CYANIDE in WATER and SOIL: Chemistry, Risk, and Management - Chapter 18 pot

REGULATIONS, GUIDELINES AND CRITERIA FOR CYANIDE IN WATER Water quality-related standards and guidelines for cyanide in the United States are voluminousauthority national or state, regul

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18 Regulation of Cyanide in Water

and Soil

David V Nakles, David A Dzombak, Rajat S Ghosh,

George M Wong-Chong, and Thomas L Theis

CONTENTS

18.1 U.S Regulations, Guidelines and Criteria for Cyanide in Water 352

18.1.1 Drinking Water 355

18.1.2 Surface Water and Groundwater 359

18.1.3 Federal Wastewater Discharge Standards 360

18.1.3.1 Effluent Guidelines and Standards 360

18.1.3.2 Specific Characteristics of Guidelines/Standards 361

18.1.4 Groundwater (RCRA and CERCLA) 362

18.1.4.1 Groundwater (RCRA) 371

18.1.4.2 Groundwater (CERCLA) 372

18.2 U.S Regulations, Guidelines, and Criteria for Soil, Sediment, and Process Residuals 372

18.2.1 Soil and Process Residuals 372

18.2.1.1 Listed Wastes 373

18.2.1.2 Characteristic Wastes 373

18.2.2 Sediment 373

18.3 International Regulatory Standards and Guidelines for Cyanide in Water and Soil 375

18.3.1 Water 376

18.3.1.1 Drinking Water 376

18.3.1.2 Surface Water 376

18.3.1.3 Groundwater 377

18.3.2 Soil 378

18.3.3 Sediment 378

18.4 Technical/Regulatory Issues 380

18.4.1 Lack of Consistency: Analytical Methods and Regulations 380

18.4.2 Cyanide Transformation in the Environment 381

18.4.3 Cyanide Toxicological Database 381

18.4.4 Cyanide as a CERCLA Hazardous Substance 382

18.5 Summary and Conclusions 382

References 383

Various forms of cyanide in water and soil have been regulated in the United States and elsewhere for many years, dating back to the beginning of the environmental era of the early 1970s The primary driver for regulating cyanide, of all forms, is the acute human and ecological toxicity associated with hydrogen cyanide The toxicological effects of this compound on humans and animals have been

351

extensively examined and are well understood (seeChapters 13–15) However, it is also understood

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352 Cyanide in Water and Soil

that cyanide may exist in a number of different chemical forms, none of which are as toxic ashydrogen cyanide In fact, several forms of cyanide are known to exist naturally in the environment

or approved for regulatory use relatively recently

These circumstances have led to fairly conservative cyanide regulations for soil and water that are

in many cases based on the concentration of total cyanide That is, many regulations do not inate among the various forms of cyanide that may be present This was a reasonable approach forregulating cyanide-impacted media in the 1970s, given the previous state of the analytical methodsand the potential for specific nontoxic forms of cyanide to release hydrogen cyanide under certainenvironmental conditions However, as the science for the detection of cyanide species and the under-standing of the fate of these species in the environment has evolved, modifications to the regulatoryframework have begun to be implemented at both the state and Federal levels in the United States,and in other countries as well

discrim-This chapter presents a summary of the U.S environmental regulations that address the forms

of cyanide that may be present in a soil or water matrix A brief examination of some water and soilregulations for cyanide in other countries is also provided

At the Federal level in the United States, cyanide in water and soil is regulated under the CleanWater Act (CWA), the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), and the Resource Conservation and Recov-ery Act (RCRA) The regulations promulgated under these acts by the U.S Environmental ProtectionAgency (USEPA) have set forth specific standards and criteria for cyanide in receiving water, drinkingwater, wastewaters, soil, and various wastes Spills of regulated hazardous substances that containcyanide may also invoke the requirements of Superfund, that is, the Comprehensive EnvironmentalResponse and Liability Act, or CERCLA At the same time, there are number of state regulationsthat address cyanide, most of which have been derived from the existing Federal legislation

In addition to summarizing the regulations, this chapter also discusses a number of technicalissues that can, and often do, complicate the strict application of the regulations These issuescan be grouped under the topics of cyanide speciation, cyanide analytical methods, environmentaltransformation of cyanide, and cyanide toxicology Each of these topics is also discussed in moredetail in other chapters of this book

18.1 U.S REGULATIONS, GUIDELINES AND CRITERIA

FOR CYANIDE IN WATER

Water quality-related standards and guidelines for cyanide in the United States are voluminousauthority (national or state), regulatory focus (surface water, drinking water, wastewater), healtheffects target (human or aquatic life), cyanide form (total, free, complexed, amenable), if specified,summarizes such categories as they are defined by selected states A complete listing of all health-related cyanide standards as of 1997 can be found in the U.S Department of Health and Human

Services report on the Toxicological Profile for Cyanide [1].

