CRC handbook of laboratory Safety - Chapter 2 potx

These plans must cover emergency evacuation and response procedures,emergency equipment to be kept on hand, security, training of personnel handling hazardouschemicals, reference materia

Furr, A Keith Ph.D "EMERGENCIES"

CRC Handbook of Laboratory Safety

Edited by A Keith Furr, Ph.D.

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000

Chapter 2

EMERGENCIES

Emergencies are, by definition, not planned However, planning for emergencies can not only

be done, but is an essential component of laboratory safe ty This is especially true for the

laboratory environment where the potential for incidents is much higher than in many other working situations There are many regulatory standards that now require that organizations

using chemicals in labora tories and elsewhere, or that produce chemical waste, have formalemergency plans These plans must cover emergency evacuation and response procedures,emergency equipment to be kept on hand, security, training of personnel handling hazardouschemicals, reference materials, identification of emerg ency personnel, and access to externalresources, including aid agreements with local emergency organizations For example, everyfacility with laboratories that come under the OSHA laboratory standard must meet thisobligation under Title 29 Part 1910.1450 This includes even relatively small organizations Inaddition, OSHA Industry General Standards under 1910.38, 120, and 1200 also provide for emer-gency planning The OSHA Bloodborne Pathogen Standard (29 CFR 1910.1030) has provisionsfor emergency actions in c a s e of an accidental exposure The RCRA Act considers allorganizations that generate more than 100 kg of hazardous waste per month as large generators.Title 40 CFR Part 265.16 and Parts 311 and 355 defines the emergency requirements of RCRA TheAme ricans With Disabilities Act, Titles II and III, 28 CFR, impacts accessibility for disabledindividuals Each of the regulatory acts will be discussed in more detail in later chapters.However, these regulations simply provide the specifics for a legal mandate to do what everyorganization handling hazardous material should do anyway

A realistic appraisal of the circumstances that can lead to emergencies in a laboratory willreveal many foreseeable and controllable problems Some problems that can be expected to occurmight include:

! Fires

! Chemical spills

! Generation of toxic fumes and vapors

! Inhalation, ingestion, or absorption of toxic materials

! Release of compressed toxic, anesth etic, explosive, asphyxiating, and corrosive gaseslocally or beyond the boundaries of a facility

! Release of radioactive materials

! Release of pathogens and restricted biological materials

! Power failure, involving loss of lights or ventilation

! Electrical shocks

! Explosions, or runaway reactions

! Failure of a facility exhaust system

! Physical injuries to individuals

! Consequences of natural disasters

! A combination of any of these simultaneously

This list is not intended to be complete Some events are more likely to create immediate andpressing problems than others It is impossible to anticipate all classes of problems that canoccur Some events are recognized as emergencies more readily while others may not beidentified for extended periods of time Some involve the threat of personal injury, while othersimpact the environment with little likelihood of immediate injurious effects to individuals.Emergency personnel often mention that many emergencies in which they have been involvedwere notanticipated and would have been unlikely to have been considered, even by the mostcareful planning There is no limit to the variations that human ingenuity and the vagaries of fatecan take to modify the factors that control our lives The inability to foresee all possible

emergencies should not inhibit the development of plans to cope with those that can be

anticipated, or to provide a basic emergency response infra-structure that can be used, even forunanticipated types of emergencies

The scope of this chapter will be to examine the general principles of emergency paredness to serve as a guide for preparation of individual, specific action plans, and to providesome useful information to be used in various classes of emergencies Planning and preparationare necessary to help in identifying and finding the resources needed to support a flexible,effective, and, if needed, rapid response to laboratory emergencies Injuries, prop-erty andenvironmental damage can be limited if effective emergency procedures already exist and arepracticed regularly Practice is essential to expose deficiencies in the procedures and tofamiliarize personnel involved with them Plans that are developed and then filed away are worsethan useless They can provide a false sense of security In a real emergency, it is essential to

pre-k n o w immediately what to do or, often, what not to do Time to read a manual is often not lipre-kely

to be available

Before developing the theme suggested in the preceding paragraph, there are some caveatsthat need to be introduced that are applicable to the contents of this entire chapter There areadvantages in not overreacting It is easy for well-meaning and knowledgeable individuals toturn a relatively minor event into a major and expensive incident by acting too quickly, withoutfull awareness of the total situation and without consulting other persons involved No seriousworsening of a situation might result in doing absolutely nothing until the situation has beendiscussed, evaluated, and a plan of action developed Evacuation, containment, and exclusion

of nonessential personnel are the appropriate initial actions in almost every emergency Unless

a situation is clearly deteriorating and shows signs of becoming out of control, a review of thesituation and an examination of the response options by emergency and operational personnel

is usually desirable However, this decision is best left to the responsible personnel on thescene

One other note of caution: no one is expected in the normal course of their work to go toextreme measures, risking their own lives, to cope with an emergency when the risk is certain to

be very great The more responsible action often is to leave the scene when the situation isobviously beyond an individual’s capabilities Doing s o makes it possible for em e r g e n c yresponse groups to have a competent source of information about the situation when theyarrive It is difficult to do when lives are involved, instead of only property, but there is no point

in adding to the loss when the situation is clearly hopeless It is a judgment call again that canonly be made at the time by persons present

Despite the two cautionary paragraphs immediately preceding, there are steps that dividuals and local groups can and should take, when appropriate, to confine and minimize theimpact of emergencies The first few moments of an emergency are frequently the ones that arethe most crucial Actions should be based on training, knowledge, and a due regard for priorities.Protection of life and health should come before protection of property, or reputation, especiallythe latter Unfortunately, many persons do not seek help or take inappropriate actions until toolate for fear of being blamed for a problem, often allowing the situation to worsen until out ofcontrol Trained and knowledgeable personnel are less likely to make these mistakes

in-A Components of Emergency Preparedness

Emergency preparedness is the responsibility of everyone Many persons consider this thejob of such organizations as fire departments, police departments and rescue squads and do notconsider themselves as part of the emergency response This is not true Everyone has a role toplay and it is the responsibility of emergency planners to define these roles and prepareindividuals to carry out their personal responsibilities, even if, in some cases these are limited

to alerting others of the problems, evacuating the area and making sure trained groups arenotified promptly

1 Initial Conditions

Basic conditions should exist to ease meeting emergency responsibilities Some of theseconditions should be met before a building is constructed For example, in the initial planning,the building should have been designed to incorporate safety codes and regulations by thearchitects, in cooperation with the persons responsible for the programs to be housed in thebuilding Codes represent minimum requirements which the builder’s owners should feel nohesitation in exceeding if it appears needed Appropriate fixed and movable equipment must beinstalled or provided, consistent with the concept of a facility that could be operated safely.Code mandated emergency equipment must be available, but decisions must be made about whatdesign features and equipment should be mandatory, what is desirable, and what would be aluxury Once these decisions are made, leaning, it is hoped, toward the side of enhanced safety,then personnel responsibilities should be considered next It is necessary to define the role ofeach person in a facility and to specifically designate which individuals and groups should havethe leadership responsibility for emergency planning and emergency response It is critical that

it not be necessary to develop an impromptu plan or seek one buried in a file cabinet

