Handbook of Positive Psychology Phần 10 ppt

In-deed, at this juncture of living history, what positive psychology seeks is not so much a con-frontation but rather recognition as a viable, new paradigm—a rigorous science on the p

748 P A R T X T H E F U T U R E O F T H E F I E L D

rations to act Through emotional and symbolic

processes, we actively “project” our past onto

our future In the process of such anticipatory

projection, we shape every present moment.

The practical significance of this can be seen

daily in mental health clinics Clients have

dif-ficulty imagining—let alone hoping for and

working toward—patterns of experiencing that

might be healthy and satisfying If they have

never felt safe or loved or capable, it is very

difficult for them to explore or maintain activity

patterns that might foster these experiences.

Combined with responsible action, the processes

of hope, fantasy, and imagination figure

prom-inently in constructive and positive approaches

to life counseling.

But there is more to constructivism than

self-organizing activity Disorder—the conceptual

opposite of order—is a necessary element in the

development of all complex systems Disorder

and order are defined by and relative to one

an-other, of course One of the more promising of

the tenets of constructivism is that processes

of disorder are not pathologized as enemies of

health Rather, as Herbart and Piaget

antici-pated, disordering processes are natural and

necessary expressions of a complex system’s

at-tempts to reorganize its life New life patterns

emerge out of the chaos and dysfunction that

ensue when old patterns are no longer viable

(Mahoney, 1991, 2000) Similar to positive

psy-chology, constructivism cautions against

judg-mental and pejorative portrayals of disorder and

dysfunction.

The third theme of constructivism pays

hom-age to the complex dynamics of the system we

call a self We humans actively order our own

experiencing, and our self-organizing processes

tend to orbit around distinctions based in our

embodiment and the contrast between “self”

and “other.” The boundaries of the individual

system serve to define that system as a

funda-mentally personal and phenomenological

un-dertaking It is more than coincidental that

Al-fred Adler called his approach “individual

psychology,” that Albert Bandura has

champi-oned “self-efficacy,” that Vittorio Guidano

fo-cused on the “complexity of self” and “the self

in process,” or that George Kelly focused on

“personal constructs.” From a constructive

per-spective, all psychotherapy is psychotherapy of

the self (Guidano, 1987, 1991) But

constructiv-ism is far from a narcissistic, self-absorbed, or

solipsistic philosophy It honors the mysteries

of selfhood as emergent expressions of social consciousness Constructivism does not view the self as an entity, a possession, or an endur- ing collection of personality traits Rather, the self is considered to be an embodied and emerg- ing process—indeed, a complex system of active and interactive self-organizing processes As such, the self exhibits a rich fabric of simulta- neous unity (consistency) and diversity The complexity of the idea of a simultaneously changing and changeless self is daunting It seems increasingly clear that individual selves exhibit multiple facets, levels, and capacities (Anderson, 1998) We are only now beginning

to explore language forms that may allow us to better understand this complexity and the mys- teries of a self seeking to understand itself It is,

as Allen Wheelis (1971) says, “like a man before

a mirror asking the man he sees what the man

in the mirror is asking” (p 57).

The fourth theme of constructivism reflects a strong convergence with cultural studies, eco- logical ethics, feminist theory, linguistics, and the human rights movements in their recogni- tion that everyone and everything is connected Constructivism maintains that human self- organizing activities are embedded in social and symbolic contexts Symbol systems—such as languages and mathematics—are expressions of the social fabric of experiencing If we artifi- cially separate these two for the sake of closer examination, we quickly see that the social or

“intersubjective” dimension of human ence is fundamental We live in and from re- lationships with other human beings The self— although uniquely personal and largely “self- centered”—is always socially embedded Per- sonal identities—the experience of who one is, what one is capable of, and personal worth—

experi-develop within human relationships Changes

in the sense of self also develop within such lationships: relationships with parents, family, friends, teachers, and, sometimes, therapists Symbolic processes allow us to transcend space and time How they do this is still mostly

re-a mystery, re-and this is reflected by the diversity

of views in cognitive science, communications studies, linguistics, philosophy, and semiotics (theory of signs) It is clear, however, that our symbolic capacities allow us to “play with re- ality” and to dream, fantasize, hope, imagine, pretend, and remember Much of positive psy- chology invokes such processes as promising paths toward health and well-being Our un-

C H A P T E R 5 4 C O N S T R U C T I V I S M A N D P O S I T I V E P S Y C H O L O G Y 749

derstanding in these dimensions is still barely

rudimentary, but it is clear that communication,

in all its diversity, is an expression of our

fun-damental connection to one another.

The fifth working principle of constructivism

is that human development is a lifelong process

that is dynamic (always changing) and

dialect-ical (generated by contrasts) This theme

envel-ops the first four principles and also elaborates

them into metaphors that may help us to

un-derstand the complexities of an open, active

sys-tem that is both changing and self-stabilizing

over time Our development—both as a species

and as individuals—reflects complexly

interac-tive and distributed processes We are always

changing, if only to stay the same We are

ac-tively participating in the ordering—the

struc-turing and, therefore, the construction—of our

own continuing existence And we are rarely

(and even then only barely) aware of what we

are doing and how we do it.