A review of the information contained in Tables 18.1–18.4 reveals several features of interest.First, criteria for cyanide vary significantly depending on the designated use for the water Thesecriteria also reflect the large differential toxicities that cyanide compounds can exhibit among tar-get organisms For instance, numerical standards related to human consumption and exposure aregenerally considerably higher than those for sensitive aquatic organisms Further, the most sensitiveorganism can vary depending on the specific aquatic environment (e.g., marine vs fresh waters,

or cold vs warm waters) Second, in recognition of the toxicity differences among cyanide cies (regardless of target organism), many criteria attempt to differentiate among chemical forms

spe-and to serve as a source of nitrogen in the natural life cycle of plants spe-and other organisms (Chapters 3and12) Analytical methods for the detection of these different forms of cyanide have been developed

and complex.Tables 18.1–18.4present a summary of this information according to the governing

and water usage or origin State criteria are often assigned based on water usage category.Table 18.5

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Regulation of Cyanide in Water and Soil 353

TABLE 18.1

National USEPA Guidelines for Cyanide

1-Day Health Advisory

Maximum contaminant level

Copper cyanide, cyanide, potassium silver cyanide,

sodium cyanide

200

Maximum contaminant level goal

Cyanide, potassium silver cyanide, sodium cyanide,

potassium cyanide

200

Ambient water quality criteria for human health

Potassium silver cyanide, sodium cyanide,

potassium cyanide, copper cyanide (water and fish)

aquatic life

5.2 Free cyanide

Source: Information from ATSDR, Toxicological profile for cyanide (update), U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic

Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1997.

of cyanide, sometimes by specifically listing them (e.g., free cyanide, copper cyanide, potassiumcyanide), or by specifying an operational class of cyanide compounds as measurable by an analyticalprocedure (e.g., cyanide amenable to chlorination) Third, and perhaps most critically, the degree

of specificity among cyanide compounds and chemical forms listed among the various standards,

when viewed collectively across national and state criteria, is inconsistent with available approved

analytical methodologies; that is, many more chemical forms are recognized as being of importancethan current approved analytical methods can accommodate

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TABLE 18.2

State Human Health Standards for Cyanide

Arizona Drinking water guideline 220

Domestic water source (DWS) 140 Total cyanide Fish consumption (FC) 210,000 Total cyanide Full body contact (FBC) 3,100 Total cyanide Partial body contact (PBC) 3,100 Total cyanide

Connecticut Degree of treatment

Disinfection and chemical 10

Maximum permissible level 200

Indiana Continuous (4-day average) Point of water intake 200

Kansas Drinking water guideline 154

Kentucky MCL: domestic water supply 200 Free cyanide Massachusetts Drinking water guideline 140

Maine Drinking water guideline 154

Michigan Domestic/drinking 150 Free cyanide Minnesota Drinking water guideline 154

Class A and B waters 10 (CN)

Groundwater Effluent Standards: maximum allowable concentration

400 Surface waters and groundwater

North Carolina Class GSA groundwater 154

Oklahoma Maximum allowable levels 200

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TABLE 18.2

Continued

Vermont Drinking water standard 154

Wyoming MCL — groundwaters 200

Wisconsin Public water supplier

Warmwater sport fish communities 600 Total cyanide Cold water communities 600 Total cyanide Great Lakes communities 600 Total cyanide Nonpublic water supplier

Warmwater sport fish communities 40,000 Total cyanide Cold water communities 40,000 Total cyanide Warmwater forage and limited forage 120,000 Total cyanide Groundwater

Enforcement standard 200 Prevention action limit 40 West Virginia Water quality criteria

Warm water fishery streams 5 Free cyanide

Small nonfishable streams 5 Free cyanide Water contact, recreation 5 Free cyanide Water supply, public 5 Free cyanide

Source: Information from ATSDR, Toxicological profile for cyanide (update), U.S Department of Health and

Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1987.