The emergency plan fo r a given facility should be a subset of a plan for the entireorganization The infrastructure and planning available to the entire organization can be adapted

to the needs of individual needs and individual laboratories Decisions must be made as to who

is responsible for providing emergency response equipment and supplies, and obviously withthis decision, the need arises to decide the source of funds A major decision is to define thetype of command structure that will be used and who will be involved A clearly defined line ofauthority is needed The responsibilities of the key individuals and groups must be delineatedand boundaries established between local responsibility, institutional responsibility, and outsideemergency response agencies Finally, based on all of the applicable factors, each individualfacility can establish a written emergency response plan for itself with specified responses toanticipated classes of emergencies specific to that facility The organizational plans as well asthe plans for smaller units all must be sufficiently flexible to provide responses to unanticipatedemergencies

The following material will elaborate on these points

2 Facilities, Fixed, and Movable Equipment

Where buildings and facilities already exist prior to developing an emergency plan, it isnecessary, of course, to adapt the plan to the existing structure, but if the opportunity arises,there is much that can be done to reduce the severity of later emergencies when designing,building, and equipping a facility Once built, it is expensive to modify a facility but incorporat-ing safety features in a newly built structure can save substantial costs For example, renovatingexisting structures to make them earthquake resistant, unnecessary in many areas while veryimportant in others, is very expensive, but it is possible to do it at much less cost for newbuildings where needed In order to facilitate the design and construction of safe buildings, fireand building codes have been established in most localities that govern new construction andrenovations to existing buildings Generally, under these codes, research laboratories comeunder the classification of a business use occupancy or occasionally as a hazardous use occu-pancy where unusually hazardous activities are involved, each of which incorporates differentsafety requirements OSHA also has standards in the area of fire safety, as well as ventilation,

Concerns which should be addressed in the designs of laboratory buildings to enhanceemergency responses depend upon the classification For example, if the building is a hazardous

u s e occupancy, most codes will require a sprinkler or other fire suppression systems If asprinkler or alarm system is required by a local fire code, then OSHA 1910.37(m&n) requiresmaintenance and testing Also for this classification, OSHA will require under 1910.37(f)(2) thatthe doors swing in the direction of exit travel, yet most building codes have restrictions on doorsswinging into corridors to avoid creating obstructions to corridor traffic In order to satisfy bothrequirements, doors should be recessed into alcoves inside the laboratory Even existingfacilities may have to be upgraded to meet some code standards

The size of a building, the number of floors, and the relationship to other structures all entercode decisions affecting safety in emergencies Addition of equipment to a laboratory, such as

a hood, can have serious fire safety implications Is there adequate makeup air? If not, where can

it be obtained? Halls cannot not be used as a plenum or as a supply of makeup air for more than

a few hundred ft3 per minute (cfm) for each laboratory space Even a small, 4-foot fume hooddischarges about 800 cfm, so that one cannot draw the required makeup air in through louvers

in the door Usually, one must go outside for a source of makeup air, but what is the relation ofthis new inlet air intake to the exhaust system? Toxic fumes could be drawn back into a building

A fume exhaust duct penetrating a floor could allow a fire to spread from one floor to another.Therefore, most codes require fume hood ducts to be enclosed in a fire-rated chase Because ofthe expense of constructing a chase, the c o s t of avoiding worsening the fire separation in abuilding could preclude installation of the hood, which in turn could preclude using the spacefor the intended research One option, to allow future flexibility, is to incorporate external chases

as an architectural feature in the design Energy loss considerations can impact the design of alaboratory Auxiliary air hoods have been used in the past to reduce the amount of tempered airbeing “wasted,” but there are a number of reasons why this type of hood is less desirable andthey are seldom used any more in new construction In fact, most laboratory designers explicitlyprohibit the u s e of auxiliary air hoods A n alternative is to design a ventilation system for alaboratory to maintain a constant volume of air through a hood while in use, and provide somemeans of reducing the ventilation requirements for a facility when the hood is not being used.Ventilation will be discussed in much more detail in Chapter III

The interior arrangements of a laboratory are critical in permitting safe evacuation from thelaboratory The types of accidents listed earlier could p o s e much more serious risks toindividuals should they occur between an individual and the exit from the room A simplesolution for these potential emergencies for larger laboratories is to have two well-separatedexits This is not always possible, especially in smaller laboratories An alternative would be toevaluate what components of a laboratory are most likely to be involved in an incident andwhich would increase the hazard if they became involved in an ongoing emergency Thesecomponents should be located s o that an escape route from the normal work area does not p a s s

by them Also, portable fire extinguishers, fire blankets, respirators, and other emergencyequipment should be located on this same escape route Eyewash stations and deluge showers

should be located close to where injuries are likely to occur, s o an individual will not have tomove substantial distances while in intense pain or blinded Aisles should be wide (typically aminimum of 42 to 48 inches), straight, and uncluttered with excess equipment to ease movement

in emergencies A laboratory should have emergency lighting, but many do not Theconsiderable dangers posed to an individual stumbling around in a pitch dark laboratory shouldthe power fail are obvious Inexpensive, battery-powered rechargeable units are a potentialsolution here and are not expensive, even in retrofitting a facility

Many regulations found in OSHA standards include features that will minimize the scopeand impact of an emergency such as a fire For example, restrictions in 1910.106 on containersizes of flammable liquids and the amounts of these materials that are permitted to be storedoutside flammable material storage cabinets are designed to limit the amount of fuel available to

a fire and to extend the time before the material could become involved

Every action should be considered in terms of what would result if the worst happened Inlarge projects, this is often part of a formal hazard analysis, but this concept should be extended

to virtually every decision within a laboratory For example, a common piece of equipment found

in most laboratories is a refrigerator A refrigeration unit suitable for storing flammables, i.e.,containing no internal sources of ignition, costs about two to three times as much as a similarunit designed for home use It is tempting, especially if money is tight and the immediate needdoes not require storage of flammables, to save the difference However, the average lifetime of

a refrigeration unit is roughly 15 to 20 years W h o can say what materials research programs willentail over such a long period? If flammable vapors within an ordinary refrigerator should beignited, a violent explosion is very likely to occur Employees could be injured or killed and thelaboratory, the building, and the product of years of research could be destroyed Not onlywould there be immediate problems, but in most cases, replacing laboratory space would be veryexpensive, currently in the vicinity of $130 to $300 per square foot Actual construction ofreplacement space for buildings as complex as most laboratories, from the time of planning tocompletion of construction, typically takes 4 years or more after the money is obtained.Many actions are influenced by the costs involved, as in the preceding example Acont inuing question involves who should be responsible for paying for safety facilities andequipment Under the OSHA laboratory standard, the adequacy of a facility to allow work to bedone safely is a key condition There are some straightforward guidelines that can be used:

1 For new construction, safety should be integrated into the building d e s i g n a n d t h echoice of all fixed equipment The latter should be incorporated in the building furnitureand equipment package This would include major items such as fume hoods, since theseare relatively expensive units to retrofit