Another way to convey the spirit of the

de-velopmental principle in constructivism is to say

that it reflects the lifelong quest to achieve a

delicate balance between ordering and

disorder-ing processes Orderdisorder-ing processes literally allow

us to maintain life support and our coherence

as a life-form Disordering processes present

challenges to our overall balance They disrupt

our familiar ways of being in the world In so

doing, they challenge us to learn—to revise our

ordering patterns When they challenge us too

much, however, disordering processes may

threaten our viability as a living system

Dis-order does not guarantee development When

we do survive, however—when we learn new

skills and elaborate our systems of meanings—

we are said to “develop.” Such development is

called “dialectical” because it emerges out of the

interaction of contrasts The cardinal dialectical

contrast in human development is between the

“old” (familiar, order) and the “new” (novel,

chaos), but it can be experienced and expressed

in a variety of ways (good/bad, me/not-me,

true/false, right/wrong, real/illusory, etc.).

Constructivist views of life span human

de-velopment are fundamentally complex and

dy-namic That is to say, they are generally organic

portrayals that acknowledge that human

devel-opment can be meaningfully glimpsed at the

level of abstract principles, but that it can never

be completely predicted or engineered Such

views are noteworthy in their assertion that

cy-cles (oscillations) are natural and common

as-pects of human experiencing Variability in perience and action are critical to the selection processes that both protect old patterns and pro- mote novel possibilities This is why disorder is

ex-an essential aspect of development (Neimeyer & Raskin, 2000) But ordering processes are the favored children of biological life Like all other life forms, we humans are fundamentally con- servative We often resist change more vigor- ously than we seek it (although both processes coexist in all of us, all the time).

Positive Psychology, Human Potential, and Spirituality

In the larger scheme of postmodern thought, constructivism emphasizes agency, choice, pos- sibility, and complex dynamics Like the posi- tive psychology that it reflects, constructivism recognizes the central importance of meaning in the quality and continuing emergence of human life Meaning reflects a basic human need for order, relationship, and hope These needs are not satisfied without being actively sought, co- created, and nurtured Contrary to Alexander Pope’s assurance that “hope springs eternal in the human breast,” it is only the seeds of such hope that remain perennial To flower and bear fruit, they must be carefully tended I believe that this is where constructivism and positive psychology embrace the promise offered by the world’s spiritual and wisdom traditions This is not the place to trace the indebtedness

of positive or constructivist psychology to naissance humanism, the “mind cure” or

Re-“healthy-mindedness” that so fascinated liam James, the popularity of “positive thinking” (and its contemporary cognitive ex- pressions), or the contributions of humanistic psychology and the human potential move- ment What does warrant at least brief mention

Wil-in these closWil-ing remarks, however, is the damental resonance among constructivism, pos- itive psychology, and contemporary inquiries into the spiritual dimensions of human experi- ence and meaning-making Until recently, spir- ituality was an unwelcome topic of discussion

fun-in mafun-instream psychological writfun-ing This has changed dramatically in the past quarter cen- tury Also changing are the meanings and cor-

relates of the term spiritual (Mahoney & Graci, 1999) Where it was once a synonym for reli- gious, the word spiritual has taken on meanings

750 P A R T X T H E F U T U R E O F T H E F I E L D

that echo many of the themes emphasized in

positive psychology (e.g., caring, compassion,

forgiveness, generosity, hope, love, meaning,

nonviolence [peace], responsibility, and

wis-dom).

Constructivism and positive psychology are

not Pollyannaish perspectives They do not

ar-gue that all life stories can end happily or that

all life circumstances can be reframed in positive

hues They do, however, encourage an authentic

engagement with the living moment, and in this

encouragement they share important themes

with existential humanism and transpersonal

spirituality A large part of their promise may

therefore stem from their openness to a more

holistic conceptualization of what it means to be

human and to be partially and developmentally

conscious.

References

Anderson, W T (1997) The future of the self:

In-venting the postmodern person New York:

Tarcher and Putnam

Bartlett, F C (1932) Remembering Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press

Carlson, J., & Sperry, L (1998) Adlerian

psycho-therapy as a constructivist psychopsycho-therapy In

M F Hoyt (Ed.), The handbook of constructivist

therapies (pp 68–82) San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass

Durant, W (1926) The story of philosophy

Gar-den City, NY: GarGar-den City Publishing

Guidano, V F (1987) Complexity of the self New

York: Guilford

Guidano, V F (1991) The self in process New

York: Guilford

Hayek, F A (1952) The sensory order Chicago:

University of Chicago Press

Hilgard, E R (1987) Psychology in America: A

historical survey San Diego, CA: Harcourt

Brace Jovanovich

Kelly, G A (1955) The psychology of personal

constructs New York: Norton.

Mahoney, M J (1991) Human change processes.

New York: Basic Books

Mahoney, M J (2000) Constructive

psychother-apy: The heart of positive practice New York:

Mahoney, M J., & Weimer W B (1994)

Fried-rich A Hayek 1899–1992 American

Psycholo-gist, 49, 63.

Neimeyer, R A., & Raskin, J D (Eds.)

