyofilaments of muscle and has globular, mobileheads of ATPase that bind to actin molecules

N

necrosis (neh-CRO-sis) Pathological tissue deathdue to such causes as infection, trauma, or

hypoxia Compare apoptosis.

negative feedback A self-corrective mechanismthat underlies most homeostasis, in which a bod-ily change is detected and responses are activatedthat reverse the change and restore stability andpreserve normal body function

negative feedback inhibition A mechanism for ing the secretion of a pituitary tropic hormone Thetropic hormone stimulates another endocrine gland

limit-to secrete its own hormone, and that hormoneinhibits further release of the tropic hormone

neonate (NEE-oh-nate) An infant up to 6 weeks old

neoplasia (NEE-oh-PLAY-zee-uh) Abnormal growth

of new tissue, such as a tumor, with no usefulfunction

nephron One of approximately 1 million tering, urine-producing units in each kidney; con-sists of a glomerulus, glomerular capsule, proxi-mal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, and distalconvoluted tubule fig 23.5

blood-fil-nerve A cordlike organ of the peripheral nervoussystem composed of multiple nerve fibersensheathed in connective tissue

nerve fiber The axon of a single neuron

nerve impulse A wave of self-propagating actionpotentials traveling along a nerve fiber

nervous system An organ system composed of thebrain, spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia, specializedfor rapid communication of information

nervous tissue A tissue composed of neurons andneuroglia

net filtration pressure A net force favoring tion of fluid from a capillary or venule when allthe hydrostatic and osmotic pressures of theblood and tissue fluids are taken into account

filtra-neural tube A dorsal hollow tube in the embryo thatdevelops into the central nervous system fig 14.3

neuroglia (noo-ROG-lee-uh) All cells of nervoustissue except neurons; cells that perform varioussupportive and protective roles for the neurons

neuromuscular junction A synapse between a

neuron (NOOR-on) A nerve cell; an electricallyexcitable cell specialized for producing and trans-mitting action potentials and secreting chemicalsthat stimulate adjacent cells

neuronal pool (noor-OH-nul) A group of nected neurons of the central nervous systemthat perform a single collective function; forexample, the vasomotor center of the brainstemand speech centers of the cerebral cortex

intercon-neuropeptide A peptide secreted by a neuron, oftenserving to modify the action of a neurotransmit-ter; for example, endorphins, enkephalin, andcholecystokinin fig 12.18

neurotransmitter A chemical released at the distalend of an axon that stimulates an adjacent cell;for example, acetylcholine, norepinephrine, orserotonin

neutral fat A triglyceride

neutrophil (NOO-tro-fill) A granulocyte, usuallywith a multilobed nucleus, that serves especially

to destroy bacteria by means of phagocytosis,intracellular digestion, and secretion of bacteri-cidal chemicals table 18.8

nitrogenous base (ny-TRODJ-eh-nus) An organicmolecule with a single or double carbon-nitrogenring that forms one of the building blocks of ATP,other nucleotides, and nucleic acids; the basis ofthe genetic code fig 4.2

nitrogenous waste Any nitrogen-containing stance produced as a metabolic waste andexcreted in the urine; chiefly ammonia, urea, uricacid, and creatinine

sub-nociceptor (NO-sih-SEP-tur) A nerve ending cialized to detect tissue damage and produce asensation of pain; pain receptor

spe-norepinephrine (nor-EP-ih-NEF-rin) A cholamine that functions as a neurotransmitterand adrenal hormone, especially in the sympa-thetic nervous system fig 12.18

cate-nuclear envelope (NEW-clee-ur) A pair of unitmembranes enclosing the nucleus of a cell, withprominent pores allowing traffic of moleculesbetween the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm fig 3.25

nucleic acid (new-CLAY-ic) An acidic polymer ofnucleotides found or produced in the nucleus,functioning in heredity and protein synthesis; oftwo types, DNA and RNA

nucleotide (NEW-clee-oh-tide) An organic cule composed of a nitrogenous base, a monosac-charide, and a phosphate group; the monomer of

mole-a nucleic mole-acid

nucleus (NEW-clee-us) 1 A cell organelle

contain-ing DNA and surrounded by a double unit

mem-brane 2 A mass of neurons (gray matter)

sur-rounded by white matter of the brain, including

the basal nuclei and brainstem nuclei 3 The

posi-tively charged core of an atom, consisting of

pro-tons and neutrons 4 A central structure, such as

the nucleus pulposus of an intervertebral disc

nucleus pulposus The gelatinous center of anintervertebral disc

O

olfaction (ole-FAC-shun) The sense of smell

oncotic pressure (ong-COT-ic) The difference

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and that of the tissue fluid, usually favoring fluid

absorption by the blood capillaries Compare

col-loid osmotic pressure

oocyte (OH-oh-site) In the development of an egg

cell, any haploid stage between meiosis I and

fer-tilization

oogenesis (OH-oh-JEN-eh-sis) The production of a

fertilizable egg cell through a series of mitotic

and meiotic cell divisions; female gametogenesis

ophthalmic (off-THAL-mic) Pertaining to the eye or

vision; optic

opposition A movement of the thumb in which it

touches any fingertip of the same hand

optic Pertaining to the eye or vision

orbit The eye socket of the skull

organ Any anatomical structure that is composed of

at least two different tissue types, has recognizable

structural boundaries, and has a discrete function

different from the structures around it Many

organs are microscopic and many organs contain

smaller organs, such as the skin containing

numer-ous microscopic sense organs

organelle Any structure within a cell that carries

out one of its metabolic roles, such as

mitochon-dria, centrioles, endoplasmic reticulum, and the

nucleus; an intracellular structure other than the

cytoskeleton and inclusions

organic Pertaining to compounds of carbon

origin The relatively stationary attachment of a

skeletal muscle Compare insertion.

osmolality (OZ-mo-LAL-ih-tee) The molar

concen-tration of dissolved particles in 1 kg of water

osmolarity (OZ-mo-LERR-ih-tee) The molar

con-centration of dissolved particles in 1 L of solution

osmoreceptor (OZ-mo-re-SEP-tur) A neuron of the

hypothalamus that responds to changes in the

osmolarity of the extracellular fluid

osmosis (oz-MO-sis) The net diffusion of water

through a selectively permeable membrane

osmotic diuresis (oz-MOT-ic DY-you-REE-sis)

