Phsicochemical Treatment of Hazardous Wastes - Chapter 1 potx

This book systematically examines the treatability ofhazardous wastes by various physicochemical treatment processes according to the Quantitative Structure–Activity Relationships QSARs

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CRC PR E S S

Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C

Physicochemical Treatment of Hazardous

Wastes

WALTER Z TANG

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tang, Walter Z.

Physicochemical treatment of hazardous wastes / Walter Z Tang

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-56676-927-2 (alk paper)

1 Hazardous wastes—Purification I Title.

TD1060.T35 2003

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In memory of my father, Yuxiang Tang

To my mother, Yongcui Hu, and

To my children, William and Elizabeth,

with love.

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On average, one ton of hazardous waste per person is generated annually

by industries in the United States Before the Resource Conservation andRecovery Act of 1984, hazardous wastes were improperly disposed of intothe environment without any regulation As a result, remediation of thesecontaminated sites and management of the ongoing hazardous waste sourcesare two major tasks to be achieved by treatment technologies Due to thecomplex nature of the contaminated media and of the pollutants, environ-mental professionals are facing a host of questions, such as: What are thecontaminated media? What is the nature of the pollutants? What are theconcentrations of each pollutant? Among biological, physicochemical, orthermal technologies, if physicochemical processes are to be the solution, thetreatability of various pollutants must be assessed before a process can beproperly designed This book systematically examines the treatability ofhazardous wastes by various physicochemical treatment processes according

to the Quantitative Structure–Activity Relationships (QSARs) betweenkinetic rate constants and molecular descriptors

I have attempted to achieve five major goals in this book: (1) fundamentaltheories of thermokinetics such as the transition state theory are used tointegrate research findings in Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP) research;(2) reaction kinetics and mechanisms for each AOP are explained in terms

of elementary reactions and the reactive center; (3) QSARs are introduced

as methodologies to assess the treatability of organic compounds; (4) putational molecular descriptors such as the EHOMO and E LUMO are usedextensively in the QSAR analysis; (5) the kinetics of various AOPs are com-pared so that the most effective process can be selected for a given class oforganic pollutants

com-This book is divided into five parts Chapter 1 to Chapter 4 define thehazardous waste problems and physicochemical approaches to solve theseproblems Chapter 5 explains QSAR theory and its application to predictingmolecular descriptors and hydroxyl radical reactions Chapter 6 to Chapter

12 focus on each of the eight most important AOPs Chapter 13 presents amajor reductive treatment technology, zero-valence iron, and Chapter 14

compares each AOP according to its oxidation kinetics for specific classes oforganic compounds Each chapter begins with an introduction of the processand its historical development The intention is to demonstrate how funda-mental sciences guide the search for these innovative technologies Also,such introductions provide the information necessary for readers to delveinto the literature for current research topics Then, the principles of theprocess and the degradation kinetics, along with mechanisms of organicTX69272_C00.fm Page 5 Wednesday, November 19, 2003 1:21 PM

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pollutants are explained in terms of elementary reactions These elementaryreactions not only are important in assessing the treatability of organic pol-lutants using QSAR but are also critical in properly designing AOP processes.Finally, QSAR models are discussed to demonstrate the effect of molecularstructure on their degradation kinetics and to rank the treatability of eachorganic compound

This book is intended for graduates, engineers, and scientists affiliatedwith universities, consulting firms, or national laboratories and who aredealing with the remediation of hazardous wastes in water, groundwater,and industrial wastewater Due to the in-depth discussion of organic chem-istry, graduate students in environmental engineering and upper-levelundergraduates in chemistry, chemical engineering, or environmental sci-ences who intend to enter environmental engineering should find it useful

in their professional development Students will learn a systematic approach

to applying various sciences to the search for effective treatment technologies

in terms of thermokinetic principles Engineers will find the QSAR modelsextremely useful in selecting treatment processes for hazardous wastesaccording to the molecular structures of organic pollutants Scientists inindustrial and governmental laboratories, as well as designers and reviewers

in remediation projects, will also find the book helpful in their efforts torestore our environment and keep it clean