Construc-tions of disorder Washington, DC: American

Vaihinger, H (1911) The philosophy of “as if.”

Berlin: Reuther and Reichard

Walsh, R N (1999) Essential spirituality New

York: Wiley

Wheelis, A (1971) The end of the modern age.

New York: Harper

55

The Future of Positive Psychology

A Declaration of Independence

C R Snyder & Shane J Lopez

With contributions from Lisa Aspinwall, Barbara L Fredrickson, Jon Haidt,

Dacher Keltner, Christine Robitschek, Michael Wehmeyer, and Amy Wrzesniewski

In thinking about preparing this handbook, we

were driven by a basic question What has

psy-chology previously contributed to our

under-standing of human strengths such as

forgive-ness, love, kindforgive-ness, courage, hope, sharing,

caring, cooperation, sacrifice, spirituality,

friendship, and so on? The answer, regrettably,

is not very much Although we can debate the

underlying causes for the attraction to the “dark

side” of human experience, that strikes us as an

unproductive exercise Our focus, we would

ar-gue, should be looking into the future of

posi-tive psychology.

So, what does lie ahead for positive

psychol-ogy? That is the question that sparks excitement

in both of us because the positive psychology

perspective presents opportunities to address

philosophical issues (e.g., What is the good

life?) and practical questions (e.g., “How do

pos-itive emotions affect us over time?”) Pospos-itive

psychological science could guide us in our

pur-suit of mental health at the personal and

com-munity levels Toward this end, over 100

con-tributing scholars in this volume offer their visions of how human strengths can foster health, well-being, and a sense of community.

In this chapter, we describe the declaration of independence that has been made from the weakness model in psychology We have par- titioned this declaration of independence into four parts The first involves a brief review of what has transpired and its significance; the sec- ond, third, and fourth sections explore issues pertaining to the science, application, and train- ing in positive psychology Additionally, we have interspersed the views of some emerging leaders in positive psychology at various points

in the chapter.

On Breaking Away

Some have characterized the positive ogy perspective as a recent phenomenon Oth- ers see it as a slow accretion of work that has been building for years In this section, we will

psychol-752 P A R T X T H E F U T U R E O F T H E F I E L D

argue that it is probably most accurate to

de-scribe the emergence as involving both of these

forces Additionally, we will comment on the

practical implications of the growth of positive

psychology.

The Positive Psychology Movement

Positive psychology will not supplant the

weak-ness model, but it will grow as a necessary and

complementary scientific quest The study of

mental illness and its treatment will continue as

researchers delve into the etiology of disorders,

the nature of suffering, and the remediation of

psychological illness with psychotherapeutic

and pharmacological treatments But should we

look only to the weaknesses of people?

Con-cerning this lack of balance in our foci, Bandura

(1998) observes that we have been “more

heav-ily invested in intricate theories of failure than

in theories of success” (p 3) But increasing

numbers of social scientists in general, and

psy-chologists in particular, agree that the sole focus

on human problems is not sufficient (Seligman

& Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) There is no need,

however, for battles over the superiority of

ei-ther the pathology or the strength approach

In-deed, at this juncture of living history, what

positive psychology seeks is not so much a

con-frontation but rather recognition as a viable,

new paradigm—a rigorous science on the

posi-tive side of what it means to be human.

We would hasten to emphasize that this

pos-itive psychology perspective is not a brand-new

one (Snyder & McCullough, 2000) Indeed,

pi-oneering thinkers over the past several decades

have provided compelling exemplars of positive

psychology in their theories and research

en-deavors Therefore, what appears to be a

phe-nomenon that suddenly jumped into our

aware-ness actually has been growing steadily through

the efforts of these theorists and bench

scien-tists Consider the names of the authors in this

volume They are recognized, first and

fore-most, as being outstanding psychological

sci-entists Although these scientists previously

were not called “positive psychologists,” their

efforts over the last two decades have laid a

strong foundation for the building of this

per-spective.

It was Martin Seligman who provided a

nec-essary spark for positive psychology From the

bully pulpit of his 1998 presidency of the

American Psychological Association, he

trum-peted the essential principle of positive

psy-chology—the need to recognize and study the very best in people (see Seligman, this volume).

He did this not once but time and again, in one forum and another, spreading the word about positive psychology.

Since that watershed year of 1998, what has happened in regard to the progressive spread of attention to and knowledge about positive psy- chology? Certainly, there have been recent no- table gains One network television special, ex- changes on National Public Radio, countless articles in magazines and newspapers, two na- tional summits, small gatherings of prominent scholars, and $37 million of funding (Seligman, 2000) (and $300 million being recommended by

the surgeon general for mental health research)

have attracted attention inside and outside of psychology.

It is our view, therefore, that the first stage

of a scientific movement—one that we would characterize as a declaration of independence from the pathology model—has been com-

pleted The broader field now realizes that the positive psychology perspective exists This handbook, which is built on our belief that a vital science and practice of positive psychology should grow alongside the science and practice

of the pathology model, is yet another marker

of this declaration of independence.