This elevated MCLG is indicative of the difference in toxicity between this form of cyanide andthose typically included as part of the free cyanide, that is, hydrogen cyanide, potassium cyanide,potassium silver cyanide, and sodium cyanide

Table 18.1 also lists other health-related cyanide standards, all of which were abstracted from

the U.S Department of Health and Human Services report on the Toxicological Profile for Cyanide

explicitly designated as applicable to either children or adults; however, none of these advisoriesdesignate the specific form of the cyanide to which they apply The health advisories for children rangefrom 200 (Longer-term Health Advisory) to 220µg/l (1- and 10-day health advisories) of cyanide;

only a Longer-term Health Advisory of 800µg/l and a Lifetime Health Advisory of 200 µg/l are

specified for adults

as free cyanide (seeTable 18.1) This value was developed under the SDWA; the same value is

(Table 7.1, [1]) These standards are referenced as Health Advisories and include levels that are

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TABLE 18.3

State Aquatic Life Standards for Cyanide

Arizona Acute criteria for aquatic & wildlife

Cold water fishery (A&Wc) 22.0 T (total recoverable) Warm water fishery (A&Ws) 41.0 T

Effluent dominated water (A&Wedw) 41.0 T

Florida Criteria for surface water, Class I-V 5.0

Hawaii Freshwater: acute (ecological standard) 22

Freshwater: chronic (ecological standard) 5.2

Saltwater: acute (ecological standard) 1.0

Saltwater: chronic (ecological standard) 1.0

Indiana Acute aquatic criterion 22.0

Continuous (4-day average) outside of mixing zone: chronic

aquatic criterion

5.2 Kentucky Maximum allowable instream conc

Chronic (ecological standard) 5 Free cyanide Acute (ecological standard) 22 Free cyanide Maryland Ambient surface waters

Minnesota Class A, B, C waters 20.0 (CN)

Mississippi Freshwater: acute 22.0

New York Surface waters & groundwaters

A, A-S, AA, AA-S, B, C 5.2

North Dakota Class I streams 5.0 Total cyanides

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TABLE 18.3

Continued

Puerto Rico Coastal estuarine waters 20.0

Ohio Outside mixing zone (maximum)

Limited resource warm water 22.0 Free cyanide

30-day average cold water 5.2 Free cyanide

Inside mixing zone (maximum)

Limited resource warm water 92.0

Wisconsin Great Lakes 22.4 Free cyanide

Warm water sport fish 46.2 Free cyanide

Source: Information from ATSDR, Toxicological profile for cyanide (update), U.S Department of Health and Human

Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1997.

TABLE 18.4

Miscellaneous State Standards for Cyanide

Water quality:

agricultural uses

Arizona Agricultural

irrigation (AgI)

No numerical standard Livestock

Class IV 200 Class III 2000 Class II 5000

Source: Information from ATSDR, Toxicological profile for cyanide (update), U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic

Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1997.

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TABLE 18.5

Selected State Water Classiﬁcations

Florida

Class I — Potable water supplies

Class II — Shellfish propagation or harvesting

Class III — Recreation, propagating, and maintenance of healthy, well-balanced population of fish and wildlife Class IV — Agricultural water supplies

Class V — Navigation, utility, and industrial use

Minnesota

Class 1 — Domestic consumption

Class 2 — Aquatic life and recreation

New Jersey

GW1 — Ground water of special ecological significance

GW2 — Ground water for potable water supply

GW3 — Ground water with uses other than potable water supply

New York

Class N — fresh surface waters

Class A, AA, Special (AA-S) — fresh surface waters (drinking)

Class B — fresh surface waters (primary and secondary contact)

Class C, D — fresh surface waters (fishing)

Class SA — saline surface waters (fish propagation and survival)

Class SB — saline surface waters (primary and secondary contact)

Class SC — saline surface waters (fishing)

Class I — saline surface waters (secondary contact recreation)

Class SD — saline surface waters (fish survival)

Class GA — fresh groundwaters (drinking)

Class GSA — saline groundwaters (potable mineral waters)

Class GSB — saline groundwaters (receiving waters)

North Carolina

Class GA — groundwaters (drinking water)

Class GSA — groundwaters; usage and occurrence (potable mineral waters)