During the 1970s, the U.S Environmental Protection Agency designatedphase-transfer technologies such as air stripping and activated carbonadsorption as the best available technologies The search for mineralizingorganic pollutants shifted the focus from phase-transfer technologies to oxi-dative technologies after the Hazardous Waste Amendment in 1984 As aresult, AOPs were developed in laboratories, extended to pilot sites, andfinally applied in the field from the 1980s to the present The concept of anAOP includes any process that uses hydroxyl radicals as the predominantspecies; however, the concept failed to provide fundamental theories such

as transition state theory to guide research communities in their search forthe most effective oxidation processes In a strict sense, then, AOP should

be defined as a Catalytic Oxidation Process (COP), which would providesound scientific footing for the search for innovative technologies It is welldocumented that oxidants such as oxygen, ozone, and hydrogen peroxideoxidize organic pollutants slowly It is only when they are catalyticallydecomposed into other active species such as hydroxyl radicals that theactivation barrier of the activated complex can be significantly lowered Thecatalysts normally used are ultraviolet photons, transition metals or theirions, ultrasound, and electrons Increasing temperature and pressure canfurther enhance the catalytic effect

My research on AOPs began over 12 years ago at the University of ware When I worked on the degradation of phenols by a visible photon/CdS system, I had to wake up at midnight in order to take samples from aphotocatalytic reactor because the reaction half time in degrading 0.001-M

Dela-phenol is about 1 day After I found that Fenton’s reagent was an extremelyTX69272_C00.fm Page 6 Wednesday, November 19, 2003 1:21 PM

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fast process, I added hydrogen peroxide and ferrous ion separately to thereactor The reaction half time reduced from one day to a few hours When

I added hydrogen peroxide first and then the ferrous sulfate, the reactionhalf time was reduced to a few minutes It became clear to me during myinvestigation of the oxidation kinetics and mechanisms of chlorinated phe-nols by Fenton’s reagent that the efficiency of AOPs depends upon both therate and the amount of hydroxyl radical generated and the molecular struc-ture of organic compounds

It has long been recognized that the treatability of different classes oforganic compounds differs significantly Furthermore, the treatability ofchlorinated compounds within a given class of organic pollutants decreases

as the chlorine content in a molecule increases Indeed, the carbon in chloride has been oxidized by chlorine so much that it is even insensitive tohydroxyl radical attack Therefore, elementary iron may be a more econom-ical way to reduce these pollutants rather than to oxidize them To quantifythe effect of chlorine, QSAR models are used to assess the effect of chlorine

tetra-on molecular descriptors such as EHOMO and ELUMO The treatability of organiccompounds by each AOP, then, can be evaluated using QSAR models of theoxidation kinetic rate constants and molecular descriptors

Thermokinetics, group theory, and computational QSARs should findbroad application in future research effort on AOPs for several reasons: (1)thermokinetics bridges thermodynamics and kinetics, which serve as thefoundation for QSAR analysis; (2) group theory may offer kinetic calculations

of activated complex for a given class of compounds, and the resultingdegradation rate constants can be more accurately estimated; and (3) as moredata regarding operational costs become available for each technology,QSARs may be incorporated into the calculations to estimate the operationalcost of a specific compound In addition, nanotechnology will becomeanother research focus in the next decade to develop nanoparticles such aselementary iron, TiO2, nanofiltration, and electromembranes in the physico-chemical treatment of hazardous wastes

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About the Author

Walter Z Tang (B.S., Sanitary Engineering,Chongqing University, Chongqing, China, 1983;M.S., Environmental Engineering, Tsinghua Uni-versity, Beijing, China, 1986; M.S., EnvironmentalEngineering, University of Missouri-Rolla, 1988;Ph.D., Environmental Engineering, University ofDelaware, 1993) is an Associate Professor andGraduate Director for Environmental Engineering

in the Department of Civil and EnvironmentalEngineering at Florida International University(FIU), Miami, FL He has been a registered Profes-sional Engineer in Florida since 1993 Dr Tang has had extensive researchexperience over the past 14 years in the area of physicochemical treatmentprocesses; environmental applications of aquatic, organic, catalytic, and col-loidal chemistry; advanced oxidation processes; environmental molecularstructure–activity relationships (QSARs); and methodology in environmen-tal impact assessment