2 Certain equipment and operational items common to the entire organization (e.g., fireextinguishers, emergency lighting, deluge showers, eyewash stations, and fire alarmsystems) and maintenance of these items should be just as much an institutionalresponsibility as provision of utilities

3 Items which are the result of operations unique to the individual laboratory or operationsshould be a local responsibility This would include equipment such as flammablematerial refrigeration units, flammable material storage cabinets (if these are not built in),and specialized safety equipment such as radiation monitors, gas monitors, etc Somemajor items which might be included under fixed equipment in new construction mighthave to be provided by the individual if renovation of a space were to be involved Forexample, it might be necessary to construct a shaft to enclose a fume hood duct and toprovide a sourc e of additional makeup air for the hood The expense for personalprotective equipment, such as goggles, face masks, respirators, and gloves, should also

be provided at either the laboratory or departmental level

It is unlikely that any individual, whether it is the laboratory supervisor, safety professional,planner, or architect, will alone be sufficiently knowledgeable or have the requisite skills to makeappropriate decisions for all of the factors discussed in this section In addition, every one ofthese persons will have their own agenda The inclusion of emergency preparedness featuresshould be explicitly included as one of the charges to the building or project design committee

so that these needs can be integrated with function, efficiency, esthetics, and cost.

It was not the intent at this point to elaborate on all the implications of codes as safetyissues but, by a few examples, to draw attention to the idea that the root cause of an emergencyand the potential for successfully dealing with it could well lie with decisions made years earlier

The point that w a s intended to be made was that laboratory safety and the capability to respond

to emergencies does not start and end with teaching good laboratory technique and theadoption of an emergency response plan after beginning operations

B Institutional or Corporate Emergency Committee

In most organizations, there are many support groups that have been assigned specificresponsibilities in dealing with emergencies which extend beyond t h o s e associated only withlaboratories Among these are safety, police or security, maintenance, communications, legalcounsel, and media or public relations Unlike the laboratory supervisor, departmental chair orindividual laboratory employee who is primarily concerned with his research or administrativeduties, these groups are directly concerned with one or more aspects of emergency response

In larger organizations, fire departments, physicians or medical services, or even more specializedgroups may exist in-house Each of these groups have their own expertise, their own dedicatedresources, and their own contacts with outside agencies Representatives from these agencieswill be the ones normally called to the scene of an emergency and will be the ones expected tocope with the situation This group should form the nucleus of the emergency planningcommittee but it should also include participation from the remainder of the organization In thecurrent context, this participation should include comprehensive coverage of the various areas

of the corporate or institutional research programs The committee should have direct access toupper levels of management, and it should also interact closely with s afety committeesassociated with each broad research area, e.g., chemical, radiation, biosafety, and animal care.This committee also needs to coordinate its efforts with non-organizational support groups such

as local, state, and federal police authorities, fire departments, rescue units, local emergencyplanning groups, environmental regulatory agencies such as EPA and local or regional water,air, and waste management agencies, and safety regulatory groups such as OSHA Note that theemergency committee does not have the responsibility to manage the res p o n s e to an actualincident The emergency committee, once formed and its charge clearly defined, should meetperiodically (at least once a year and preferably more often) to review the status of theorganization’s emergency preparedness, to plan for practice sessions, to review drills thathave been conducted, and to investigate and review incidents that have occurred Reports ofthes e meetings, along with the findings, should be presented to management and to theindividual safety committees

C Emergency Plan

The initial order of business for the emergency committee is to develop an emergencyresponse plan (ERP) In developing the ERP, the committee should analyze the types ofemergencies which could happen, their relative seriousness, and their relative probability ofoccurrence, in other words, perform an organizational hazard analysis The emergencies to beconsidered should specifically include releas es of hazardous and toxic chemicals to theenvironment, as required under SARA, Title III (Superfund Amendments and ReauthorizationAct of 1986) Once the classes of emergencies have been defined, each should be analyzed as

to the resources, equipment, training, and manpower which would be needed for an adequateresponse An integral part of this analysis would be provisional plans for using these resources

to respond to potential emergencies The analysis should include both internal and exter n a lresources Finally, a critical evaluation should be made of the current status of the institutionalresources and a recommendation made to correct deficiencies Based on the preliminary studies,the final plan should be drafted, circulated for review, amended if required , and implemented.The support of management is critical, or this effort would be wasted

effective way to inform people how to notify authorities.

Plans should be developed which would be operative at differing levels A basic plan should

be short and easy to understand and to implement The simple sign in Figure 2.1 above is fective for most emergencies The caller is expected to be guided by the person (usually adispatcher) at the other end of the line for specific guidance for the appropriate response to theimmediate problem The major caveat is that the time to make such a call may not be available prior

ef-to evacuation for emergencies representing immediate and worsening emergency situations.Occupants of a facility should be trained to recognize when this condition exists and know how

to initiate an evacuation of as large an area as necessary

1 Laboratory Emergency Plan

Workers in most laboratories normally are intelligent, knowledgeable individuals and cancope with many small emergencies such as a spill of a liter of sulfuric acid or a small fire if theyhave received appropriate emergency training Such training is mandatory under the OSHAlaboratory standard A comprehensive laboratory emergency response plan is required undercurrent standards for the risks associated with operations within the facility The plan needs toinclude basic information such as risk recognition appropriate to the operations of the facility,means of internal responses to small to moderate emergencies, and evacuation training Allemployees in the laboratory must receive instruction on these points at the time of beginningwork in the facility, or when any new procedure or operation is introduced posing different risks

In order to identify potential risks, a detailed, thorough hazard analysis needs to have been done,

based on the things that could go wrong, not just the risks associated with normal operations.

Among information which must be included in the plan is where an employee can get not onlythe laboratory specific plan, but also the organization’s overall plan Another key ingredient ofthe plan is where safety and health information for the chemicals used in the laboratory, asrepresented by Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), can be readily provided

A written emergency plan for an individual laboratory might, in outline, resemble thefollowing:

I In bold letters, the basic number to call in the event of an emergency, perhaps 911or

possibly an internal number.

II A defined line of authority This should provide the names and home and worktelephone numbers of several individuals authorized to make decisions for the facility.They should be persons with direct knowledge of laboratory operations and, at least

at the top of the list, persons who can make financial commitments

III A list of external persons/groups, with telephone numbers, who can provide gency assistance relevant to the risks associated with operations Such a list shouldinclude at least the following:

emer-Emergency telephone number- 911, if available in the areaUniversity police or corporate security, if not available through the 911 numberLocal government police, if not available through 911 number

Fire department number, if not available through 911 numberEmergency medical care (rescue squad), if not available through 911 numberNearest Poison Control Center

Nearest hospitalSafety departmentSpill control group, if not available through 911 dispatcher or Safety DepartmentMaintenance department number(s)

Laboratory supervisor business and home telephone numberSecondary laboratory authorities business and home telephone numbersDepartmental or building authority number

IV A list of normally required safety procedures appropriate to laboratory operations

V A simplified list of emergency actions to take for most likely emergencies

VI Evacuation instructions, including a map of at least two alternative evacuation routes.The primary route should be identified and normally should be the shortest, most directmeans of egress from the facility A gathering area should be identified to whichevacuees would normally go This is important to allow a “head count” to ensure thateveryone did successfully evacuate, and to provide a location where external agenciescould come in order to receive information concerning the emergency