Increased urine output due to an increase in the

concentration of osmotically active particles in

the tubular fluid

osmotic pressure The amount of pressure that

would have to be applied to one side of a

selec-tively permeable membrane to stop osmosis;

pro-portional to the concentration of nonpermeating

solutes on that side and therefore serving as an

indicator of solute concentration

osseous (OSS-ee-us) Pertaining to bone

ossification (OSS-ih-fih-CAY-shun) Bone formation

osteoarthritis (OA) A chronic degenerative joint

disease characterized by loss of articular cartilage,

growth of bone spurs, and impaired movement;

occurs to various degrees in almost all people

with age

osteoblasts Bone-forming cells that arise from

osteogenic cells, deposit bone matrix, and

even-tually become osteocytes

osteoclasts Macrophages of the bone surface that

dissolve the matrix and return minerals to the

extracellular fluid

osteocyte A mature bone cell formed when an

osteoblast becomes surrounded by its own matrix

and entrapped in a lacuna

osteon A structural unit of compact bone

consist-ing of a central canal surrounded by concentric

cylindrical lamellae of matrix fig 7.4

osteoporosis (OSS-tee-oh-pore-OH-sis) A tive bone disease characterized by a loss of bonemass, increasing susceptibility to spontaneousfractures, and sometimes deformity of the verte-bral column; causes include aging, estrogenhyposecretion, and insufficient resistance exercise

degenera-ovary The female gonad; produces eggs, estrogen,and progesterone

ovulation (OV-you-LAY-shun) The release of a matureoocyte by the bursting of an ovarian follicle

ovum Any stage of the female gamete from theconclusion of meiosis I until fertilization; a pri-mary or secondary oocyte; an egg

oxidation A chemical reaction in which one or moreelectrons are removed from a molecule, loweringits free energy content; opposite of reduction andalways linked to a reduction reaction

oxytocin (OT) (OCK-see-TOE-sin) A hormonereleased by the posterior pituitary gland thatstimulates labor contractions and milk release

P

pancreas (PAN-cree-us) A gland of the upperabdominal cavity, near the stomach, that secretesdigestive enzymes and sodium bicarbonate intothe duodenum and secretes hormones into theblood

pancreatic islets (PAN-cree-AT-ic EYE-lets) Smallclusters of endocrine cells in the pancreas thatsecrete insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and other

intercellular messengers; also called islets of

Langerhans fig 17.11

papilla (pa-PILL-uh) A conical or nipplelike ture, such as a lingual papilla of the tongue orthe papilla of a hair bulb

struc-papillary (PAP-ih-lerr-ee) 1 Pertaining to or

shaped like a nipple, such as the papillary muscles

of the heart 2 Having papillae, such as the

papil-lary layer of the dermis

paracrine (PERR-uh-crin) 1 A chemical messenger

similar to a hormone whose effects are restricted

to the immediate vicinity of the cells that secrete

it; sometimes called a local hormone 2

Pertain-ing to such a secretion, as opposed to endocrine.

parasympathetic nervous system pa-THET-ic) A division of the autonomic nervoussystem that issues efferent fibers through the cra-nial and sacral nerves and exerts cholinergiceffects on its target organs

(PERR-uh-SIM-parathyroid glands (PERR-uh-THY-royd) Smallendocrine glands, usually four in number, adhering

to the posterior side of the thyroid gland fig 17.9

parathyroid hormone (PTH) A hormone secreted bythe parathyroid glands that raises blood calciumconcentration by stimulating bone resorption byosteoclasts, promoting intestinal absorption ofcalcium, and inhibiting urinary excretion of cal-cium

parenchyma (pa-REN-kih-muh) The tissue that forms the main physiological functions of anorgan, especially a gland, as opposed to the tissues(stroma) that mainly provide structural support

per-parietal (pa-RY-eh-tul) 1 Pertaining to a wall, as in

the parietal cells of the gastric glands and

pari-etal bone of the skull 2 The outer or more

super-the pleura, pericardium, or glomerular capsule

Compare visceral fig A.8

pathogen Any disease-causing organism or chemical

pedicle (PED-ih-cul) A small footlike process, as inthe vertebrae and the renal podocytes; also called

a pedicel.

pelvis A basinlike structure such as the pelvic girdle

of the skeleton or the urine-collecting space nearthe hilum of the kidney fig 23.4

peptide Any chain of two or more amino acids See

also polypeptide, protein.

peptide bond A group of four covalently bondedatoms (a –C⫽O group bonded to an –NH group)that links two amino acids in a protein or otherpeptide fig 2.23

perfusion The amount of blood supplied to a givenmass of tissue in a given period of time

perichondrium (PERR-ih-CON-dree-um) A layer offibrous connective tissue covering the surface ofhyaline or elastic cartilage

perineum (PERR-ih-NEE-um) The region betweenthe thighs bordered by the coccyx, pubic symph-ysis, and ischial tuberosities; contains the orifices

of the urinary, reproductive, and digestive tems figs 27.6, 28.8

sys-periosteum (PERR-ee-OSS-tee-um) A layer offibrous connective tissue covering the surface of

a bone fig 7.2

peripheral (peh-RIF-eh-rul) Away from the center

of the body or of an organ, as in peripheral visionand peripheral blood vessels

peripheral nervous system (PNS) A subdivision ofthe nervous system composed of all nerves andganglia; all of the nervous system except the cen-tral nervous system

peristalsis (PERR-ih-STAL-sis) A wave of constrictiontraveling along a tubular organ such as the esoph-agus or ureter, serving to propel its contents

peritoneum (PERR-ih-toe-NEE-um) A serous brane that lines the peritoneal cavity of theabdomen and covers the mesenteries and viscera

mem-perivascular (PERR-ih-VASS-cue-lur) Pertaining tothe region surrounding a blood vessel

pernicious anemia A deficiency of hemoglobin thesis resulting from inadequate vitamin B12inges-tion or absorption

syn-pH A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a tion; the negative logarithm of hydrogen ionmolarity (pH ⫽ 1/log [H⫹]) A pH of 7.0 is neutral,

solu-a pH ⬍ 7 is solu-acidic, solu-and solu-a pH ⬎ 7 is bsolu-asic (solu-alksolu-aline)

phagocytosis (FAG-oh-sy-TOE-sis) A form of cytosis in which a cell surrounds a foreign particlewith pseudopods and engulfs it, enclosing it in acytoplasmic vesicle called a phagosome

endo-pharynx (FAIR-inks) A muscular passage in thethroat at which the respiratory and digestivetracts cross

phosphorylation Addition of an inorganic phate (Pi) group to an organic molecule

phos-physiology 1 The functional processes of the body.