Dr Tang is the principal investigator for 14 research projects supported bythe U.S Environmental Protection Agency, the National Institutes of Health,and the National Science Foundation He has published 24 peer-reviewedpapers and 41 conference papers, co-authored one book, and contributedone chapter to a book Also, he has written graduate teaching manuals forthree different graduate courses He has been a referee for 12 journals andhas served as a proposal reviewer for the NSF and the National ResearchCouncil Dr Tang has organized and presided over 11 sessions at variousnational and international conferences on advanced oxidation processes(AOPs) and was the invited speaker at Florida Atlantic University in 2001

Dr Tang has supervised three post doctors, three visiting professors, and

35 graduate students in environmental engineering, and he has taught sixundergraduate courses and nine graduate courses in the Department of Civiland Environmental Engineering at FIU Dr Tang received FIU’s FacultyResearch Award in 1997, Faculty Teaching Award in 1998, and DepartmentalTeacher of the Year Award in 1998 He is a member of Chi Epsilon and islisted in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Science and Engineering, and Who’s Who Among America’s Teachers

Since 1994, Dr Tang has been a co-principal investigator in joint researchprojects on AOPs with professors at Tsinghua University, Chongqing Uni-versity, and the Third Medical University of Chinese Military in Chongqing,China As a research fellow in the China–Cornell Fellowship ProgramTX69272_C00.fm Page 9 Wednesday, November 19, 2003 1:21 PM

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supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, Dr Tang offered six seminars atTsinghua University As a co-principal investigator from 1998 to 2002 of theTwo-Bases Program sponsored by the China National Science Foundation,

he advised a Ph.D student at Tsinghua University on his dissertation: QSARs

in the Anaerobic Degradability of Organic Pollutants Chongqing Universityand Chongqing Jianzhu University granted the visiting professorship to Dr.Tang in 1999 He won six joint research projects sponsored by the ChineseMinistry of Education for Chongqing University He was the invited speaker

at Nankai University and Gansu Industry University in 2002 and at WuhanUniversity in 2003 He was named the Outstanding Chinese Scholar in thesouthern region of the United States and served as a Foreign Expert in theState Sunshine Program of China The Chinese Ministry of Education invited

Dr Tang to Beijing as a state guest for the 50th anniversary of China NationalDay in 1999

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I would like to acknowledge the contributions to this book made by myformer graduate students: Tzai-Shian Jung, Angela Pierotti, SangeetaDulashia, Todd Hendrix, Ricardo Martinez, Lucero Vaca, Stephanie Tassos,Rena Chen, Taweeporn Fongtong, Jiun-Jia Hsu, Kenneth Morris, Jose Polar,Carlos Hernandez, and Jeffrey Czajkowski I thank Jiashun Huang, DennisMaddox, and Pia Hansson Nunoo for their many hours devoted to typingand drawing of the figures I would like to thank all the students since 1991

at Florida International University (FIU) who took the graduate course,Advanced Treatment System, upon which the book is based Students whoassisted in this book include Bernine Khan, Lillian Costa-Mayoral, Christo-pher Wilson, and Oscar Carmona A special acknowledgment goes to Geor-gio Tachiev of the Hemisphere Center for Environmental Technology at FIUfor his constructive proofreading