VII Location of Material Safety Data Sheets and other safety and health reference materials

VIII Location of the organization’s emergency plan

IX Procedures for expanding the emergency response to additional areas of the building and organization when the emergency is a “large” one extending beyond the

facility but readily accessible should be clearly identified

Two items need to be placed on or adjacent to the laboratory door to assist emergencyresponders when lab personnel are not immediately available during an incident: the line ofauthority, listed in Item II above, and indications of the types of hazards to be found within thelaboratory Some areas have ordinances requiring the use of the National Fire PreventionAssociation (NFPA) Diamond for the latter purpose, but unfortunately, most laboratories wouldhave at least some material with high-risk ratings in all categories Pictographic labels identifyingclasses of hazards within a facility are also used The best way to alert firefighters would be tohave laboratory inventories on a computer database and provision made for emergency responsegroups to have electronic access to this information Software is available, although not yet inwide use, which does this

This plan incorporates some aspects of the Laboratory Industrial Hygiene Plan as requiredunder OSHA, which could be deleted, since the written industrial hygiene plan must bemaintained However, items I, II, III, V, VI, and VII are essential

The plan just described should be reviewed with each new employee and at least annuallyfor all occupants of a laboratory An annual practice drill is strongly recommended

2 Organizational Emergency Plan

There is some overlap between planning for responses to local emergencies in individuallaboratories and the response to large-scale emergencies A t the extremes, the distinction is clear

A minor spill or a trash can fire obviously is a minor emergency while a fire that involves an entirebuilding or a major spill where hazardous materials are released into the environment clearly isbeyond the capacity of laboratory personnel Planning needs to provide guidelines to cover thetransition between the two levels to ensure that an a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e d o e s o c c u r Acomprehensive plan is intended to provide a general infrastructure for al l c l a s s e s o femergencies Detailed plans are essential for organized emergency groups, but for the u s e ofthe general public a basic emergency plan is to evacuate the area or building, and call foremergency help Often, evacuation will be more than is actually needed, but it is usually aconservative and safe approach The essential information to enable this can be placed on asingle page for a facility Normally, planning for large-scale emergencies will be theresponsibility of the corporate or institutional Emergency Committee, working with internalgroups and the Local Emergency Planning Committee (required under SARA Title III) andnearby support agencies

A basic means of reacting to virtually any emergency for untrained persons would be toplace a sign, such as is shown in Figure 2.1, on or near every telephone In this case, it is up

to the individual at the other end of the telephone line, normally a dispatcher, to give verbaldirections for subsequent actions The dispatcher needs to be well trained and provided with

a list of individuals and groups whom they would notify of the incident, in an appropriatepriority These individuals, groups, and priorities are defined in the master emergency plan forthe organization

Following is a simplified table of contents for an emergency plan established for an areacontaining a university, major commercial activities including chemically related industries,transportation sources (highway, rail, and air), and the usual variety of emergency supportgroups

1.0 Charge

1.1 Assignment of legal authority and responsibilities

Charge

Members of governing body

1.2 Purpose of plan, functional description

1.3 Instruction on how to use the plan

Local administrative units

Local emergency units

Commercial

Regulatory agencies

Alternative communication options

Authorized radio coordination procedure

1.6 Incident recognition/response

Identification of incident

Response protocol

Emergency command structure (see Figure 2.2)

Command center, normal

At-scene control center

Mutual aid agreements

Current emergency rosters

Evacuation centers

Hospitals/medical assistance

Social agencies

Emergency equipment lists

Likely incident locations

Figure 2.2 A typical military-type command structure for responding to a substantial emergency.

of emergencies incorporated in the ERR

It is always the intent of every organization that no emergency will ever occur and for themore unusual situations considered in the ERR, long intervals may pass between incidents However, it is essential to include provision for periodic review and practice drills in everyemergency plan

a Emergency Plan Components

A partial list of some of the more common laboratory-related emergency situations wasgiven in Section 2.1 A written response plan should be provided for each of these situations,identifying the likely locations where these classes of problems would be apt to occur, thecharacteristics of the locations, accessibility, probable means of response, local resourcesavailable, contact persons, outside agencies that would need to be notified, and possiblerefuge areas to which the occupants would evacuate Important characteristics or questionswhich need to be addressed would include: is it a multiple story building, what type ofconstruction (combustible or fire resistant), does an alarm and/or sprinkler system exist, arethere standpipe connections or hydrants nearby, what is the typical occupancy level atvarious times of day, are there disabled persons in the building requiring special assistance,are there hazardous materials in the facility, the kinds and quantities of these materials and what is thepotential impact on adjacent structures or areas should hazardous materials be released forvarious environmental conditions, among other factors This type of information requires agreat deal of time to compile The compiled information should be placed in a well-organizedappendix to the main body of the plan, so that it would not be necessary to wade throughwhat would necessarily be a massive amount of data for larger organizations

The management structure is critical to controlling emergencies This needs to be defined

in advance If the organization is sufficiently large, the plan may include managing virtuallyevery aspect internally without utilizing external agencies, unless the scope of the emergency

extends beyond the area of the organization’s control In such cases, outside agencies must

be notified, and they may assume partia l responsibility for management of the emergency

response, but an emergency extending beyond the controlled boundaries will definitelymandate notification of outside agencies A large organization may have its own fire brigade,police force, safety department, hazardous material response team, rescue squad, and access

to experts internally Most larger corporations and universities have some of these, buttypically not all Smaller firms and colleges might have only a combined security force and asmall safety department

M o s t emergency plans employ a pseudo-military organization, at least for coordinatingthe initial response An individual, with alternates, is identified as the emergency coordinator

If the organization is highly structured, a command center, again with alternates, is identified

to which the emergency coordinator and other key individuals will go when an emergency ofsufficient scope occurs This command center should have radio and telephone communica-tion capability, which would be less vulnerable to loss of power and normal communicationchannels Radio contact on emergency frequencies should be available to fire and rescueunits, nearby hospitals, local and state police, and state emergency response agencies Inlarge-scale emergencies, even these channels can become overloaded, as will normaltelephone lines Cellular telephone service is an alternative which has become widelyavailable that does not depend upon hard-wired telephone communications Otheradvantages of using cellular telephones are that they do not use what may be limited radiochannels and are less likely to be overheard by the general public A chart is shown in Figure2.2 which reflects this typical command center operation

The emergency coordinator is a key individual and must be someone who will be accepted

as a command figure The individual ideally should be one to grasp information quickly, beable to integrate it, and come up with appropriate responses It is critical too that this person

be sufficiently flexible mentally that proffered advice is not disregarded out of hand Since themost often employed emergency response structure is semi-military in nature, a person oftendesignated as the emergency coordinator will be the public safety director In the context oflaboratory emergencies, most public safety managers are likely to have had police training,not scientific training, s o having knowledgeable persons present to make technically correctrecommendations is very important These may be from the safety department and/orindividuals from the scene of the incident In addition to the structured internal departments,major resources available at any research-oriented institution are the scientists andtechnicians who work there The ones most likely to be helpful for the types of emergenciesanticipated in developing the emergency plan should be identified and a master list of theiroffice and home telephone numbers maintained A copy of the current list should bemaintained by the key internal organizations involved in the emergency response plan Acopy of the list should also be personally maintained by the key individuals in these latterorganizations, both in their offices and at home Alternates should always be designated forthese key persons, s o that backups are available at all times Radios, cellular telephones, orbeeper systems to allow these key persons to be reached when not at their usual locationswould be highly desirable