The Significance of Adding the Positive Psychology Perspective

The pathology model delimits the search for knowledge on at least two levels First, suppose the psychologist begins the study of a given person or phenomenon within the pathology model, and the evidence begins to point to a human strength issue With the dominance of the pathology model, the investigator does not pursue the strength We are reminded here of

a common scene in American cowboy movies where the posse is in hot pursuit but must pull

up when the suspect rides across the border With the acceptance of the positive psychology approach, it would be more likely that such boundaries would not halt the pursuit of knowl- edge.

Second, even when a psychologist is ing from a strength model and the data clearly point to the scholarly search of human strength, the pathology focus may prevail Consider the example of the positive psychology researcher who was explaining his struggle to apply his talents and scientific skill to developing an un-

operat-C H A P T E R 5 5 T H E F U T U R E O F P O S I T I V E P S Y operat-C H O L O G Y 753

derstanding of optimal health After sharing a

synopsis of two decades of his research, he took

questions from the audience One question is of

particular importance in the present context.

Namely, this researcher was asked why most of

his studies had examined the relationships

be-tween “his” positive psychology construct and

mental illness The questioner continued, “Why

haven’t you examined the connection to mental

health?” First our researcher was puzzled, and

then he candidly replied, “I don’t know how to

measure health!”

The positive psychology perspective also may

aid in the discovery of aspects of human nature

that previously have been undetected by social

scientists For example, Jon Haidt, who once

fo-cused his efforts on researching moral disgust,

has become captivated by moral beauty and its

effects His ideas about awe and elevation in

particular and about positive emotions more

generally exemplify the emergence of positive

psychology.

The Positive Emotion of Elevation—

Jon Haidt

The emotions have generally been thought of

as self-interest monitors Emotions force our

minds and bodies to care about what’s good for

us Yet it is a curious, beautiful, and

under-studied fact about human nature that we can

be deeply moved by the sight of a stranger

do-ing a good deed for another stranger I have

been studying this emotional response for the

past few years, and I find enough similarities

in the way people talk about it that I have given

it a name: “elevation.” Elevation has most of

the hallmarks of a basic emotion: It has an

elic-iting condition (acts of moral beauty), a

phys-iological effect (something in the chest,

proba-bly involving the vagus nerve, which gives a

warm, open, and pleasant feeling), and an

ac-tion tendency (the desire to be a better person

oneself—to be more loving or helpful toward

others) Elevation can be best thought of as the

opposite of social disgust Elevation lacks a

spe-cific facial expression (which may be why it has

not previously been studied), and it is not as

discrete as the negative emotions (it appears to

overlap with awe, love, and gratitude) So

ele-vation is harder to study than emotions such

as anger and fear But it can be studied

On-going research with Sara Algoe and Dacher

Keltner finds that this emotional responsiveness

to moral beauty can be clearly identified in American sixth graders and in members of non-Western cultures The exploration of pos- itive emotions such as elevation, awe, and grat- itude is an important area in which positive psychology can reshape and brighten the pic- ture of human nature.

In our estimation, the positive psychology spective unfetters the search for understanding all aspects of human nature, it opens the eyes

per-of skilled researchers to new questions ing health and well-being, and it sets the stage for future scientific discovery.

concern-Breaking Away: Issues for the Science

of Positive Psychology

In this section, we explore some of the major issues that will be involved in the science of positive psychology in the coming years Al- though these issues would apply to any rigor- ous new branch of psychological science as it establishes its identity, it is important to discuss these as they apply to positive psychology.

Building on Science, Peer Review, and Prudent Claims

What is obvious in the previous pages of this volume is that the scholars want to construct a positive psychology on a foundation of scientific principles and methods All of the advances that have been made in experimental design and so- phisticated statistical analyses within the pa- thology paradigm can be used in the service of positive psychology science A viable and en- during positive psychology will be founded not

on armchair philosophical speculations but rather on carefully crafted hypotheses that can

be tested empirically and analyzed with the est statistical procedures.

lat-With the spread of positive psychology perimentation, the gatekeepers—the journal ed- itors—will be seeing more studies that explore the strengths of people When this happens, however, the authors of positive psychology manuscripts should be prepared to have their writing undergo extra scrutiny Namely, jour- nal editors may well ask that results cast within

ex-a positive psychology frex-amework be compex-ared and contrasted with various pathology expla- nations On this point, Snyder and McCullough (2000) have written about the activities at many

754 P A R T X T H E F U T U R E O F T H E F I E L D

psychology journals in the 1980s that “authors

who submitted manuscripts often were forced to

prove that their results were not explicable in

terms of negative affectivity counter

explana-tions [the] prevailing lens through which

reality was seen was strongly ruled by the

neg-ative affectivity construct to the exclusion of

other tenable and more positive constructions”

(p 154).

As a new paradigm becomes more successful

and gathers proponents, it usually is the case in

science that it no longer must be tested

rou-tinely in relation to the old paradigm (Kuhn,

1970) We have yet to reach this stage in

posi-tive psychology Thus, in the near future, we

must be prepared to have our ideas met with

skepticism There are those who will try to cast

positive psychology ideas as being whimsical

and lacking in merit Consider Lisa Aspinwall’s

retort to such views.