I am grateful to Dr C.P Huang at the University of Delaware for ducing me to the research of AOPs Many QSAR models were developedthrough financial support from the U.S Environmental Protection Agency,National Science Foundation, and National Institutes of Health, and theirsupport is greatly appreciated Thanks go to Mrs Virginia Broadway at theUSEPA for supporting and administrating five EPA fellowships to my stu-dents over the last decade Dr William Cooper and his colleagues areacknowledged for their work on high-energy electron beams I would like

intro-to thank Dean Vish Prasad and Associate Dean David Shen of the College

of Engineering at FIU for allowing me to complete the book I am in debt toGail Renard and Sara Kreisman, my book editors at CRC Press LLC, whoprovided excellent professional guidance and spent numerous days editingand proofreading the manuscript

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Environmental Laws

1.1 Introduction1.2 Environmental Laws1.2.1 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)1.2.2 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)1.2.3 Clean Water Act (CWA)

1.2.4 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)1.2.5 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)1.2.6 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)1.2.7 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA)1.2.7.1 Comprehensive Environmental Response,

Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)1.2.7.2 Superfund Amendments Reauthorization Act

(SARA)1.2.7.3 Clean Air Act (CAA)1.3 Summary

References

Chapter 2 Environmental Hazardous Wastes

2.1 Introduction2.2 Classification of Hazardous Pollutants2.3 Sources of Hazardous Waste

2.4 Contaminated Media of Hazardous Wastes2.4.1 Groundwater

2.4.2 Soil2.4.3 Air2.4.4 Sludge and Sediments2.5 Distribution of Hazardous Pollutants in Contaminated Sites2.5.1 National Priorities List Sites

2.5.1.1 Contaminants2.5.2 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act2.5.2.1 Contaminated Media

2.5.2.2 Contaminants2.5.3 Underground Storage Tanks Sites2.5.3.1 Contaminated Media2.5.3.2 Contaminants2.5.4 Department of Defense2.5.4.1 Contaminated Media

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2.5.4.2 Contaminants2.5.5 Department of Energy2.5.5.1 Contaminants2.5.6 Waste Sites Managed by Other Federal Agencies2.5.6.1 Contaminated Media

2.5.6.2 Contaminants2.5.7 Sites Managed by States and Private Companies2.5.7.1 Contaminated Media

2.5.7.2 Contaminants2.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3 Physicochemical Treatment Processes

3.1 Introduction3.2 Treatment Technologies3.2.1 Phase Transfer Technologies for Halogenated VOCs andNonhalogenated VOCs

3.2.1.1 Air Stripping3.2.1.2 Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE)3.2.2 Phase Transfer Technologies for Halogenated SVOCs,Nonhalogenated SVOCs, and Non-VOCs

3.2.2.1 Activated Carbon Adsorption3.2.2.2 Soil Washing

3.2.3 Thermal Treatment Processes3.2.3.1 Thermal Desorption3.2.3.2 Dehalogenation at High Temperature3.2.3.3 Incineration

3.2.4 Solidification/Stabilization (Vitrification)3.2.5 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)3.3 Established Treatment Technologies and Their Markets3.3.1 National Priorities List Sites

3.3.1.1 Remedial Technology3.3.1.2 Remediation Cost3.3.2 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act3.3.2.1 Remedial Technologies

3.3.2.2 Remedial Cost3.3.3 Underground Storage Tank Sites3.3.3.1 Remedial Technology3.3.4 Department of Defense

3.3.4.1 Remedial Technology3.3.4.2 Remedial Cost3.3.5 Department of Energy3.3.5.1 Remedial Technology3.3.5.2 Remedial Cost3.3.6 Waste Sites Managed by Other Federal Agencies

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3.3.6.1 Remedial Technology3.3.6.2 Remedial Cost3.3.7 Sites Managed by States and Private Parties3.3.7.1 Remedial Technology

3.3.7.2 Remedial Cost3.4 How to Select Treatment Technology3.4.1 Nature of Pollutants

3.4.2 Concentration of Pollutants3.4.3 Contaminated Media3.5 Summary

References

Chapter 4 Advanced Oxidation Processes

4.1 Introduction4.2 Chemical Kinetics4.2.1 Zero-Order Reactions4.2.2 First-Order Reactions4.2.3 Second-Order Reactions4.2.4 nth Order Reactions4.3 Transition State Theory4.4 Oxidants