2 The study of such function.

piloerector A bundle of smooth muscle cells ated with a hair follicle, responsible for erection

associ-of the hair; also called arrector pili fig 6.8

pineal gland (PIN-ee-ul) A small conical endocrinegland arising from the roof of the third ventricle ofthe brain; produces melatonin and serotonin and may

be involved in timing the onset of puberty fig 14.12

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pinocytosis (PIN-oh-sy-TOE-sis) A form of

endocy-tosis in which the plasma membrane sinks inward

and imbibes droplets of extracellular fluid

pituitary gland (pih-TOO-ih-terr-ee) An endocrine

gland suspended from the hypothalamus and

housed in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone;

secretes numerous hormones, most of which

regu-late the activities of other glands fig 17.4

placenta (pla-SEN-tuh) A thick discoid organ on the

wall of the pregnant uterus, composed of a

combi-nation of maternal and fetal tissues, serving multiple

functions in pregnancy including gas, nutrient, and

waste exchange between mother and fetus fig 29.8

plantar (PLAN-tur) Pertaining to the sole of the foot

plaque A small scale or plate of matter, such as

dental plaque, the fatty plaques of

atherosclero-sis, and the amyloid plaques of Alzheimer disease

plasma The noncellular portion of the blood

plasma membrane The unit membrane that

encloses a cell and controls the traffic of

mole-cules in and out of the cell fig 3.6

platelet A formed element of the blood derived

from the peripheral cytoplasm of a

megakary-ocyte, known especially for its role in stopping

bleeding but also serves in dissolving blood clots,

stimulating inflammation, promoting tissue

growth, and destroying bacteria

pleura (PLOOR-uh) A double-walled serous

mem-brane that encloses each lung

plexus A network of blood vessels, lymphatic

ves-sels, or nerves, such as a choroid plexus of the

brain or brachial plexus of nerves

polymer A molecule that consists of a long chain of

identical or similar subunits, such as protein, DNA,

or starch

polypeptide Any chain of more than 10 or 15

amino acids

polysaccharide (POL-ee-SAC-uh-ride) A polymer of

simple sugars; for example, glycogen, starch, and

cellulose

polyuria (POL-ee-YOU-ree-uh) Excessive output of

urine

popliteal (po-LIT-ee-ul) Pertaining to the posterior

aspect of the knee

positron emission tomography (PET) A method of

producing a computerized image of the

physio-logical state of a tissue using injected

radioiso-topes that emit positrons

posterior Near or pertaining to the back or spinal

side of the body; dorsal

postganglionic (POST-gang-glee-ON-ic) Pertaining

to a neuron that transmits signals from a

gan-glion to a more distal target organ

postsynaptic (POST-sih-NAP-tic) Pertaining to a

neuron or other cell that receives signals from the

presynaptic neuron at a synapse fig 12.17

potential A difference in electrical charge from one

point to another, especially on opposite sides of a

plasma membrane; usually measured in millivolts

potential space An anatomical space that is usually

obliterated by contact between two membranes

but opens up if air, fluid, or other matter comes

between the membranes Examples include the

pleural cavity and the lumen of the uterus

preganglionic (PRE-gang-glee-ON-ic) Pertaining to

a neuron that transmits signals from the central

presynaptic (PRE-sih-NAP-tic) Pertaining to a ron that transmits signals to a synapse fig 12.17

neu-prime mover The muscle primarily responsible for agiven joint action; agonist

programmed cell death See apoptosis.

prolactin (PRL) A pituitary hormone that promotesmilk synthesis

pronation (pro-NAY-shun) A rotational movement

of the forearm that turns the palm downward orposteriorly fig 9.13

proprioception (PRO-pree-oh-SEP-shun) The sual perception, usually subconscious, of the posi-tion and movements of the body, resulting frominput from proprioceptors and the vestibular appa-ratus of the inner ear

nonvi-proprioceptor (PRO-pree-oh-SEP-tur) A sensoryreceptor of the muscles, tendons, and joint cap-sules that detects muscle contractions and jointmovements

prostaglandins (PROSS-ta-GLAN-dinz) A family ofeicosanoids with a five-sided carbon ring in themiddle of a hydrocarbon chain, playing a variety ofroles in inflammation, neurotransmission, vasomo-tion, reproduction, and metabolism fig 2.21

prostate gland (PROSS-tate) A male reproductivegland that encircles the urethra immediately infe-rior to the bladder and contributes to the semen

fig 27.7

protein A large polypeptide; while criteria for aprotein are somewhat subjective and variable,polypeptides over 100 amino acids long are gen-erally classified as proteins

proximal Relatively near a point of origin orattachment; for example, the shoulder is proximal

to the elbow Compare distal.

pseudopod (SOO-doe-pod) A temporary mic extension of a cell used for locomotion (ame-boid movement) and phagocytosis

cytoplas-pulmonary Pertaining to the lungs

pulmonary circuit A route of blood flow that plies blood to the pulmonary alveoli for gasexchange and then returns it to the heart; allblood vessels between the right ventricle and theleft atrium of the heart

sup-pyrogen (PY-ro-jen) A fever-producing agent

pyruvic acid The three-carbon end product of colysis; occurs at the branch point between gly-colysis, anaerobic fermentation, and aerobic respi-ration and is thus an important metabolicintermediate linking these pathways to each other

gly-R

ramus (RAY-mus) An anatomical branch, as in anerve or in the pubis

receptor 1 A cell or organ specialized to detect a

stimulus, such as a taste cell or the eye 2 A

pro-tein molecule that binds and responds to a ical such as a hormone, neurotransmitter, or odormolecule

chem-receptor-mediated endocytosis A process in whichcertain molecules in the extracellular fluid bind toreceptors in the plasma membrane, these recep-tors gather together, the membrane sinks inward

at that point, and the molecules become

incorpo-receptor potential A variable change in membranevoltage produced by a stimulus acting on a recep-tor cell; generates an action potential if it reachesthreshold

recombinant DNA (rDNA) A molecule composed ofthe DNA of two different species spliced together,such as a combination of bacterial and humanDNA used to produce transgenic bacteria thatsynthesize human proteins

reduction 1 A chemical reaction in which one or

more electrons are added to a molecule, raising itsfree energy content; opposite of oxidation and

always linked to an oxidation reaction 2

Treat-ment of a fracture by restoring the broken parts

of a bone to their proper alignment

reference man A healthy male 22 years old, ing 70 kg, living at a mean ambient temperature

weigh-of 20⬚C, engaging in light physical activity, andconsuming 2,800 kcal/day A standard of refer-ence for typical adult male physiological values

reference woman A healthy female 22 years old,weighing 58 kg, living at a mean ambient temper-ature of 20⬚C, engaging in light physical activity,and consuming 2,000 kcal/day A standard of refer-ence for typical adult female physiological values

reflex A stereotyped, automatic, involuntary response

to a stimulus; includes somatic reflexes, in whichthe effectors are skeletal muscles, and visceral(autonomic) reflexes, in which the effectors areusually visceral muscle, cardiac muscle, or glands

reflex arc A simple neural pathway that mediates areflex; involves a receptor, an afferent nerve fiber,sometimes one or more interneurons, an efferentnerve fiber, and an effector

reflux A backward flow, such as the movement ofstomach contents back into the esophagus

refractory period 1 A period of time after a nerve

or muscle cell has responded to a stimulus inwhich it cannot be reexcited by a threshold stimu-

lus 2 A period of time after male orgasm when it

is not possible to reattain erection or ejaculation

regeneration Replacement of damaged tissue with

new tissue of the original type Compare fibrosis.