Happier and Wiser: Optimism

and Positive Affect Promote

Careful Realistic Thinking and

Behavior—Lisa Aspinwall

Perhaps one of the most important advances

that could be made in positive psychology is to

incorporate into the field’s thinking the wealth

of evidence suggesting that positive beliefs and

states foster careful realistic thinking and

con-structive behavior (Armor & Taylor, 1998;

Ashby, Isen, & Turken, 1999; Aspinwall, 1998,

in press; Aspinwall, Richter, & Hoffman, 2000;

Isen, 1993) Characterizations of positive

think-ing as empty-headed, delusional, wishful, or

Pollyannish are at odds with a great deal of

evidence suggesting considerable benefits of

op-timism and positive affect, including (a) more

thorough, efficient, and flexible decision

mak-ing, (b) careful attention to negative

informa-tion that suggests the possibility of harm or

loss, and (c) consistent relations to adaptive

coping efforts and good outcomes in a wide

range of settings.

People can be—and frequently are—both

happier and wiser What are the implications

of this assertion for research and application in

positive psychology? I believe there are several.

First, in our efforts to send Pollyanna home,

we should not oversimplify the study of

posi-tive beliefs and states It would be premature—

and likely incorrect—to say that all positive

be-liefs and states are salutary Instead, it may be

more reasonable to say that one should no longer assume that positive beliefs and states are harmful Understanding how and when such beliefs are linked to constructive future- oriented behaviors—as well as when they are not—will yield a more nuanced and accurate view (see, e.g., Armor & Taylor, 1998) What is needed in future research are studies

in which the nature and consequences of ferent positive states and beliefs are evaluated

dif-in diverse and meandif-ingful contexts, such as achievement, development, close relationships, intergroup processes, coping, work, and health (see Aspinwall & Staudinger, in press) An es- sential element of such efforts will be to jettison widespread assumptions regarding the sym- metrical effects of positive and negative affect

on cognition and behavior (see Isen, 1993, for discussion) In its strong form, this assumption may yield misleading conclusions—for exam- ple, if depression leads people to think carefully, then happiness must promote careless thinking;

or if people in a negative mood are sensitive to risk information in the environment, then peo- ple in a positive mood must be insensitive to it Again, such conclusions are at odds with a great deal of evidence, yet they frequently in- fluence the design and interpretation of re- search.

Across the exciting spectrum of “positive” topics that will be examined in the coming years, efforts to take positive beliefs, feelings, and attributes seriously—and to elucidate their neurological, cognitive, developmental, social, and therapeutic functions in their own right— are likely to yield many findings with impor- tant implications for human health and well- being.

In the excitement that may be associated with this new and invigorating approach, it may be tempting to overextrapolate so as to convey a sense of the progress that is being made This can be even more possible when a person from the news media is almost putting words in our mouths about the supposed discoveries and ad- vances that already have occurred Contrary to this “breakthrough” mentality, however, sci- ence typically advances in the context of slow, incremental increases in knowledge Therefore,

in the processes of conducting positive ogy research, getting it published, and describ- ing such work in public forums, researchers must be very careful to make appropriate infer- ences from their data Claims that go beyond

psychol-C H A P T E R 5 5 T H E F U T U R E O F P O S I T I V E P S Y psychol-C H O L O G Y 755

the data never are appropriate, and they can be

especially damaging to the credibility of a new

field When one positive psychologist makes an

unwarranted claim, this undermines the

trust-worthiness of all positive psychologists and the

“movement” more generally Accordingly, we

must carefully monitor both our colleagues and

ourselves.

The Need for a Classification of

Human Strengths

Positive psychology needs to have a

classifica-tion of human strengths and civic virtues To

be able to measure human strengths not only

will facilitate our understanding of those

strengths but also will help in our efforts to

in-crease these strengths Classification is

abso-lutely crucial to scientific ventures, and, as such,

positive psychology must be careful and

thor-ough in fulfilling this need We turn to this and

related issues in this section.

Classification Systems as Foundations

of Science

Classifications exist in every scientific

disci-pline (recall the periodic table of elements

learned in high school chemistry class), and it

could be argued that it would be difficult to

have a science without a system for

categoriz-ing the phenomena becategoriz-ing examined For

psy-chology, a classification system is needed to

build a greater understanding of psychological

strengths, to promote research, and to foster

positive psychology practice focused on

incul-cating strengths Though we do not view the

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders (known as the DSM; American

Psy-chiatric Association, 1952, 1968, 1980, 1987,

1994, 2000) system as a good example of a

classification system (see Maddux, this

vol-ume), it has served as a profoundly influential

framework for the research and practice arms

of psychology The new system in positive

psychology will have to gain widespread

accep-tance of the same level as that exhibited by the

DSM.

A Classification System in Development

Developing a classification system is a daunting

task that involves the collaboration of experts,

along with field testing in practice communities.

The skills of psychologists are being put to good

use as Christopher Peterson, Martin Seligman, and a team of consultants develop a classifica- tion system for strengths In an early draft of this taxonomy, Peterson and Seligman (2000) wrote: “Psychology is not the only field now concerned with the striving and thriving end of the human continuum psychology has come late to this perspective The unique con- tribution of psychology to the study of positive traits, we believe, is its century-old concern with the measurement of individual differ- ences” (p 3).