Organizations having the capability for a response at this level will have some type ofsecurity or police force These individuals are very likely to be the very first “outsiders”arriving on the scene of an emergency and, as such, initiating a first response Clearly, theyneed to receive sufficient training to permit them to make an appropriate “first response”evaluation of the incident and set the containment and response mechanisms in process It isrelatively rare, though, that they will have sufficient training to manage the response totechnically involved emergencies Some key personnel among the security or police groupswill ideally have been given special “hazardous-materials-incident” training to allow them toinitiate or effect an evacuation of affected personnel and provide s afety for themselves andfor the evacuees, pending further response actions

In many jurisdictions, the legal responsibility for management of incidents involvinghazardous materials has been delegated to the fire department or to specialized hazardousmaterial response teams W h e n these arrive on the scene, the management responsibility for

an incident may shift so that the emergency coordinator, having the ultimate authority, will no

longer be a representative of the organization or institution In such a case, the internal side

of the picture would shift to a supportive and/or advisory role However, in many instances,the fire department, if that is the responsible agency to which authority is delegated, may

c h o o s e to take substantial advice and guidance from the organization’s team or even ask

them to continue de facto management of the response to the incident Depending upon the

nature of the incident, one or more regulatory agencies may need to be notified promptly If asignificant chemical release is involved which becomes airborne or involves a liquid spill suchthat hazardous materials escape from the controlled boundaries of a facility, the NationalResponse Center must be notified as well as the local emergency response coordinator (oftenthe sheriff, police chief, or civil disaster coordinator) and state agencies Other agencieswould also be called, as their areas of regulatory concern would become involved Althoughthese outside regulatory agencies (note the distinction here between regulatory agencies andemergency response agencies) will arrive on the scene, the responsibility for the incidentnormally remains a local responsibility, unless it truly becomes a massive problem Written aidagreements need to have been worked out in detail between corporations a n d i n s t i t u t i o n swith local emergency response organizations

There are three groups identified in Figure 2.2 that have not been touched upon as yet

No major incident occurs without news media quickly arriving at the scene Emergencyresponse personnel must not be distracted by these persons, so media contact persons orgroups should be established with whom the news representatives may interact The security

or police may need to act to ensure that not only news media but other nonessential persons

do not enter the area In a mature response stage of an emergency, the role of the police willalmost certainly have devolved from active management to control of the boundaries of theaffected area The emergency coordinator has to have some resources immediately at hisdisposal but is unlikely to have access to larger amounts Typically, when or if these areneeded, authorization will have to come from senior admin istrators with authority to makesubstantial financial commitments Finally, communications has been touched upon in terms

of contacting agencie s, support groups, and the media The communications team is alsoresponsible to see that all occupants of an area affected by, for example, an airborne plume of

a toxic gas, are notified Time may be critical, s o the communications group must haveprocedures in place to communicate by all reasonable means using radio, TV, roving vehiclesequipped with public address systems, and (if time and conditions permit) door to doorsearches

A library of reference materials should be maintain ed for the use of the emergency sponders Following is a short summary of some of the more useful references, many of whichare revised frequently Although these are primarily printed books, today a number of othertypes of data information sources are becoming widely available for chemical pr o d u c t s ,primarily as a result of information needs evoked by the OSHA Hazard CommunicationStandard A n example of these, included in the list, are Material Safety Data Sheets, availabledirectly from the chemical product manufacturer and on the Internet These are provided whenthe chemical is first purchased and when significant new information becomes available.Compilations of these are sold as hard bound or looseleaf volu mes, on microfiche, or oncomputer CD-rom disks The latter contain vast volumes of information on a 4.75 inch plasticdisk Many of these provide quarterly upgrades at reasonable costs Most governmentregulatory standards and guides are n o w directly available on the Internet There is littlereason not to be adequately informed with all of these resources readily available Many ofthe information sources listed below are available either directly on the Internet or availablethrough Internet orders In addition, many of the Internet sites include links to other sites,other than those given below, which provide additional information

re-! ACGIH, American Conference of Industrial Hygienists—Threshold Limit Values (TLV) for Chemical and Physical Substances

1330 Kemper Meadow Drive, Ste 1600

Cincinnati, OH 45240

http://www.acgih.org/

! Chemical Hazards Response Information condensed Guide(CHRIS)

Available through Federal General Services Administration See

! Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in the Laboratory and Plant

Matheson Gas Products

The company also provides MSDS for all their products via the Internet

! List of Certified Poison Control Centers/by state-region

http://www.medicinenet.com/Art.asp?li=MNI&ag=Y&ArticleKey=869

! Farm Chemicals Handbook

Meister Publishing Co

37733 Euclid Avenue

Willoughby, OH 44094-5992

http://www.meisterpro.cm/

! Fire Prevention Guide on Hazardous Materials

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

1-Batterymarch Park

P.O Box 9101

Quincy, MA 02269-9101

http://www.nfpa.org/

! First Aid Manual for Chemical Accidents, 2nd Edition

Lefevre, Marc J.(Editor), Conibear, Shirley (Contributor)

John Wiley & Sons

! MSDS Data base available from http://www.ilpi.com/msds/index.chtml

! Physicians’ Desk Reference

Medical Economics Company

Oradell, NJ 07649

! Prudent Practices for Handling Hazardous Chemicals in Laboratories

National Academy Press

! Laboratory Safety Principles and Practice

American Society for Microbiology

Internal resources will not always be sufficient to handle an emergency Therefore, a list

of external emergency organizations should be maintained by the organizational emergencygroups as well The following are among those likely to be useful and readily available Anyothers that might be useful to you and are available should be identified and added to thelist Currently available telephone numbers are given in some cases These are subject tochange and should be verified before incorporating them in a plan

! Regional emergency group/coordinator

! Arson and/or bomb squad, if not otherwise identified

! Civil Defense coordinator, if not otherwise identified

! Commercial analytical laboratories

! Commercial environmental emergency response firms

! Law enforcement organizations, e.g., city or county Police Chief or Sheriff, statepolice, F.B.I

! Centers for Disease Control, phone no 404-639-1024 or http://www.cdc.gov/

! CHEMTREC (for chemical and pesticide spills), phone no 800-424-9300 or

assist-b Emergency Equipment

Another important step in preparing for an emergency is acquiring appropriate equipment,which is kept readily available for use Some of this should be located in the laboratory areaand every laboratory should be furnished with it Other equipment, because of the c o s t and

relatively rare occasions when it is likely to be needed, should be maintained at a centrallocation Even the equipment kept centrally needs to be realistically selected For example, it isneither necessary nor desirable for every organization to maintain an expensive, fully equippedhazardous material emergency response team Some very large organizations may find themessential but most institutions will not be able to justify the cost.