renal (REE-nul) Pertaining to the kidney

renin (REE-nin) An enzyme secreted by the kidneys

in response to hypotension; converts the plasmaprotein angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, leadingindirectly to a rise in blood pressure

repolarization Reattainment of the resting brane potential after a nerve or muscle cell hasdepolarized

mem-reproductive system An organ system specializedfor the production of offspring

resistance 1 A nonspecific ability to ward off

infection or disease regardless of whether the

body has been previously exposed to it Compare

immunity 2 A force that opposes the flow of a fluid such as air or blood 3 A force, or load, that

opposes the action of a muscle or lever

resistance exercise A physical exercise such as weightlifting that promotes muscle strength more than itpromotes cardiopulmonary efficiency, endurance, or

fatigue resistance Compare endurance exercise.

respiratory system An organ system specialized forthe intake of air and exchange of gases with theblood, consisting of the lungs and the air pas-

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resting membrane potential (RMP) A stable

volt-age across the plasma membrane of an

unstimu-lated cell

reticular cell (reh-TIC-you-lur) A delicate, branching

macrophage found in the reticular connective

tis-sue of the lymphatic organs

reticular fiber A fine, branching collagen fiber

coated with glycoprotein, found in the stroma of

lymphatic organs and some other tissues and

organs

reticular tissue A connective tissue composed of

reticular cells and reticular fibers, found in bone

marrow, lymphatic organs, and in lesser amounts

elsewhere

ribonucleic acid (RY-bo-new-CLAY-ic) Any of three

types of nucleotide polymers smaller than DNA that

play various roles in protein synthesis Composed of

ribose, phosphate, adenine, uracil, cytosine, and

guanine forming a single nucleotide chain

ribosome A granule found free in the cytoplasm or

attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum,

composed of ribosomal RNA and enzymes;

spe-cialized to read the nucleotide sequence of

mes-senger RNA and assemble a corresponding

sequence of amino acids to make a protein

risk factor Any environmental factor or

character-istic of an individual that increases one’s chance

of developing a particular disease; includes such

intrinsic factors as age, sex, and race and such

extrinsic factors as diet, smoking, and occupation

rostral Relatively close to the forehead, especially

in reference to structures of the brain and spinal

cord; for example, the frontal lobe is rostral to

the parietal lobe Compare caudal.

ruga (ROO-ga) 1 An internal fold or wrinkle in the

mucosa of a hollow organ such as the stomach

and urinary bladder; typically present when the

organ is empty and relaxed but not when the

organ is full and stretched 2 Tissue ridges in such

locations as the hard palate and vagina fig 25.11

S

saccule (SAC-yule) A saclike receptor in the inner

ear with a vertical patch of hair cells, the macula

sacculi; senses the orientation of the head and

responds to vertical acceleration, as when riding

in an elevator or standing up fig 16.11

sagittal plane (SADJ-ih-tul) Any plane that extends

from ventral to dorsal and cephalic to caudal and

divides the body into right and left portions

Compare median plane.

sarcomere (SAR-co-meer) In skeletal and cardiac

mus-cle, the portion of a myofibril from one Z disc to the

next, constituting one contractile unit fig 11.4

sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) The smooth

endoplas-mic reticulum of a muscle cell, serving as a

cal-cium reservoir fig 11.2

scanning electron microscope (SEM) A microscope

that uses an electron beam in place of light to

form high-resolution, three-dimensional images

of the surfaces of objects; capable of much

higher magnifications than a light microscope

sclerosis (scleh-RO-sis) Hardening or stiffening of a

tissue, as in multiple sclerosis of the central

nerv-sebum (SEE-bum) An oily secretion of the ceous glands that keeps the skin and hair pliable

seba-secondary active transport A mechanism in whichsolutes are moved through a plasma membrane

by a carrier that does not itself use ATP butdepends on a concentration gradient established

by an active transport pump elsewhere in the cell

secondary sex characteristic Any feature thatdevelops at puberty, further distinguishes thesexes from each other, and promotes attractionbetween the sexes; examples include the distribu-tion of subcutaneous fat, pitch of the voice,female breasts, male facial hair, and apocrinescent glands

secondary sex organ An organ other than theovaries and testes that is essential to reproduc-tion, such as the external genitalia, internal geni-tal ducts, and accessory reproductive glands

second messenger A chemical that is producedwithin a cell (such as cAMP) or that enters a cell(such as calcium ions) in response to the binding

of a messenger to a membrane receptor, and thattriggers a metabolic reaction in the cell

secretion 1 A chemical released by a cell to serve a

physiological function, such as a hormone or

diges-tive enzyme 2 The process of releasing such a

chemical, often by exocytosis Compare excretion.

section See histological section.

selectively permeable membrane A membrane thatallows some substances to pass through whileexcluding others; for example, the plasma mem-brane and dialysis membranes

semen (SEE-men) The fluid ejaculated by a male,including spermatozoa and the secretions of theprostate and seminal vesicles

semicircular ducts Three ring-shaped, fluid-filledtubes of the inner ear that detect angular accel-erations of the head; each is enclosed in a bonypassage called the semicircular canal fig 16.11

semilunar valve A valve that consists of shaped cusps, including the aortic and pulmonaryvalves of the heart and valves of the veins andlymphatic vessels fig 19.6

crescent-semipermeable membrane See selectively

sensory nerve fiber An axon that conducts mation from a receptor to the central nervoussystem; an afferent nerve fiber

infor-serosa (seer-OH-sa) See serous membrane.