By the time this handbook is published, this classification system may be completed; more- over, it may serve positive psychology in a

manner akin to how the DSM has served the

pathology model In the interim, however, it is not as if we are lacking in theory-based, indi- vidual differences measures that tap the most visible constructs in the field Indeed, we al- ready have several such measures We turn next

to the role of individual differences in positive psychology.

Personal Growth Initiative—

Christine Robitschek

Personal Growth Initiative (PGI; Robitschek,

1998, 1999) is defined as active, intentional involvement in changing and developing as a person Not only must the growth or change

be in the person’s awareness; it also must be

an intentional process People who have high levels of PGI recognize and capitalize on opportunities for personal growth They also seek out and create situations that will fa- cilitate their growth In contrast, people with low levels of PGI have little or no awareness that they are changing and might actively

756 P A R T X T H E F U T U R E O F T H E F I E L D

avoid situations that might challenge them to

grow.

The Personal Growth Initiative Scale (PGIS;

Robitschek, 1998, 1999) measures this

con-struct Research to date has supported a unitary

factor structure and strong internal consistency

and construct validity No significant

differ-ences have been found on mean scores for the

PGIS between women and men or between

eth-nic minority and majority groups Scores on

the PGIS are positively related to assertiveness,

internal locus of control, instrumentality, and

growth that is in awareness and intentional.

Also, PGI appears to be related to

environmen-tal career exploration and vocational identity

(Robitschek & Cook, 1999) When PGI was

combined with another measure of personal

growth (Ryff, 1989), the latent construct of

per-sonal growth orientation fully mediated the

re-lation of family functioning to psychological

distress (Robitschek & Kashubeck, 1999) We

have hypothesized that PGI (i.e., including a

willingness to change and grow) might protect

against psychological distress when stressful

events occur and might lead people to seek help

earlier in the process of experiencing

psycho-logical distress, thus reducing the extent and

ef-fects of distress Research is under way to

ex-amine these hypotheses Additional current

research is testing the validity of the PGI

con-struct with an ethnic minority population and

is distinguishing between PGI, openness to

ex-perience, and risk-taking attitudes PGI appears

to be an important construct that is related to

many aspects of human behavior.

Having such instruments available should help

to bring further attention to the positive

psy-chology approach as researchers increasingly

use these measures of strength, health, and

well-being in their studies Indeed, because of

the ease of giving these questionnaires, we

pdict an outpouring of instrument-driven

re-search (Snyder, 1997).

Although considerable research has been

conducted on the moderation and mediation

roles of weakness-oriented individual

differ-ences measures such as depression,

neuroti-cism, and hostility, there has been relatively

little work on strength-oriented variables as

moderators (Snyder & Pulvers, 2001)

Accord-ingly, the role of positive psychology

individ-ual differences as moderators and mediators

should receive increasing attention as the 21st

century unfolds.

The “Other” Positive Psychology Variables

Just as there have been psychological variables wherein the associated individual differences variable have been examined, there also are in- dividual differences in nonpsychological “re- sources” that warrant our positive psychology attention These “other” variables often are tapped in the demographics portion of various questionnaires In this list of beneficial individ- ual differences, we would call the reader’s at- tention to higher income and education (Diener, 1984; Veroff, Douvan, & Kulka, 1981), higher socioeconomic status (Dohrenwend, 1998; Pear- lin, 1989; Wills & DePaulo, 1991), and better physical health (Williamson, Parmelee, & Shaf- fer, 2000) Positive psychology would be well advised to embrace these concepts, as well as environmental variables (see Wright and Lopez, this volume), as being part of our territory in plotting the strengths of people Of interest would be research on the predictive powers of these variables for important life outcomes, as well as how these variables moderate or mediate other relationships of interest.

Unique Aspects of Optimal Functioning

In advancing positive psychology constructs and their associated individual differences instru- ments, it will be important to learn a lesson from problems that emerged in the pathology model In particular, there has been a prolifer- ation of pathology concepts without the appro- priate attention to how those concepts are sim- ilar to, and different from, existing ones Positive psychology researchers must constrain their natural tendencies to see their constructs

as unique (Snyder & Fromkin, 1980) What this means is that greater attention needs to be paid

to the overlap of constructs so as to ascertain shared operative processes and the shared vari- ance in optimal functioning Furthermore, pos- itive psychology researchers must document the discriminant validity of their measures Thus, the proliferation of positive psychology ideas and measures should proceed with careful at- tention to what is common or shared, as well as what is unique.

Sampling Issues

At the risk of oversimplification, the positive psychology research to date may be falling into

C H A P T E R 5 5 T H E F U T U R E O F P O S I T I V E P S Y C H O L O G Y 757

a sampling pattern of emphasizing Caucasian

college students as research participants In a

recent survey that we (Snyder, Tennen,

Af-fleck, & Cheavens, 2000) conducted of 100

ar-ticles taken from the 1998 issues of six journals

that provide major outlets for positive

psy-chology research, the percentages of research

participants recruited for the studies from

var-ious sources were as follows: college

stu-dents, 45%; community resistu-dents, 24%;

out-patients, 13%; children/adolescents, 9%;

hos-pital health patients, 8%; and psychiatric

inpa-tients, 1%.