Some of the emergency equipment needs to be built in, as part of the fixed equipment in thelaboratory Included in this group are the following items:

Eyewash stations—At least one of these, meeting ANSI standard Z358.1-1990, (orpreferably the new version- Z358.1-1998) must be placed in an easily accessible location Thetravel distance to a unit should be no more than 100 feet according to the standard and traveltime should not exceed 10 seconds According to Andrew Munster, M.D., Secretary of theAmerican Burn Association, “time is critical” and Russell Kilmer of the Polymer ProductsDivision Of the E.I DuPont Experiment Station in Wilmington, DE, is quoted as saying “Everylaboratory in their facility is equipped with an emergency shower or eyewash station to meettheir safety requirements ” It is very undesirable for an injured person, possibly blinded by achemical, to have to find a way to units outside the immediate room, perhaps through a closeddoor Proposed standards for disabled individuals have been proposed as ANSI standard117.1-1992, establishing access clearances and other physical limits Eyewash stations should

be mounted on a plumbed water line, rather than the small squeeze bottles that are sometimesused for the purpose The squeeze bottles do not contain enough water to be effective OSHAinspectors are likely to cite a facility in which the bottles represent the only source of water forflushing contaminants from a person’s eyes Where plumbed water lines do not exist, such as

in the field, larger self-contained units are available which do provide sufficient water flow for

an extended period Cold water itself can be uncomfortable to the eye, so if possible theeyewash water supply should have a holding tank to ensure that the water is at least near roomtemperature In many of the colder areas of the country, tap water may be well below roomtemperature for several months of the year

Deluge shower — Eyewash stations and deluge showers ideally should be installed as a

unit The standards cited in the preceding paragraph apply to emergency showers as well.Although the eyes are probably the most critical exposed organs susceptible t o d a m a g e ,chemicals spla shed on the face may also splash on the body A deluge shower should becapable of delivering about a gallon per second with a water pressure of 20 to 50 psi Acommon error is to plumb the unit into too small a line incapable of delivering an adequateflow The water supply should be at least a 1-inch line Although a floor drain is desirable, it isnot essential One can always mop up afterward There should be a timed cutoff, however, atabout 15 to 20 minutes, after which the unit would need to be reactivated Cases have occurredwhere, as an act of vandalism, a deluge shower was activated and rigged so that it would

continue to run In one case, before the problem was discovered, over 30,000 gallons of water

flooded the facility The unit was in the hall outside the laboratory; another argument forplacing the units within a lockable room Care must be taken to ensure that the water from theshower cannot come into contact with electrical wiring, either directly from the shower or bycoming into contact with extension cords improperly running across the floor Again, theunits should always be placed in an easily accessible location Care is essential to maintainclear accessibility In laboratories, many instances have been noted where limited floor spacehas resulted in equipment being placed immediately under the showers The ANSI standardsmeeting ADA requirements for the disabled cited in the previous section must be maintained

Fire exti nguishers — OSHA requires that every flammable material storage area be

equipped with a portable class B fire extinguisher The standard does not specify the amount

of a flammable material which makes a room a storage facility so in effect most laboratoriesface the need to comply with the standard The unit should be at least a 12-lb unit and itshould not be necessary to travel more than 25 feet to reach it from any point in the labor-atory This specific requirement in the General Industry Standard may be preempted by theOSHA Laboratory Standard, but requirements of that standard provide for emergencyresponse training, which is construed to include training in how to use portable fireextinguishers If it is intended that employees may attempt to put out small fires a n d n o t

simply evacuate immediately, then the employees should be trained in the proper use of anextinguisher at the time of employment and receive refresher training annually Class Bextinguishers are, of course, intended for flammable solvents Other classes of fire exting-uishers are class A, intended for combustible solid materials, such as paper or wood, class C,where electrically live equipment is involved, and class D, where reactive metals, such assodium, are used Combination units such as A B or ABC are available, which, although notequally effective for all types of fires, can be used where mixed fuels are involved Moreinformation on fire extinguishers will be found in a later section.

Fire blanket — A fire blanket is a desirable unit to have permanently mounted in a

lab-oratory The blankets are usually installed in a vertical orientation so that a user need onlygrasp the handle and roll themselves up in it in order to smother the fire Some bla n k e t sinclude asbestos in their manufacture; these should not be installed, and existing unitsshould be replaced The concern is that they could become a source of airborne asbestosfibers, which have known carcinogenic properties Unfortunately the heavy woolen blanketsmost often used as alternatives are likely to be stolen There are fire blankets using fiberglass

or special fire-resistant synthetics instead of asbestos or wool available If a fire situation is adistinct possibility, consideration should be given to providing a woolen blanke t s a t u r a t e dwith a water-soluble, oil-based gel This not only protects against fires and aids in escapethrough an active fire, but can be useful in the emergency treatment of burn victims Thesegel blankets have a limited shelf life, are expensive, and are infrequently found in a facility

Emergency lights — Emergency lighting to enable safe evacuation must be provided by

some mechanism One alternative is to have two sources of commercial power to the lightingcircuits in a building This can be achieved by having a second source external to the building

or secondary power sources within the building, but this alternative is defeated in poweroutages covering a wide area There are several alternative types of internal power sourcesincluding emergency generators; large, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) to providepower for lights for a substantial area which depends on batteries to provide power for a fairlylimited interval; and individual trickle-charged battery -powered lights in individual labora-tories Generator units require frequent testing under load and thus are a maintenanceproblem Uninterruptible power supplies are b e s t suited for maint e n a n c e o f p o w e r t oequipment such as computers, where a controlled shutdown is almost essential The mosteconomical alternative especially in retrofitting an older facility is the individual trickle-charged battery-powered units that come on when the power fails

First aid kit — One of these needs to be in every laboratory and should be kept in a

pre-determined fixed location They are intended to be used for minor injuries or basic treatmentwhile awaiting more advanced care for major injuries Access to appropriate emergencymedical care is required under OSHA standard 1910.151 Kits should be relatively small units.Packaged units are sold that are adequate for five or six persons There is little value in havinglarger units, since in the event of an emergency involving more persons, help definitely will beneeded from trained emergency care provider units, including rescue squads and physicians.Present in the kits should be a variety of bandages, adhesive tapes, alcohol swabs, gauze,perhaps some protective creams, and a few cold packs Sp e cial situations could requirespecial items to be available to provide treatment Items such as iodine, methiolate, andtourniquets are no longer recommended for inclusion in most cases It is essential that amaintenance program be established to ensure that the kit is always adequately supplied It isall too easy to use up the supplies without replenishing them

Fire alarm pull station —The location of the nearest pull station should be familiar to

everyone in the laboratory

Special safety equipment —There are many specialized research areas which require

special safety items such as explosion-proof wiring, combustible gas monitors, and explosionventing for laboratories working with highly explosive gases The possibilities are too many

to dwell on at this point

Some emergency equipment need not be built in but should be available Among theseitems are the following:

Absorptive material — Probably the most common laboratory accident is a spill from a

beaker or a chemical container The volume is typically fairly small, rarely exceeding more than