serous fluid (SEER-us) A watery, low-protein fluidsimilar to blood serum, formed as a filtrate of theblood or tissue fluid or as a secretion of serousgland cells; moistens the serous membranes

serous membrane A membrane such as the toneum, pleura, or pericardium that lines a bodycavity or covers the external surfaces of the vis-cera; composed of a simple squamous mesothe-lium and a thin layer of areolar connective tissue

peri-serum 1 The fluid that remains after blood has clotted

and the solids have been removed; essentially thesame as blood plasma except for a lack of fibrinogen

sex chromosomes The X and Y chromosomes, whichdetermine the sex of an individual

shock 1 Circulatory shock, a state of cardiac

out-put that is insufficient to meet the body’s logical needs, with consequences ranging from

physio-fainting to death 2 Insulin shock, a state of

severe hypoglycemia caused by administration of

insulin 3 Spinal shock, a state of depressed or

lost reflex activity inferior to a point of spinal

cord injury 4 Electrical shock, the effect of a

current of electricity passing through the body,often causing muscular spasm and cardiacarrhythmia or arrest

sinus 1 An air-filled space in the cranium 2 A

modified, relatively dilated vein that lacks smoothmuscle and is incapable of vasomotion, such asthe dural sinuses of the cerebral circulation and

coronary sinus of the heart 3 A small fluid-filled

space in an organ such as the spleen and lymph

nodes 4 Pertaining to the sinoatrial node of the

heart, as in sinus rhythm.

skeletal muscle Striated voluntary muscle, almostall of which is attached to the bones

skeletal system An organ system consisting of thebones, ligaments, bone marrow, periosteum, artic-ular cartilages, and other tissues associated withthe bones

smooth muscle Nonstriated involuntary musclefound in the walls of the blood vessels, many ofthe viscera, and other places

sodium-glucose transport protein (SGLT) A port that simultaneously transports Na⫹and glu-cose into a cell

sym-somatic 1 Pertaining to the body as a whole 2.

Pertaining to the skin, bones, and skeletal muscles

as opposed to the viscera 3 Pertaining to cells

other than germ cells

somatic nervous system A division of the nervoussystem that includes efferent fibers mainly fromthe skin, muscles, and skeleton and afferent fibers

to the skeletal muscles Compare autonomic

nerv-ous system

somesthetic 1 Pertaining to widely distributed

general senses in the skin, muscles, tendons, joint

capsules, and viscera, as opposed to the special

senses found in the head only; also called

somatosensory 2 Pertaining to the cerebral

cor-tex of the postcentral gyrus, which receives inputfrom such receptors

sperm 1 The fluid ejaculated by the male; semen.

Contains spermatozoa and glandular secretions

2 A spermatozoon.

spermatogenesis (SPUR-ma-toe-JEN-eh-sis) The duction of sperm cells through a series of mitoticand meiotic cell divisions; male gametogenesis

pro-spermatozoon (SPUR-ma-toe-ZOE-on) A sperm cell

sphincter (SFINK-tur) A ring of muscle that opens

or closes an opening or passageway; found, forexample, in the eyelids, around the urinary ori-fice, and at the beginning of a blood capillary

spinal column See vertebral column.

spinal cord The nerve cord that passes through thevertebral column and constitutes all of the cen-tral nervous system except the brain

spinal nerve Any of the 31 pairs of nerves that arisefrom the spinal cord and pass through the inter-

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spindle 1 An elongated structure that is thick in

the middle and tapered at the ends (fusiform) 2.

A football-shaped complex of microtubules that

guide the movement of chromosomes in mitosis

and meiosis fig 4.13 3 A stretch receptor in the

skeletal muscles fig 13.20

spine 1 The vertebral column 2 A pointed process

or sharp ridge on a bone, such as the styloid

process of the cranium and spine of the scapula

splanchnic (SPLANK-nic) Pertaining to the digestive

tract

stem cell Any undifferentiated cell that can divide

and differentiate into more functionally specific

cell types such as blood cells and germ cells

stenosis (steh-NO-sis) The narrowing of a

passage-way such as a heart valve or uterine tube; a

per-manent, pathological constriction as opposed to

physiological constriction of a passageway

stereocilium An unusually long, sometimes

branched microvillus lacking the axoneme and

motility of a true cilium; serves such roles as

absorption in the epididymis and sensory

trans-duction in the inner ear

steroid (STERR-oyd, STEER-oyd) A lipid molecule

that consists of four interconnected carbon rings;

cholesterol and several of its derivatives

stimulus A chemical or physical agent in a cell’s

sur-roundings that is capable of creating a physiological

response in the cell; especially agents detected by

sensory cells, such as chemicals, light, and pressure

strain The extent to which a body, such as a bone, is

deformed when subjected to stress Compare stress.

stress 1 A mechanical force applied to any part of

the body; important in stimulating bone growth,

for example Compare strain 2 A condition in

which any environmental influence disturbs the

homeostatic equilibrium of the body and

stimu-lates a physiological response, especially involving

the increased secretion of hormones of the

pitu-itary-adrenal axis

stroke See cerebrovascular accident.

stroke volume The volume of blood ejected by one

ventricle of the heart in one contraction

stroma The connective tissue framework of a gland,

lymphatic organ, or certain other viscera, as

opposed to the tissue (parenchyma) that performs

the physiological functions of the organ

subcutaneous (SUB-cue-TAY-nee-us) Beneath the skin

substrate 1 A chemical that is acted upon and

changed by an enzyme 2 A chemical used as a

source of energy, such as glucose and fatty acids

substrate specificity The ability of an enzyme to

bind only one substrate or a limited range of

related substrates

sulcus (SUL-cuss) A groove in the surface of an

organ, as in the cerebrum or heart

summation 1 A phenomenon in which multiple

stimuli combine their effects on a cell to produce

a response; seen especially in nerve and muscle

cells 2 A phenomenon in which multiple muscle

twitches occur so closely together that a muscle

fiber cannot fully relax between twitches but

develops more tension than a single twitch

pro-duces fig 11.15

superficial Relatively close to the surface; opposite

of deep For example, the ribs are superficial to

superior Higher than another structure or point ofreference from the perspective of anatomicalposition; for example, the lungs are superior tothe diaphragm

supination (SOO-pih-NAY-shun) A rotationalmovement of the forearm that turns the palm sothat it faces upward or forward fig 9.13

surfactant (sur-FAC-tent) A chemical that reducesthe surface tension of water and enables it to pen-etrate other substances more effectively Examplesinclude pulmonary surfactant and bile acids

sympathetic nervous system A division of the nomic nervous system that issues efferent fibersthrough the thoracic and lumbar nerves and usu-ally exerts adrenergic effects on its target organs;

auto-includes a chain of paravertebral ganglia adjacent

to the vertebral column, and the adrenal medulla

symphysis (SIM-fih-sis) A joint in which two bonesare held together by fibrocartilage; for example,between bodies of the vertebrae and between theright and left pubic bones

symport A cotransport protein that moves twosolutes simultaneously through a plasma mem-brane in the same direction, such as the sodium-glucose transport protein

synapse (SIN-aps) 1 A junction at the end of an axon where it stimulates another cell 2 A gap junction

between two cardiac or smooth muscle cells atwhich one cell electrically stimulates the other;

called an electrical synapse.