In total, there were 56.4% females and

43.6% males in this sample, a finding that

re-verses the predominance of male over female

participants that has been found in previous

research We would encourage positive

psy-chology researchers to continue to include

women and men in their research Because

ap-proximately 80% of the present Ph.D

gradu-ates in counseling and clinical psychology are

women (see Snyder, McDermott, Leibowitz, &

Cheavens, 2000), it is our prediction that the

female investigators in these fields will include

female research participants along with males.

Only half of the articles in this survey

re-ported racial composition, and the breakdown

in those articles was as follows: Caucasians,

75.6%; African Americans, 18.9%; Hispanics,

4.6%; Asians, 2.8%; and other, 1.8% It is

difficult to infer the reasons for the omission

of these racial identification data in half of the

studies that were sampled For positive

psy-chology researchers who will be living in the

increasingly diverse and multiracial United

States of the 21st century, it will be crucial to

have persons of color participating in research

and to determine acculturation levels of those

participants (see Lopez et al., this volume).

The same applies to positive psychology

re-searchers in other countries around the globe.

Positive psychology research should be tested

with various ethnic groups to examine

whether similar or different processes are

op-erative At this point in the research, we

would be just as premature in assuming that

positive psychology principles apply to all

eth-nic groups as we would be in inferring that

different processes apply only to particular

ra-cial groups.

Children were not participants in the studies

that made up this sample Granting that there

are special journals dedicated to developmental

and child issues, we nevertheless find this

omission to be problematic because of its ilarity to pathology research We should be careful, in our estimation, to avoid what has happened in the weakness model, where re- search is best characterized as being “trickle- down” in that anything about children appears only as an afterthought It is crucial, we be- lieve, to build etiology into our theory and re- search.

sim-Having made the case that we attend to velopmental issues, we also would emphasize that positive psychology is not just pertinent to the young Indeed, much more attention needs

de-to be given de-to research with the elderly In this regard, the age of research participants was re- ported in only 35% of the studies in the Sny- der, Tennen, et al (2000) sample Positive psy- chology researchers should routinely report on the age of their research participants Moreover, older persons need to be targeted for study from

a positive psychology perspective Because life expectancies are increasing and American baby boomers are maturing from their 50s to 60s, positive psychology research will be needed on this segment of our population (see Williamson, this volume).

Overall, we hold that the scientific foci of positive psychology, along with its applications, should be on the full age range and ethnic back- grounds of humankind A guiding premise, therefore, is that positive psychology is for the many rather than the few.

Longitudinal Research

Louis Terman (Terman, 1926, 1959; Terman & Oden, 1947) devoted decades to tracing what can be learned from examining the unfolding lives of exceedingly intelligent people Simi- larly, Emmy Werner (Werner & Smith, 1982, 1992) followed children who were born into dif- ficult circumstances and yet were resilient and adaptive throughout their lives It is this kind

of longitudinal research that will be needed to provide insights that simply cannot be exam- ined by the cross-sectional, snapshot method- ology.

We also acknowledge the methodological and financial challenges of conducting longitudinal research We call for this form of study because longitudinal designs offer enduring answers to the questions about how psychological strengths can make our futures brighter, buffer

us against the ills of the world, and assist us in coping with the adventures of daily living.

758 P A R T X T H E F U T U R E O F T H E F I E L D

Figure 55.1 Primary and secondary enhancement

in positive psychology

Breaking Away: Issues for the

Applications of Positive Psychology

As positive psychological science develops, so,

too, must a parallel application of the principles

and findings from such research In this section,

we review some of the major issues pertaining

to applications.

Making Changes to Practice

Primary and Secondary Enhancement

Elsewhere, we have proposed that it may prove

useful for the purposes of research and

appli-cations to divide positive psychology practice

into primary and secondary enhancement

(Sny-der, Feldman, Taylor, Schroe(Sny-der, & Adams,

2000) Primary enhancement includes activities

geared to achieve optimal functioning and

sat-isfaction—the topics that previously have been

invoked to define positive psychology

Second-ary enhancement represents those additional

ef-forts that are taken over time to obtain peak

functioning and satisfaction Thus, secondary

enhancement pertains to reaching beyond the

already positive levels of functioning and

sat-isfaction of primary enhancement Such

second-ary enhancement efforts typically occur after a

primary or basic level of enhancement has been

achieved Thus, as can be seen in Figure 55.1,

the enhancement activities of positive

psychol-ogy can be conceptualized as occurring over

time, with establishing optimal functioning and

satisfaction (primary enhancement) progressing

to peak levels of functioning and well-being

(secondary enhancement).

Let us consider some examples of the

differ-ence between primary and secondary

enhance-ment Suppose a person decides to undertake a

regimen of exercise involving rigorous

work-outs at three differing times per week Such a

person will achieve a level of physical

function-ing and psychological wellness that we would

characterize as exemplifying primary

enhance-ment But then suppose that the person takes an even more rigorous regimen of exercise

under-so as to obtain a level far beyond that which would be considered typical of a well- conditioned person This latter training ap- proach may yield truly superb levels of physical functional and its associated psychological well- ness Such a person would be described as reaching secondary enhancement Or, in an- other example, a person may gain primary en- hancement through his or her interchanges with other people, but the peak of such expe- riences would involve intensive human inter- action events such as passionate love, the birth

of a child, a wedding, the graduation of a loved one, and so on.