Class GC — groundwaters; usage and occurrence (nondrinking uses)

Vermont

Class A(1) — Ecological waters

Class A(2) — Public water supplies

Class B — Cold and warm water fish habitats

Wyoming

Special A waters — Suitable for fish and aquatic life

Source: Information from ATSDR, Toxicological profile for cyanide (update), U.S Department of Health and

Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1997.

a greater degree of variability in the concentrations of cyanide that are acceptable in drinking water

An examination of all 50 states reveals that most states do adopt, in some manner, the nationalMCL of 200µg/l free cyanide However, there are often variations from this value based on a

specific classification of the water that is being consumed For example, Arizona has a drinkingwater guideline of 220µg/l free cyanide but also has a standard of 140 µg/l of total cyanide for

domestic water sources (DWS) Similarly, Massachusetts and Maine have drinking water guidelines

A review of the human health standards and guidelines for various states (Table 18.2) indicates

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of 140 and 154µg/l, respectively, although they do not indicate the form of cyanide that should

be measured New Hampshire has a similar drinking water guideline (i.e., 154µg/l) but also has

its own MCL of 10µg/l, measured as [CN] This value represents the lowest human-health water

quality standard for cyanide that exists among all of the 50 states

18.1.2 SURFACEWATER ANDGROUNDWATER

Section 304(a)(1) of the Clean Water Act requires USEPA to develop and publish ambient waterquality criteria for selected pollutants, of which cyanide is one Ambient surface water quality criteriafor aquatic organisms are provided to protect against both chronic and acute toxicological effects.Simply stated, acute toxicity is toxicity that occurs very rapidly, for example, minutes to hours,after exposure whereas chronic toxicity occurs only after exposure over long periods of time, forexample, days to years The chronic and acute ambient water criteria for cyanide in freshwater are5.2 and 22µg/l, respectively, expressed as free cyanide (as CN) These criteria were developed

criteria However, the same is not true for saltwater criteria, which are 1.0µg/l for both chronic

and acute toxicity These criteria are at or below the detection limit for available analytical

meth-the saltwater criteria, Cancer irroratus, is uncommon and atypically sensitive [2] This issue is

examined in detail in Chapter 14, where the aquatic toxicity database underlying the national ent water quality criteria for cyanide is summarized and critiqued Surface water quality criteriaare also defined specifically for copper cyanide with values of 9.2, 6.5, and 2.9 µg/l respect-

ambi-ively, for acute and chronic effects in freshwater and both acute and chronic effects in saltwaterThe Clean Water Act also directs USEPA to develop ambient water quality criteria for protection

of human health, especially for exposure through consumption of fish and also including incidentalwater consumption, for example, through recreation activities The criteria are developed using amethodology that incorporates a set of standard data and approaches for evaluating exposure andhealth risk [3] The human health water quality criteria for cyanide were revised in 2003 [4] Thecriterion for both “consumption of water and organism” and “consumption of organism only” is

140 µg/l total cyanide It is noted in the USEPA criteria document [3] that the recommended

water quality criterion is expressed as total cyanide even though the Integrated Risk InformationSystem (IRIS) reference dose used to derive the criterion is based on free cyanide USEPA notesthat “if a substantial fraction of the cyanide present in a water body is present in complexed form(e.g., Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3), this recommended criterion may be overly conservative.”

Typical examples of these categories include potable water supplies, recreational use, agriculturalwater supplies, groundwater, saline/fresh surface water, and cold/warm water fish habitats, to name

a few A review of the state aquatic life protection criteria in Table 18.3 reveals a range of tions for total cyanide and total recoverable cyanide (1.0µg/l [saltwater/acute and chronic effects

concentra-(several states); New York: selected freshwater effects] to 84µg/l [Arizona]); cyanide amenable to

chlorination (Several states: 5µg/l [chronic toxicity] to 22 µg/l [acute toxicity]), and free cyanide

(5.2µg/l [Ohio: 30-day average cold water] to 46.2 µg/l [Wisconsin: warm water sport fish and all

others])