synaptic cleft (sih-NAP-tic) A narrow spacebetween the synaptic knob of an axon and theadjacent cell, across which a neurotransmitterdiffuses fig 12.17

synaptic knobs The swollen tips of the distalbranches of an axon; the site of synaptic vesiclesand neurotransmitter release fig 12.4

synaptic vesicle A spheroid organelle in a synapticknob containing neurotransmitter

synergist (SIN-ur-jist) A muscle that works with theagonist to contribute to the same overall action

at a joint

synergistic An effect in which two agents workingtogether (such as two hormones) exert an effectthat is greater than the sum of their separateeffects For example, neither follicle-stimulatinghormone nor testosterone alone stimulates signif-icant sperm production, but the two of themtogether stimulate production of vast numbers ofsperm

synovial fluid (sih-NO-vee-ul) A lubricating fluidsimilar to egg white in consistency, found in thesynovial joint cavities and bursae

synovial joint A point where two bones are rated by a narrow, encapsulated space filled withlubricating synovial fluid; most such joints arerelatively mobile

sepa-synthesis reaction A chemical reaction in whichsmaller molecules combine to form a larger one

Compare decomposition reaction.

systemic (sis-TEM-ic) Widespread or pertaining tothe body as a whole, as in the systemic circulation

systemic circuit All blood vessels that convey bloodfrom the left ventricle to all organs of the bodyand back to the right atrium of the heart; all ofthe cardiovascular system except the heart and

systole (SIS-toe-lee) The contraction of any heartchamber; ventricular contraction unless otherwisespecified

systolic pressure (sis-TOLL-ic) The peak arterial bloodpressure measured during ventricular systole

T

target cell A cell acted upon by a nerve fiber, mone, or other chemical messenger

hor-tarsal Pertaining to the ankle (tarsus)

T cell A type of lymphocyte involved in nonspecificdefense, humoral immunity, and cellular immunity;occurs in several forms including helper, cytotoxic,and suppressor T cells and natural killer cells

tendon A collagenous band or cord associated with

a muscle, usually attaching it to a bone and ferring muscular tension to it

trans-testis The male gonad; produces spermatozoa andtestosterone

tetanus 1 A state of sustained muscle contraction

produced by temporal summation as a normal

part of contraction; also called tetany 2 Spastic

muscle paralysis produced by the toxin of the

bacterium Clostridium tetani.

tetraiodothyronine

(TET-ra-EYE-oh-doe-THY-ro-neen) See thyroxine.

thalamus (THAL-uh-muss) The largest part of thediencephalon, located immediately inferior to thecorpus callosum and bulging into each lateralventricle; a point of synaptic relay of nearly allsignals passing from lower levels of the CNS tothe cerebrum fig 14.12

theory An explanatory statement, or set of ments, that concisely summarizes the state ofknowledge on a phenomenon and provides direc-tion for further study; for example, the fluidmosaic theory of the plasma membrane and thesliding filament theory of muscle contraction

state-thermogenesis The production of heat, for example,

by shivering or by the action of thyroid hormones

thermoreceptor A neuron specialized to respond toheat or cold, found in the skin and hypothalamus,for example

thermoregulation Homeostatic regulation of thebody temperature within a narrow range byadjustments of heat-promoting and heat-losingmechanisms

thorax A region of the trunk between the neck andthe diaphragm; the chest

threshold 1 The minimum voltage to which the

plasma membrane of a nerve or muscle cell must

be depolarized before it produces an action

potential 2 The minimum combination of

stimu-lus intensity and duration needed to generate anafferent signal from a sensory receptor

thrombosis (throm-BO-sis) The formation or ence of a thrombus

pres-thrombus A clot that forms in a blood vessel orheart chamber; may break free and travel in thebloodstream as a thromboembolus

thymine A single-ringed nitrogenous base dine) found in DNA, complementary to adenine inthe double helix of DNA fig 4.2

(pyrimi-thymus A lymphatic organ in the mediastinum

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cytes differentiate and become

immunocompe-tent fig 21.10

thyroid gland An endocrine gland in the neck,

par-tially encircling the trachea immediately inferior

to the larynx fig 17.8

thyroid hormone Either of two similar hormones,

thyroxine and triiodothyronine, synthesized from

iodine and tyrosine

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) A hormone of

the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the

thyroid gland; also called thyrotropin.

thyroxine (T 4 ) (thy-ROCK-seen) The thyroid hormone

secreted in greatest quantity, with four iodine

atoms; also called tetraiodothyronine fig 17.16

tight junction A zipperlike junction between

epithelial cells that limits the passage of

sub-stances between them fig 5.29

tissue An aggregation of cells and extracellular

materials, usually forming part of an organ and

performing some discrete function for it; the four

primary classes are epithelial, connective, muscular,

and nervous tissue

tissue gel The viscous colloid that forms the ground

substance of many tissues; gets its consistency

from hyaluronic acid or other glycosaminoglycans

trabecula (tra-BEC-you-la) A thin plate or layer of

tissue, such as the calcified trabeculae of spongy

bone or the fibrous trabeculae that subdivide a

gland fig 7.2

trachea (TRAY-kee-uh) A cartilage-supported tube

from the inferior end of the larynx to the origin

of the primary bronchi; conveys air to and from

the lungs; the “windpipe.”