4 or 5 liters and usually much less Of course, there are spills which would require immediate

evacuation of the area or even the building, but more frequently the spilled material simply

must be contained and cleaned up as quickly as possible THIS IS NOT THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE CUSTODIAL STAFF They are not trained to do it properly or

safely Spill kit packages are available commercially to neutralize acids and bases, and toabsorb solvents or mercury Although it is possible to put together similar packages oneself,the commercial packages are convenient to obtain and store After being used, the materialsshould be collected and disposed of as hazardous waste

Personal protective equipment and janitorial supplies — Several miscellaneous items are

needed to clean up an area Among these are plastic and metal buckets, mops, brooms, d u s tpans, large, heavy-duty polyethylene bags, kraft paper boxes (for broken glass), plastic-coated coveralls , shoe covers, duct tape, and an assortment of gloves If not kept in anindividual laboratory, at least one set should be kept on each hall or floor of a building.Custodians may have some of these materials, but they are not always available to laboratorypersonnel, especially outside normal working hours when many laboratories are active

Respirators — Fumes and vapors from many irritating and dangerous materials can be

protected against by the use of respirators with appropriate cartridges or filters If operationsare sufficiently standardized s o that a standard respirator combination would be effective,they should be kept in an emergency kit However, cartridge respirators are not intended forprotection against materials which are immediately dangero us to life and health (IDLH).Whatever units are provided, laboratory personnel must be trained in the appropriate use ofthe units and the units must be maintained properly Respirators should be assigned tospecific individuals

Supplied air escape units — Supplied air units, such as emergency squads might use, are

expensive and require a significant level of training to be able to put them on quickly and usethem properly However, small air-supplied units are available at very reasonable priceswhich only need to be pulled over one’s head and activated to provide 5 minutes of air This

is usually sufficient time in which to escape the immediate area of an accident

Virtually any small to moderate, chemical emergency can be handled with the equipmentdescribed above

A few major items of equipment should be readily available from the safety depart m e n t ,fire department, security force, or perhaps the emergency medical team Their readyavailability is by no means certain, and the institution or corporation should maintain a set ofthese major items Many of these items require special training to be used safely

Oxygen meter — A portable meter should be available to ensure that the oxygen level is

above the acceptable limit of 19.5% It is important to be able to detect oxygen-deficientatmospheres, where the levels are significantly less than the acceptable level

Combustible gas and toxic fume testing equipment — A number of different types of

equipment are sold to t e s t for the presence of toxic fumes A common type, frequentlycombined with an oxygen meter, is a device to detect “combustible gases.” Specialized unitsare built to detect other gases such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide Very elaborateand, consequently, expensive unit s, such as portable infrared spectrometers, gas chromat-ographs, and atomic absorption units, can detect and identify a much g r e a t e r v a r i e t y o fchemicals, often to very low concentrations A less expensive alt e r n a t i v e i s a h a n d p u m p ,used to pull known quantities of air through detector tubes containing chemicals selected toundergo a color change upon exposure to a specific chemical All of these can be used toobtain an instantaneous or “grab” reading Where a longer dura tion sample is desired,powered pumps can be used to collect samples, and for some chemicals, passive dosimeterscan be worn which can be analyzed later in a laboratory Equipment to meet local needsshould be selected Although sophisticated testing devices are available, there are tens ofthousands of p o s s ible chemical contaminants It is essential for emergency personnel toknow what to t e s t for to ensure rapid identification Emergency medical care may be delayed

or limited to supportive treatment until positive identification is obtained Therefore, a list ofpossible hazardous materials currently in use or stored in significant quantity should bemaintained by the laboratory and be available to emergency responders, prior to theirentrance into the laboratory

Supplied air breathing units — These are not to be confused with the escape units

previously described and usually will be available from the fire department or, for largerinstitutions or corporations, from the chemical safety division of the safety department Thereare two basic types, one of which provides air from a compressed air tank just as doesSCUBA gear The most common size tank is rated at 30 minutes, which, under conditions ofheavy exertion, may last only 20 minutes or less The second type uses pure oxygen recircu-lated through a chemical scrubber to extend the life of the supply to 1 hour, or longer for someunits The first of these two types have been available for a longer period and moreemergency personnel have been trained to u s e them The second does offer a significantlylonger working interval This could be very important Pairs of either type should be owned

so that in the event an individual entering an emergency area is overcome, it would bepossible to effect a rescue

Fire-resistant suits — Special fire-resistant s u its are needed to enter burning areas.

There are different grades of these which provide varying degrees of protection to fire Someprotect against steam or hot liquids as well They normally require a self-contained suppliedair system to be worn during use

Chemical-resistant suits — Pro tection is frequently needed in chemistry incidents for

protection against corrosive liquids and vapors In standardized situations, materials forprotective suits can be custom selected for maximum protection for the specific chemicals ofconcern Where a variety of chemicals such as acids, bases, and frequently used solvents areinvolved, a butyl rubber suit is often a reasonable choice Combination units of chemical andfire resistant entry suits are available

Clean air supply system — A n alternative to self-c ontained air or oxygen tanks is a

compressor s ystem capable of delivering clean air through hoses from outside the area volved in the incident Persons inside the work area would wear masks connected to thesystem Personal air-powered units are available which use small, battery-powered packs todraw local air through a filter and maintain a positive air pressure within the face mask

in-High-efficiency particulate and aerosol (HEPA) filtered vacuum cleaner — Ordinary

vacuum cleaners, including wet shop vacuums, do not remove very small particulates fromthe air They remove larger particles, but the smaller ones pass through the internal container

or filter and return to the room In several instances, this can actually worsen the situa t i o n For example, droplets from a mercury spill can be dispersed back into the air in the form ofmuch smaller droplets and cause the mercury vapor pressure in the air to increase (mercuryvacuums are available which have special design features.) In another actual case, in acarp eted room where large quantities of forms and computer paper were processed,vacuuming with an ordinary vacuum cleaner during normal working hours increased thenumber of respirable paper dust particles suspended in the air to a level such that severalindividuals who were allergic to the d u s t had to be sent out of the area HEPA filters willremove 0.9997 of all particles from the air which have a diameter of 0.3 microns or greater.They will remove a smaller fraction of particles of smaller sizes, but the smaller particles havedifficulty reaching the deep respiratory system, so they are less of a problem

Radios/cellular phones — Communication between persons entering an accident area and

t h o s e outside is highly desirable Emergency groups will have portable radios withfrequencies specifically assigned to them Cellular phones are a recent alternative whichprovide access through the telephone system to virtually any external resource

Fire suppressant materials — In addition to water and the u s ual materials available in

portable fire extinguishers, most fire departments n o w have available foam generators whichcan saturate a fire area

Containment materials — In order to prevent the spread of large amounts of liq u i d

chemicals, a supply of diking materials needs to be maintained Ready access to a supply ofbales of straw is a great asset Straw is cheap, easily handled, and easy to clean up afterward

In the event of a spill reaching a stream, floating booms and skimmers are useful in containingand cleaning up the spill Booms are not effective for materials more dense than water and notwater soluble

Radiation emergency — Many laboratories u s e radioactive materials For emergencie s

involving these units, in addition to the other emergency equipment, radiation survey

instruments must be available or maintained in an emergency kit The radiation safety officewill be able to supply additional units These should include instruments capable of detectingboth low levels of gammas and low energy betas as well as instruments for measuring highlevels of contamination Although low levels are not necessarily dangerous, normally onlyvery restrictive levels of contamination are permissible under established safety limits formost organizations, according to ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) guidelines.