Cyanide water quality criteria for groundwater are not common Those that do exist usually treatthe groundwater as either a potential drinking water or as a potential source to an adjacent surfacewater In the former instance, the criteria are usually based on the MCL or 200µg/l of free cyanide In

the latter case, the criteria approach those concentrations that will be protective of aquatic organisms,that is, approximately 5µg/l (Virginia) New York is an exception and has a maximum allowable

concentration of 400µg/l of cyanide (unspecified form) as a groundwater effluent standard Many

based on trout toxicity data (Chapter 14) There is little debate about the validity of these freshwater

ods (Chapter 7) Further, some have suggested that the test organism used by the USEPA to derive

(seeTable 18.1)

State surface water criteria are often assigned based on water usage categories (Tables 18.3–18.5)

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states have developed groundwater quality guidelines for cyanide in the context of contaminated siteremediation, however, as discussed in subsequent sections on RCRA and CERCLA

18.1.3 FEDERALWASTEWATERDISCHARGESTANDARDS

The ambient water quality criteria provide guidance to states in adopting water quality standards,which ultimately provide a basis for controlling discharges or releases of pollutants into the waterways

of the nation The limits associated with these discharges or releases are set in the National PollutionDischarge Elimination System (NPDES) permits established under the authority of the Clean WaterAct Ambient water quality criteria that are derived to address site-specific situations are not included

as part of this Federal regulation

18.1.3.1 Efﬂuent Guidelines and Standards

Cyanide has been regulated in industrial wastewater discharges for many years Under the direction ofthe Clean Water Act, the USEPA has developed effluent guidelines and standards for a large number

of specific industries These guidelines and standards are technology-based, that is, they are based

on a projection of the effluent quality that will be produced by applying the best available treatment(BAT) technology to the typical wastewater that is generated by the specified industrial category.(Another category of treatment technologies is the best practical treatment or BPT BPT differs fromBAT in that the former gives some consideration to the cost of treatment.) These discharge standards

have been developed for a total of 56 industry categories and are presented in the U.S Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR, Subchapter N, Parts 400 to 471) The discharge of some chemical form of

evaluations for the industrial categories listed in Table 18.6 are implemented as part of the NPDESpermit system, which requires a permit for all discharges to the surface waters of the nation Permitteddischarges must comply with the discharge limits that are prescribed for the appropriate industrialcategories State environmental agencies usually administer the NPDES program for the USEPA Inissuing a discharge permit, a state has the authority to stipulate either BAT limits or more stringentwater quality limits, depending on the classification of the receiving water body

There is another set of discharge standards for these industrial categories which applies whenthe treated effluent is discharged to a publicly owned treatment facility, or POTW, prior to thedischarge to a surface water body These standards are known as pretreatment standards and weredeveloped taking into consideration that some degree of treatment of the regulated contaminantswould occur in the POTW Two sets of standards exist for discharges to POTWs: (1) Pretreatmentstandards for new sources (PSNS) and (2) Pretreatment standards for existing sources (PSES) Thedifferences in these standards reflect the assumption that new sources of wastewater are expected togenerate reduced loads of contaminants as a result of improved or more efficient upstream processoperations Generally, these standards are essentially the same as BAT limits For discharges toPOTWs, pretreatment discharge limits may be based on PSES or PSNS limits or more stringentwater quality limits, as dictated by NPDES requirements for the POTW

The Pollution Prevention Act, passed in 1990, is aimed at helping industry reduce or prevent lution at the source, with one benefit being improved compliance with wastewater effluent guidelinesand limits USEPA was directed to provide technical assistance to businesses and to promote sourcereduction with industry In response, USEPA developed initiatives with many different industries

pol-In the context of reducing the volume and environmental impact of industrial wastewater discharges,the Agency initiated collaborations, for example, with the electroplating and metals manufacturingindustries Efforts of these industries in source reduction have yielded progress In the years aheadthere will be increasing focus on modification of manufacturing processes as part of wastewatercyanide is regulated in 13 of these industrial categories, listed inTable 18.6 Treatment technology

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TABLE 18.6 USEPA Industrial Wastewater Discharge Categories that Include Efﬂuent Standards for Cyanide

Electroplating Organic chemicals, plastics, and synthetic fibers Inorganic chemicals manufacturing

Iron and steel manufacturing Nonferrous metals manufacturing Steam electric power generation Ferroalloy manufacturing Pharmaceutical manufacturing Photographic processing point sources Battery manufacturing

Coil coating point sources Aluminum forming Nonferrous metals forming and metal powders point sources

Note: Information from 40 CFR Chapter N Effluent Guidelines and

Standards 400–471.