4.4.1 Oxygen4.4.2 Hydrogen Peroxide4.4.2.1 Molecular Structure4.4.2.2 Speciation of Hydrogen Peroxide4.4.2.3 Thermodynamics of Hydrogen Peroxide4.4.2.4 Reaction Mechanism

4.4.2.5 Ionization4.4.2.6 Free-Radical Formation4.4.2.7 Decomposition

4.4.2.8 H2O2 as an Oxidizing Agent4.4.2.9 H2O2 as a Reducing Agent4.4.2.10 OH•H2O2 Complex4.4.2.11 Geometries

4.4.2.12 Energetics4.4.2.13 Frequencies4.4.2.14 Environmental Applications of H2O2

4.4.3 Ozone4.4.3.1 Molecular Ozone Reactivity4.5 Catalysts 110

4.5.1 Ultrasound4.5.2 Photon4.5.3 Transition Metals4.6 Catalyst Support4.7 Influence of Temperature and Pressure

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4.8 Summary

References

Chapter 5 Quantitative Structure–Activity Relationships

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Fundamental Theory of QSAR

5.2.1 Effects of Molecular Structure on Reactivity5.2.2 Electronic Effects

5.2.3 Steric Effects5.2.4 Molecular Descriptors5.2.5 Linear Free-Energy Relationships5.2.6 Hammett LFER

5.2.6.1 Sigma (s) Constants5.2.6.2 Hammett’s Reaction Constant r5.2.6.3 Sigma Minus (s–) and Sigma Plus (s+) Constants5.2.7 Taft’s LFER

5.2.8 Quantum-Chemical Calculations5.2.9 Principle of Quantum Mechanics5.2.10 Procedure for Quantum-Mechanical Calculations5.2.11 Dipole Moment

5.2.12 Energies of HOMO and LUMO5.2.13 Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient5.3 Chlorine Effect on Molecular Descriptors for QSAR Analysis

5.3.1 Dipole Moment5.3.2 ∆E

5.3.3 Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient (Log P)5.4 QSAR in Elementary Hydroxyl Radical Reactions

5.4.1 Substituted Alcohols5.4.2 Chlorinated Alkanes5.4.3 Substituted Phenols5.4.4 Substituted Carboxylic Acids5.4.5 Substituted Benzenes

5.4.6 Substituted Alkenes5.5 QSAR Models between KHO· in Water and KHO· in Air with MolecularDescriptor (MD)

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6.2.6 Transition State Approach by Tang and Huang

6.2.6.1 Competitive Method6.2.6.2 Dechlorination Kinetic Model

6.2.6.2.1 Pseudo First-Order Kinetic Model6.2.6.2.2 Dechlorination Kinetic Model Using

Transition State Theory 6.2.6.2.3 Oxidation Model of Unsaturated Aliphatic

Compounds6.3 Oxidation of Organic Compounds

6.4.2 Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital Energies

6.4.3 Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital Energies

6.4.4 Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient

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7.3.4 Bentazone7.3.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbons7.3.6 Carboxylic Acid

7.3.7 Ether7.3.8 Halide7.3.9 Ketone7.3.10 Chlorophenol7.3.11 Xenobiotics7.3.12 Mixture of Chemical Compounds7.3.13 Chlorinated Aliphatic Compounds7.3.14 Textile Wastewater

7.4 QSAR Models7.4.1 Dipole Moment7.4.2 EHOMO

7.4.3 ELUMO

7.4.4 Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient7.4.5 Hammett’s Constants

7.5 Engineering Applications7.5.1 Process Description7.5.2 Radiation Intensity7.5.3 Hydrogen Peroxide Dose7.5.4 Temperature

7.5.5 Carbonate/Bicarbonate Ions7.5.6 Natural Organic Matter7.5.7 Inorganic Hydroxyl Radical Scavengers7.5.8 Substrate Concentration