transcription The process of enzymatically reading

the nucleotide sequence of a gene and

synthesiz-ing a pre-mRNA molecule with a complementary

sequence

transducer Any device that converts one form of

energy to another, such as a sense organ, which

converts a stimulus into an encoded pattern of

action potentials

transgenic bacteria Genetically engineered bacteria

that contain genes from humans or other species

and produce proteins of that species; used

commer-cially to produce clotting factors, interferon, insulin,

and other products

translation The process of enzymatically reading an

mRNA molecule and synthesizing the protein

encoded in its nucleotide sequence

transmission electron microscope (TEM) A

micro-scope that uses an electron beam in place of light

to form high-resolution, two-dimensional images

of ultrathin slices of cells or tissues; capable of

extremely high magnification

triglyceride (try-GLISS-ur-ide) A lipid composed of

three fatty acids joined to a glycerol; also called a

triacylglycerol or neutral fat fig 2.19

triiodothyronine (T 3 ) (try-EYE-oh-doe-THY-ro-neen) A

thyroid hormone with three iodine atoms, secreted in

much lesser quantities than thyroxine fig 17.16

trisomy-21 The presence of three copies of

chro-mosome 21 instead of the usual two; causes

vari-able degrees of mental retardation, a shortened

life expectancy, and structural anomalies of the

face and hands

tropic hormone (TROPE-ic) A hormone of the anterior

endocrine gland The four tropic hormones are FSH,

LH, TSH, and ACTH

trunk 1 That part of the body excluding the head,

neck, and appendages 2 A major blood vessel,

lymphatic vessel, or nerve that gives rise to smallerbranches; for example, the pulmonary trunk andspinal nerve trunks

T tubule A tubular extension of the plasma brane of a muscle cell that conducts actionpotentials into the sarcoplasm and excites thesarcoplasmic reticulum fig 11.2

mem-tunic (TOO-nic) A layer that encircles or encloses anorgan, such as the tunics of a blood vessel or eyeball

tympanic membrane The eardrum

U

ultraviolet radiation Invisible, ionizing, netic radiation with shorter wavelength andhigher energy than violet light; causes skin cancerand photoaging of the skin but is required inmoderate amounts for the synthesis of vitamin D

electromag-umbilical (um-BIL-ih-cul) 1 Pertaining to the cord that connects a fetus to the placenta 2 Pertain-

ing to the navel (umbilicus)

unit membrane Any cellular membrane composed

of a bilayer of phospholipids and embedded teins A single unit membrane forms the plasmamembrane and encloses many organelles of a cell,whereas double unit membranes enclose thenucleus and mitochondria

pro-unmyelinated (un-MY-eh-lih-nay-ted) Lacking amyelin sheath fig 12.7

upper limb The appendage that arises from theshoulder, consisting of the brachium from shoulder

to elbow, the antebrachium from elbow to wrist,

the wrist, and the hand; loosely called the arm, but

that term properly refers only to the brachium

uracil A single-ringed nitrogenous base dine) found in RNA; one of the four bases ofthe genetic code; occupies the place in RNAthat thymine does in DNA fig 4.2

(pyrimi-urea (you-REE-uh) A nitrogenous waste producedfrom two ammonia molecules and carbon diox-ide; the most abundant nitrogenous waste in theblood and urine fig 23.2

urinary system An organ system specialized to ter the blood plasma, excrete waste productsfrom it, and regulate the body’s water, acid-base,and electrolyte balance

fil-uterine tube A duct that extends from the ovary tothe uterus and conveys an egg or conceptus to

the uterus; also called fallopian tube or oviduct.

utricle (YOU-trih-cul) A saclike receptor in the innerear with a horizontal patch of hair cells, the mac-ula utriculi; senses the orientation of the head andresponds to horizontal acceleration, as when rid-ing in a car that starts and stops fig 16.11

vas (vass) (plural, vasa) A vessel or duct.

vascular Pertaining to blood vessels

vasoconstriction (VAY-zo-con-STRIC-shun) Thenarrowing of a blood vessel due to muscular con-striction of its tunica media

vasodilation (VAY-zo-dy-LAY-shun) The widening

of a blood vessel due to relaxation of the muscle

of its tunica media and the outward pressure ofthe blood exerted against the wall

vasomotion (VAY-zo-MO-shun) Collective term forvasoconstriction and vasodilation

vasomotor center A nucleus in the medulla gata that transmits efferent signals to the bloodvessels and regulates vasomotion

oblon-vein Any blood vessel that carries blood towardeither atrium of the heart

ventral Pertaining to the front of the body, theregions of the chest and abdomen; anterior

ventral (anterior) root The branch of a spinalnerve that emerges from the anterior side of thespinal cord and carries efferent (motor) nervefibers

ventricle (VEN-trih-cul) A fluid-filled chamber ofthe brain or heart

venule (VEN-yool) The smallest type of vein, ing drainage from capillaries

receiv-vertebra (VUR-teh-bra) One of the bones of thevertebral column

vertebral column (VUR-teh-brul) A dorsal series ofusually 33 vertebrae; encloses the spinal cord, sup-ports the skull and thoracic cage, and providesattachment for the limbs and postural muscles

Also called spine or spinal column.

vesicle (VESS-ih-cul) A fluid-filled tissue sac or anorganelle such as a synaptic or secretory vesicle

vesicular transport The movement of particles orfluid droplets through the plasma membrane bythe process of endocytosis or exocytosis

viscera (VISS-er-uh) (singular, viscus) The organs

contained in the dorsal and ventral body cavities,such as the brain, heart, lungs, stomach, intes-tines, and kidneys

visceral (VISS-er-ul) 1 Pertaining to the viscera 2.

The inner or deeper layer of a two-layered brane such as the pleura, pericardium, or

mem-glomerular capsule Compare parietal fig A.8

visceral muscle Single-unit smooth muscle found

in the walls of blood vessels and the digestive,respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts

viscosity The resistance of a fluid to flow; thethickness or stickiness of a fluid

vitamins A small organic nutrient that isabsorbed undigested and serves a purpose otherthan being oxidized for energy; often serve ascoenzymes Most vitamins cannot be synthe-sized by the body and are therefore a dietarynecessity

vitreous body (VIT-ree-us) A transparent, gelatinousmass that fills the space between the lens andretina of the eye

voluntary muscle Muscle that is usually under scious control; skeletal muscle

con-vulva The female external genitalia; the mons, labiamajora, and all superficial structures between the

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water balance An equilibrium between fluid intake

and output or between the amounts of fluid

con-tained in the body’s different fluid compartments

white matter White myelinated nervous tissue deep

to the cortex of the cerebrum and cerebellum and

superficial to the gray matter of the spinal cord

X

X chromosome The larger of the two sex

chromo-somes; males have one X chromosome and

females have two in each somatic cell

xiphoid process (ZIFF-oyd, ZYE-foyd) A small

pointed cartilaginous or bony process at the

infe-rior end of the sternum

X ray 1 A high-energy, penetrating

electromag-netic ray with wavelengths in the range of 0.1 to

10 nm; used in diagnosis and therapy 2 A

photo-graph made with X rays; radiophoto-graph

Y

Y chromosome Smaller of the two sex

chromo-somes, found only in males and having little if

any genetic function except development of the

testis

yolk sac An embryonic membrane that encloses the

yolk in vertebrates that lay eggs and serves in

humans as the origin of the first blood and germ

cells

Z

zygomatic arch An arch of bone anterior to the ear,formed by the zygomatic processes of the tempo-ral, frontal, and zygomatic bones; origin of themasseter muscle

zygote A single-celled, fertilized egg

Pronounce letter sequences in the pronunciation guides as follows:

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National Library of Medicine /

Photo Researchers, Inc.; 1.4a,b:

Kathy Talaro / Visuals

Unlimited; 1.5a: Courtesy of

the Armed Forces Institute of

Photo Researchers, Inc.; 1.15a:

Alexander Tsiaras / Photo

Researchers, Inc.; 1.16bottom:

Trainor / Photo Researchers,

Mt Sinai School of Medicine,

New York, NY.