management strategies The Pollution Prevention Act, and the assistance it makes available to panies through the USEPA, provides the framework for new directions in effluent limit complianceapproaches

com-18.1.3.2 Speciﬁc Characteristics of Guidelines/Standards

18.1.3.2.1 Speciﬁed cyanide analytical methods

Part 136 of Title 40 (Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis of Pollutants) of

the Code of Federal Regulations describes the analytical methods that should be used to determine

compliance with the effluent guidelines and standards Specifically, Table IB of Part 136 presents alist of approved inorganic test procedures The test procedures that are specified for cyanide are:

1 Total cyanide: Manual distillation (Standard Methods 4500 CN C [5] and ASTM D2036-98(A) [6]) followed by titrimetric (Standard Methods 4500 CN D [5]) or spectrophotometric analysis, manual (USEPA Method 335.2 [7]; Standard Methods 4500 CN

E [5]; ASTM 2036-98(A) [6], and USGS Method I-3300-85 [8]) or automated analysis(USEPA Method 335.3 [9] and USGS Method I-4302-85 [10]) of the distillation offgasabsorber liquid;

2 Cyanide amenable to chlorination: Manual distillation with and without chlorination (USEPA Method 335.1 [11]; Standard Methods 4500 CN G [5]; and ASTM D2036-98(B)

[12]) followed by titrimetric or spectrophotometric (manual or automated) analysis of thedistillation offgas absorber liquid; and

3 Available cyanide: Flow injection and ligand exchange, followed by amperometry (USEPA

Method OIA-1677 [13])

Based on these prescribed analytical methods, it is evident that the guidelines and standards areregulating industrial discharges on some combination of total, amenable, and available cyanide.egories that have specific discharge limits for cyanide The specific discharge limits for each of theTable 18.7identifies those methods that have been prescribed for each of the 13 industrial subcat-

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total cyanide is the predominant form of cyanide that is used for determining compliance, havingbeen identified explicitly in 11 of the 13 industrial subcategories For the other two industrial subcat-egories, no form of cyanide is specified In many cases, amenable cyanide is also specified; however,

it is used in tandem with the use of total cyanide

18.1.3.2.2 Range of cyanide discharge limits

The discharge limits for the 13 industrial categories that are presented in Table 18.7 are based

on one of two criteria: (1) concentration-based criteria, that is, the cyanide concentration that isachievable in the effluent discharge after the application of a specific treatment, or (2) normalizedmass criteria, that is, the mass of cyanide in the effluent discharge normalized per pound of product

or related by-product These different discharge criteria are also presented in terms of maximumvalues averaged over different time periods, typically one day, 4 days, or 30 days or monthly.Examples of the type and range of the concentration criteria shown in Table 18.7 are providedbelow:

1-day maximum:

• Total cyanide: 1200 µg/l (organic chemicals, plastics, and synthetic fibers) —

33,500µg/l (pharmaceutical manufacturing).

• Amenable cyanide: 860 µg/l (metal finishing) — 5000 µg/l (electroplating

national pretreatment standards for existing sources [<38, 000 l/day]).

4-day maximum averages:

• Total cyanide: 1000 µg/l (electroplating national pretreatment standards for

existing sources [>38, 000 l/day]).

• Amenable cyanide: 2700 µg/l (electroplating national pretreatment standards

for existing sources [<38, 000 l/day]).

30-day (monthly) maximum averages:

• Total cyanide: 420 µg/l (organic chemicals, plastics, and synthetic fibers) —

9400µg/l (pharmaceutical manufacturing).

• Amenable cyanide: 320 µg/l (metal finishing).

The normalized mass criteria in Table 18.7 cannot be easily summarized because of the differentbases that were used for the normalization For example, in the steam electric power generatingsubcategory, the allowable cyanide discharge is normalized per megawatt hour; in the precious metalssubcategory, the discharge is normalized per troy ounce; while in several of the other categories, it isper million pounds of material production

18.1.4 GROUNDWATER (RCRAANDCERCLA)

Two primary pieces of U.S legislation that govern the management of residuals containing cyanide,and groundwater contacted by these residuals, are the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act(RCRA) and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CER-CLA) Congress enacted RCRA in 1976 (RCRA Public Law 94-580) and CERCLA in 1980 (lateramended and reauthorized in 1986, Public Law 99-499) RCRA established a system for managinghazardous wastes from the point of origin to the final disposal, that is, cradle to grave, while CERCLAaddresses legacy sites where hazardous substances have been released to the environment