7.5.9 pH7.5.10 Nitrate7.6 SummaryReferences

Chapter 8 Ultraviolet/Ozone 283

8.1 Introduction8.2 Decomposition Kinetics of UV/Ozone in Aqueous Solution8.2.1 pH Effect

8.2.2 Concentration of Oxidants8.2.3 Effect of Photon Flux in the UV/Ozone System8.2.4 Radical Scavengers

8.3 Degradation Kinetics of Organic Pollutants8.3.1 Atrazine

8.3.2 Humic Acids8.3.3 Volatile Organic Compounds8.3.4 Chlorophenol

8.3.5 Protocatechuic Acids8.3.6 Propoxur

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9.2.2 Hydroxyl Radical Formation

9.2.3 The Role of Adsorption in the UV/TiO2 Process

9.2.4 Characteristics of TiO2 Surface

9.2.5 Adsorption of Organic Compounds on TiO2

9.3 Degradation of Organic Pollutants

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10.3.1 Process Description of SCWO

10.3.2 Effects of Operating Parameters of SCWO

10.3.2.1 Reaction Time10.3.2.2 Oxidants10.3.2.3 Temperature10.3.2.4 Pressure10.3.2.5 Catalysts10.4 Degradation of Hazardous Wastes in SCWO

10.4.1 Carbon Monoxide

10.4.2 Aliphatic Organic Compounds

10.4.3 Methane and Methanol

11.2.2.1 H2–O2 Combustion in Cavitation Bubbles11.3 Degradation of Organic Pollutants in Aqueous Solutions11.3.1 Phenol

11.3.2 Monochlorophenols

11.3.3 2-Chlorophenol

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11.3.4 Chlorinated C1 and C2 Volatile Organic Compounds11.3.5 Pentachlorophenate

12.2 Chemistry of Aqueous Electrons

12.2.1 Formation of Radical Species

12.3.5 Disinfection of Sewage Sludge

12.3.6 Estimation of Removal Efficiency of Organic Pollutants12.3.7 Radical Scavenger Effect

12.3.7.1 Methanol12.3.7.2 Bicarbonate/Carbonate Ions12.3.7.3 Dissolved Organic Carbon12.3.7.4 Oxygen

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13.3.1.4 Nitroaromatic Compounds13.3.1.5 Nitrates and Nitrites13.3.2 Reduction of Heavy Metals

13.3.2.1 Chromium13.3.2.2 Arsenic13.3.2.3 Uranium13.3.2.4 Mercury13.3.3 Reduction of Inorganic Pollutants

13.3.3.1 Chlorine13.4 QSAR Models

13.5 Engineering Applications

13.5.1 Continuous and Funnel-and-Gate PRBs

13.5.1.1 Characteristics of Reactive Media13.5.1.2 Types of Reactive Media

13.5.2 Monitoring

13.5.2.1 Planning the Monitoring Effort13.5.2.2 Compliance Monitoring13.5.2.3 Performance Monitoring13.5.2.4 Microbial Characterization13.5.3 Engineering Improvement

14.4.2.1 Oxidation Processes Using UV Radiation14.4.2.2 AOPs Using Ozone

14.4.2.3 AOPs Using Fenton’s Reagent

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14.4.4.1 Ozone Treatment14.4.4.2 UV/TiO2

14.4.5 1,3,5-Trichlorobenzene (TCB) and Pentanoic Acid (PA)14.4.6 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

14.4.6.1 Anthracene14.4.6.2 Pyrene14.4.6.3 Phenanthrene14.4.6.4 Fluoranthene14.4.6.5 Benzo(a)pyrene14.4.7 Chlorinated Aliphatic Compounds

Tiêu đề	Physicochemical Treatment of Hazardous Wastes
Tác giả	Walter Z. Tang
Trường học	CRC Press LLC
Chuyên ngành	Environmental Science
Thể loại	Book
Năm xuất bản	2004
Thành phố	Boca Raton

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