Atlas A

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc /

Joe DeGrandis, photographer;

Companies, Inc / Rebecca

Gray, photographer / Don

The McGraw-Hill Companies,

Kincaid, dissections; A20,

The McGraw-Hill Companies,

Inc / Dennis Strete,

Rebecca Gray, photographer /

Don Kincaid, dissections.

Chapter 2 Chapter Opener 2: Alfred

Pasieka / Science Photo Library / Photo Researchers,

of Physics / Emilio Segre Visuals Archives, W.F Meggers

Saladin

Motta, G Macchiarelli, S.A.

Nottola / SPL / Photo

Murti / Visuals Unlimited;

3.4a: From Cell Ultrastructure

of the publisher.; 3.4b: From

Cell Ultrastructure by William

A Jenson and Roderick B.

by permission of the publisher;

Courtesy of Dr S Ito, Harvard

Biophoto Associates / Photo

Fawcett / Photo Researchers,

Phillips / Visuals Unlimited;

Fawcett / Visuals Unlimited;

3.24c: Courtesy of Dr Birgit

Satir, Albert Einstein College

D.W Fawcett / Visuals

Unlimited; 3.29top: Courtesy

of Dr Keith Porter; 3.30a:

From: Manley McGill, D.P.

Highfield, T.M Monahan, and B.R Brinkley “Effects of Nucleic Acid Specific Dyes on Centrioles of Mammalian Cells”, published in the Journal of Ultrastructure Research 57, 43-53 (1976),

Biology Media / Photo

Murti / Visuals Unlimited

From “The Double Helix” by James D Watson, 1968, Aentheneam Press, NY.

Courtesy of Cold Springs

Harbor Laboratory; 4.4b:

Courtesy of King’s College,

Kiseleva, February 5 Letter,

Associates / Science Source /

Photo Researchers, Inc.; 4.15:

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Joe DeGrandis,

photographer

Companies, Inc / Dennis

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Dennis Strete, photographer;

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Dennis

Strete, photographer; 5.12:

Richard G Kessel and Randy

H Kardon, published by W.H Freeman and Company 1979.;

Hill Companies, Inc / Dennis

Ed Reschke / Peter Arnold,

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Dennis Strete, photographer;

Unlimited

Strete, photographer; 6.3b

Richard G Kessel and Randy

H Kardon, published by W.H Freeman and Company 1979.;

Ottawa / Photo Researchers,

Strete, photographer; 6.7 (top):

Researchers, Inc.; 6.7 (bottom):

Credits

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Companies, Inc / Joe

DeGrandis, photographer; 6.8b:

P.M Motta / SPL / Custom

Medical Stock Photos; 6.9a-d,

Companies, Inc / Joe

DeGrandis, photographer;

Biophoto Associates / Photo

James Stevensons / SPL /

/ Photo Researchers, Inc.;

Researchers, Inc

Chapter 7

Courtesy of Utah Valley

Regional Medical Center,

SIU / Visuals Unlimited; 7.20:

Levy / Phototake

Chapter 8

Bob Coyle, photographer;

Gerard Vandystadt / Photo

Researchers, Inc.; 9.9a–9.14e:

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Rebecca Gray, photographer /

Don Kincaid, dissections; 9.26:

1984 Mosby-Year Book, Inc.,

SPL / Photo Researchers, Inc.

Camazine / Photo Researchers,

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Dennis

Companies, Inc / Joe DeGrandis, photographer;

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Rebecca Gray, photographer / Don

Hill Companies, Inc / Rebecca Gray, photographer / Don Kincaid, dissections.

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Joe DeGrandis, photographer

Fawcett / Photo Researchers,

Inc.; 11.1: Ed Reschke; 11.4a:

Visuals Unlimited; 11.5 Victor

Custom Medical Stock Photos

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Dr Dennis Emery, Dept.

of Zoology and Genetics, Iowa State University, photographer;

Source / Photo Researchers,

/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

Bettmann; 13.8b: From: Tissues

and Organs: A Text-Atlas of Scanning Electron Microscopy,

H Kardon, published by W.H.

Freeman and Company 1979;

Atlas of Anatomy by David L.

Bassett Courtesy of Dr Robert

A Chase, MD.; 13.16: From

Vidic / Saurex, Photographic Atlas of the Human Body.

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Rebecca Gray, photographer / Don Kincaid, dissections;

photographer / Don Kincaid,

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Bob Coyle, photographer;

14.20: from: Damasio H.,

Grabowski, T., Frank R., Galaburda A.M., Damasio A.R.:

The return of Phineas Gage;

Clues about the brain from a famous patient Science, 264:

1102-1105, 1994 Department

of Neurology and Image Analysis Facility, University of

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Rebecca Gray, photographer / Don

Atlas of Anatomy by David L Bassett Courtesy of Dr Robert

Reschke; 16.9: © The Hill Companies, Inc / Joe DeGrandis, photographer; 16.13: Quest / Science Photo Library / Photo Researchers,

Companies, Inc / Joe DeGrandis, photographer

Chapter 16 Chapter Opener 16: Wellcome

Dept of Cognitive Neurology / Science Photo Library / Photo

Hill Companies, Inc / Joe DeGrandis, photographer;

16.13: Quest / Science Photo

Library / Photo Researchers,

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc / Joe DeGrandis, photographer;

16.33a: Courtesy of Beckman

Vision Center at UCSF School

of Medicine / D Copeahagen,

S Miltman, and M Maglio.

Reschke / Peter Arnold, Inc.;

Pathological Conference

“Acromegaly, Diabetes, Hypermetabolism, Protein Use and Heart Failure” in

1956 by Excerpta Media, Inc.;

Pediatric Physical Diagnosis, 3/e, by Zitelli & Davis, fig 9-17

1997 Mosby-Wolfe Europe Limited, London, UK.

/ SPL / Photo Researchers, Inc.;

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