Miscellaneous clothing — Items needed include a variety of coveralls, including (but not

limited to) chemically resistant suits in a range of grades; disposable Tyvek™ coveralls;gloves with different chemical resistances; regular work gloves; Kevlar™, Nomex™, orZetex™ gloves for hot use; rubber and neoprene boots and shoe covers; head covers; hardhats; chemical splash goggles; safety glasses; and masks

Miscellaneous tools and paraphernalia — A variety of small tools could be needed, as

well as shovels, pickaxes, axes, rope, flares, emergency lights, sawhorses, a bullhorn, a chainsaw, a metal cuffing saw, a bolt cutter, and a “jaws of life” metal spreader Special non-sparking tools may be required where sparks may ignite flammable vapors

Victim protection — In equipping an emergency kit, the emphasis is usually on

protect-ing emergency response personnel In order to brprotect-ing a victim out through a fire or chemicallydangerous area, blankets, disposable coated Tyvek™ overalls, loose-fitting chemicallyresistant gloves, and the 5-minute escape air units should be available

All of the equipment listed in this section must be maintained properly, and a definitemaintenance schedule must be established For example, the integrity of the chemicalprotective suits must be verified on a 6-month schedule A maintenance log must be kept inorder to confirm that the maintenance program has been done on schedule

A fire h o s e is specifically not included as a desirable item of emergency equipment that

should be available to the usual occupants of a building Although standards are provided inOSHA for fire brigades, in general, if a fire is sufficiently large to require a fire hose to control

it, it is usually too large for anyone except professionals Building codes frequently requireinstallation of a 1.5 inch emergency h o s e connection Often, building officials encourage theowners to request a variance to permit this requirement to be deleted Many fire departmentsquestion the value of such connections or, even if available, whether a hose of this sizewould be sufficiently useful Those institutions or corporations that do choose to establish afire brigade will need to provide training beyond the scope of this book

c Basic Emergency Procedures

A list of several common types of emergencies that might occur in a laboratory was given

in the introductory section to this chapter Many of these emergencies, as well as others notmentioned in the list, share common characteristics for the initial response which are important

to do first The following material will, for the most part, be in the context of a fire incident, but

the recommendations would be the same if a substantial release of a toxic chemical werereleased and became airborne

1 Make sure everyone in the immediate vicinity is made aware of the problem In a busy, activelaboratory, an accident can occur in one part of the laboratory and personnel in other areaswithin the s a me laboratory could be temporarily unaware of the event This is especiallylikely if the space is subdivided or if there are no obvious effects associated with the event,such as a loud sound from an explosion

2 Confine the emergency if reasonably achievable Many emergencies can be readily confined

if quick action is taken Small quantities of a spilled chemical can be contained withabsorbent materials or toweling by the persons directly involved if the chemical is notimmediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) Individuals should be trained to take theseactions, and appropriate containment materials for the materials in use should beconveniently available In the event that the emergency includes a fire, laboratory personnel,

if properly trained, can and should put out small fires with portable fire extinguishers, but avery serious question of judgment is involved What, precisely is a small fire? One definition

is a trash-can size fire, but unless there is a reasonable certainty that the fire can becontrolled, then evacuation of the building should be strongly considered and implemented

as s o o n as the situation appears to be deteriorating Time is likely to be critical if the volume

of solvents often available as fuel in a typical laboratory is considered If more than oneperson is available, there may be more flexibility One or more persons may attempt tocontain the fire, while others are taking initial steps to evacuate the building Where it isnecessary to evacuate an area larger than a single laboratory, the building’s evacuationplan should include measures to ensure that all spaces are checked, including restrooms,janitors closets, etc

3 Evacuate the building Whenever the situation is obviously serious, such as a major fire, amoderate-to-large spill of an IDLH material, a rupture of a large gas cylinder, or large spills

of ordinarily dangerous materials, such as strong acids, then evacuation procedures forthe area or the building must be initiated as soon as possible Any measures taken in such

a c a s e to confine the emergency situation should provide extra time for the evacuation to

be carried out safely

Evacuation is a conservative step and should be implemented whenever any doubtexists of the severity of the situation at hand It is inconvenient and is disruptive to workactivities, but the alternative is far worse if an incident cannot be controlled The first fewminutes of a fire, especially, are very important and any significant delay can make the job

of the fire department much more difficult Once a fire takes hold, it is often very difficult tobring under control In a laboratory situation, the involvement of the inventory ofchemicals can convert a straightforward fire into one which could involve the generation

of extremely toxic vapors M o s t fire departments are inadequately trained to handlecomplex chemical fires Their chemical incid ent training usually includes situationsinvolving only a single material Even if the fire is out before they arrive, there are thingsthat the fire department needs to do They need to check the area to ensure that it is reallyout Fire department personnel when they arrive on the scene are usually charged with thelegal responsibility for managing and terminating hazardous material incidents They alsoneed to determine the cause of the fire in order to prepare an accurate incident report Theinformation they obtain will be needed to determine h o w to prevent subsequent fires due

to the same cause Where property and personal injuries losses occur, their report willnormally be needed by the insurer of the property to determine the amount of costrecovery available

Normally primary evacuation routes from an area within a building should follow the

s h ortest and most direct route, along corridors designed and constructed to meetstandards for exitways However, since in an emergency any given path may be blocked,one or more alternate secondary routes should be designated In no instance should anevacuation plan include elevators as part of the evacuation procedure, even for a disabledperson In the case of a fire, elevators should be designed to immediately go to the groundfloor and be interlocked to stay there until the danger is over There are convenientevacuation chairs which a single individual can use to assist disabled persons One ofthese should be available and one or more persons designated to provide the required aid

In any evacuation procedure, standard operating procedures for closing downoperations should be included, if there is sufficient time to implement them Gas should beturned off, along with electric and other types of heaters Valves on gas cylinders should

be turned off, especially if they contain flammable or toxic materials High voltageequipment should be turned off Closing sashes on fume hoods may be desirable.Certainly any flammable material storage cabinets should be closed

Even in the worst situation, there are some simple things which can be done byindividuals evacuating the building to confine and minimize the emergency The highestpriority is to protect personnel, so the first thing is to actuate the building alarm, assumingthat one exists If not, then air horns should be used or, failing that, a verbal warning must

be issued Doors to the laboratory should be closed on the way out Doors between floorsshould be closed behind those evacuating Stairwells serve very well as chimneys tocarry smoke and fire to upper floors if the doors are not closed If the building has beenbuilt according to code, as briefly discussed earlier in this chapter and covered in muchmore detail in Chapter 3, then these last two simple steps can significantly retard thespread of a fire or spread of fumes

If a laboratory is under negative pressure, as most chemical laboratories should be,