18.1.4.1 Groundwater (RCRA)

Under RCRA, wastes may be classified as hazardous wastes or solid (nonhazardous wastes) A solidwaste under RCRA is hazardous if it is not excluded from the hazardous waste regulations and (1) itvarious categories are also presented in this table Based upon a review ofTable 18.7, it is clear that

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1.0 mg/l (4-day average max)

Organic chemicals,

plastics, and synthetic

fibers (with and

production

Amenable cyanide 0.10 lbs/1000 lbs of

product (1-day max) 0.021 lbs/1000 lbs of product (30-day average)

1700µg/l (1-day max);

360µg/l (30-day

average)

0.10 lbs/1000 lbs of product (1-day max) 0.021 lbs/1000 lbs of product (30-day average)

0.10 lbs/1000 lbs of product (1-day max) 0.021 lbs/1000 lbs of product (30-day average) Total cyanidec 0.65 lbs/1000 lbs of

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0.00724 lbs/1000 lbs of product (1-day max) 0.00506 lbs/1000 lbs of product (max monthly average)

(2) Sintering (NSPS,

PSES, and PSNS apply

only when sintering

Cyanide limits not specified

(3) Ironmaking (iron

blast furnace)

Total cyanide 0.000584 lbs/1000 lbs of

product (1-day average) 0.000292 lbs/1000 lbs of product (30-day average)

0.00175 lbs/1000 lbs of product (1-day average) 0.000876 lbs/1000 lbs of product (30-day average)

0.00175 lbs/1000 lbs of product (1-day average) 0.000876 lbs/1000 lbs

of product (30-day average) Salt bath descaling

(Reducing)

(a) Batch Total cyanide 0.00102 lbs/1000 lbs of

0.00102 lbs/1000 lbs of product (1-day max) 0.000339 lbs/1000 lbs

of product (30-day average) (b) Continuous Total cyanide 0.00569 lbs/1000 lbs of

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157.6 lbs/million lbs of cryolite recovered (1-day max) 70.06 lbs/million lbs of cryolite recovered (max monthly average)

157.6 lbs/million lbs of cryolite recovered (1-day max) 70.06 lbs/million lbs of cryolite recovered (max monthly average) (b) Cathode

reprocessing operated

with wet potline

scrubbing

max monthly average)

(c) Potline wet air

449.2 lbs/million lbs of beryllium carbonate produced (1-day max) 0.0 to

179.7 lbs/million lbs of beryllium carbonate produced (max monthly average)

0.00 to 449.2 lbs/million lbs of beryllium carbonate produced (1-day max) 0.0 to

0.00 to 651.3 lbs/million lbs of beryllium carbonate produced (1-day max) 0.0 to

0.00 to 449.2 lbs/million lbs of beryllium carbonate produced (1-day max) 0.0 to 179.7 lbs/million lbs of beryllium carbonate produced (max monthly average) (3) Secondary precious

metals

Total cyanide 0.00 to 10.0 mg/troy oz.

(1-day max) 0.00 to 4.0 mg/troy oz.

(max monthly average)

0.00 to 10.0 mg/troy oz.

(1-day max) 0.00 to 4.0 mg/ troy oz.

0.00 to 10.0 mg/troy oz.

(1-day max) 0.00 to 4.0mg/troy oz.

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(4) Secondary tin Total cyanide 0.007 to 23.0 mg/kg

(1-day max) 0.003 to 9.2 mg/kg (max monthly average)

0.007 to 23.0 mg/kg (1-day max) 0.003 to 9.2 mg/kg (max monthly average)

0.007 to 23.0 mg/kg (1-day max) 0.003 to 9.2 mg/kg (max monthly average) (5) Primary zirconium

and hafnium

Total cyanide 0.00 to 8.694 mg/kg

(1-day max) 0.00 to 3.478 mg/kg (max monthly average)

Steam electric power

generation

Total cyanide Nondetect in chemicals

Added for cooling tower maintenance

Nondetect in chemicals Added for cooling tower maintenance

0.004 kg/Mwh (1 day max)

0.002 kg/Mwh (30-day average)

0.0005 kg/Mwh (1-day average)

0.0003 kg/Mwh (30-day average) (2) Covered calcium

carbide furnace

(1-day max) 0.0028 lbs/million lbs (30-day average)

0.0056 lbs/million lbs (1-day max) 0.0028 lbs/million lbs (30-day average) (3) Metal finishing Total cyanide 1.20 mg/l (1-day max)

0.65 mg/l (30-day average)

1.20 mg/l (1-day max) 0.65 mg/l (30-day average)

1.20 mg/l (1-day max) 0.65 mg/l (30-day average) Amenable cyanide 0.86 mg/l (1-day max)

0.32 mg/l (30-day average)

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0.38 mg/kg (1-day max) 0.16 mg/kg (30-day average)

0.039 mg/kg (1-day max)

0.016 mg/kg (30-day average)

Coil coating

(1) Steel basis material Not specified 0.063 mg/m2 of area

processed (1-day max) 0.025 mg/m2 of area processed (max monthly average)

0.34 mg/m2 of area processed (1-day max) 0.14 mg/m2 of area processed (max monthly average)

0.80 mg/m2 of area processed (1-day max) 0.33mg/m2 of area processed (max monthly average)

0.34mg/m2 of area processed (1-day max) 0.14mg/m2 of area processed (max monthly average) (2) Galvanized basis

material

Not specified 0.07 mg/m2 of area

0.07 mg/m2 of area processed (1-day max) 0.028mg/m2 of area processed (max monthly average)

0.26 mg/m2 of area processed (1-day max) 0.11 mg/m2 of area processed (max monthly average) (3) Aluminum basis

material

Not specified 0.095 mg/m2 of area

0.98mg/m2 of area processed (1-day max) 0.41mg/m2 of area processed (max monthly average)

0.29mg/m2 of area processed (1-day max) 0.12mg/m2 of area processed (max monthly average)

Aluminum forming

(1) Rolling with neat oil Total cyanide 0.00039 to 0.41 lbs/

million lbs of aluminum rolled (1-day average) 0.00016 to 0.17 lbs/

million lbs of aluminum rolled (max monthly average)

0.00057 to 0.59 lbs/

0.00039 to 0.41 lbs/

0.00057 to 4.61 lbs/

0.00057 to 4.04 lbs/

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0.038 to 0.59 lbs/million lbs of aluminum rolled (1-day average) 0.016 to 0.25 lbs/million lbs of aluminum rolled (max monthly average)

0.038 to 0.59 lbs/

million lbs of aluminum rolled (1-day average) 0.016 to 0.25 lbs/million lbs of aluminum rolled (max monthly average) (3) Extrusion Total cyanide 0.036 to 0.41 lbs/million

lbs of aluminum extruded (1-day max) 0.024 to 0.17 lbs/million lbs of aluminum extruded (max monthly average)

0.052 to 1.2 lbs/million lbs of aluminum extruded (1-day max) 0.022 to 0.5 lbs/million lbs of aluminum extruded (max monthly average)

0.052 to 1.2 lbs/million lbs of aluminum extruded (1-day max) 0.022 to 0.5 lbs/million lbs of aluminum extruded (max monthly average) (4) Forging Total cyanide 0.010 to 0.41 lbs/million

lbs of aluminum forged (1-day average) 0.004 to 0.163 lbs/million lbs of aluminum forged

0.015 to 1.2 lbs/million lbs of aluminum forged (1-day average) 0.006 to 0.5 lbs/million lbs of aluminum forged

0.010 to 0.41 lbs/million lbs of aluminum forged (1-day average) 0.004 to 0.163 lbs/million lbs of aluminum forged (5) Drawing with

neat oil

Total cyanide 0.0004 to 0.408 lbs/

million lbs of aluminum drawn (1-day average) 0.0002 to 0.163 lbs/

million lbs of aluminum drawn (max monthly average)

0.0006 to 0.591 lbs/

0.0004 to 0.408/

0.00057 to 4.61 lbs/

0.0006 to 0.591 lbs/

Tiêu đề	CYANIDE in Water and Soil: Chemistry, Risk, and Management
Tác giả	David V. Nakles, David A. Dzombak, Rajat S. Ghosh, George M. Wong-Chong, Thomas L. Theis
Trường học	Pittsburgh Technical College
Chuyên ngành	Environmental Chemistry
Thể loại	Chapter
Thành phố	Pittsburgh

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