It may be that primary enhancement is a more easily attained and widely applicable pos- itive psychology focus than secondary enhance- ment On the other hand, some types of pri- mary enhancement activities may lend themselves most readily to progression into sec- ondary enhancement Another possibility is that that our attentions need to be focused on understanding and promoting secondary en- hancement—even though it is more difficult to attain than primary enhancement This latter scenario would be driven by the fact that sec- ondary enhancement is such a profoundly in- tense and gratifying experience.

Intervention Issues

Relative to the amount of inquiry into theory and individual differences variables in positive psychology, there has been less research on how

to induce positive change in people (In fairness, however, it should be acknowledged that the in- tervention work has begun in some of the pos- itive psychology research programs.)

An in-depth understanding of any positive psychology concept also should involve com- prehension of how to enhance it Thus, positive psychology should be careful to avoid the sep- aration of diagnosis and intervention that has happened in the pathology model For example,

even with its pervasive influence, the DSM does

not provide links to appropriate interventions for each diagnostic category As we come to de- fine a classification system in positive psychol- ogy, it should have obvious leads to appropriate interventions Of special interest will be exper- iments on how to increase the strengths of peo- ple who are low on one or more of the positive psychology individual differences measures.

C H A P T E R 5 5 T H E F U T U R E O F P O S I T I V E P S Y C H O L O G Y 759

These latter designs enable one to explore the

important person (individual differences) by

en-vironment (change interventions) interactions

that are crucial for both understanding a given

positive psychology concept and providing an

appropriate intervention.

As we more fully comprehend the underlying

dynamics of positive psychology change

pro-cesses (see Mahoney, this volume), the ultimate

beneficiaries will be the people with whom those

interventions can be used To facilitate the

dis-covery of change processes, we believe that

pos-itive psychology should reach out to the present

psychotherapy outcome investigators who

typ-ically are operating under a pathology model

(Snyder & Ingram, 2000).

Delivery Issues

Caution will be necessary, however, when

at-tempting to translate positive psychological

sci-ence into practice We encourage researchers

and innovative practitioners to be sure to

ground interventions in theory and science, and

to submit these interventions to careful and

ex-tensive empirical examination before sharing

them with the broader community of scientists

and practitioners.

To make appropriate applied translations of

our findings, we not only will need to conduct

the basic research aimed at understanding the

positive change processes but also will need to

undertake programs of research to see how such

interventions actually can be effectively

deliv-ered to maximal numbers of people Eventually,

we will want to know how to impart strengths

to people in the context of families, schools,

works settings, and so on.

Likewise, officials in government and private

granting agencies must be kept apprised of the

benefits derived from the science and

applica-tions of positive psychology principles

Obvi-ously, there will be an ongoing need for streams

of funding related to positive psychology

re-search and action programs Similarly, it will be

crucial to keep policy makers and the general

public apprised of the usefulness of positive

psychology research and applications.

Broadening the Philosophy and

Scope of Practice

There is a saying in journalistic circles that “bad

news sells papers.” Obviously, however, bad

news is not the full story Compelling recounts

about the strength of human will, the bonds of

a loving family, the deeds of a caring nity, and the like, are worthy of telling if bal- anced reporting is the goal Such tales also can raise our spirits and give us models to emulate Unfortunately, the “bad news” approach is likely to create a self-fulfilling bunker mentality

commu-in which people expect thcommu-ings to be bad, thcommu-ink

in terms of protection, and to some extent sively allow bad things to happen.

pas-Although there may be happy endings that are begotten from the pathology approach, such

as a person being successfully treated for pression, in such instances it still is the negative framework that retains the power to command our attention It is as if this weakness perspec- tive is the default option to which we automat- ically turn For all its contributions, and there have been many significant ones, the pathology model leaves us reactive With some notable ex- ceptions, the weakness model of psychology can foster a passive, avoidant approach to life Pos- itive psychology, on the other hand, starts with the premise that human beings have an im- mense storehouse of remarkable talents and skills Many of these strengths, however, have lain fallow as we implicitly accept a passive view about human capabilities What positive psy- chology offers is a more comprehensive view of humankind.

de-Self-Determination and Causal Agency Theory—Michael Wehmeyer

Over the last decade there has been ble focus in the field of special education on the importance of promoting the self-determination

considera-of students with disabilities to enable them to successfully transition from school to adult- hood That focus, which has been applied to other populations of youth at risk for school failure and negative adult outcomes, including youth in foster care and children and youth in urban settings, is predicated on the contention that students who leave school as self- determined young people will be better able to become self-sufficient, self-reliant adults We have developed a functional model of self- determination, also referred to as causal agency theory, which defines self-determined behavior

as acting as the primary causal agent in one’s life and making choices and decisions regarding one’s quality of life free from undue external influence or interference (Wehmeyer, 1996).

760 P A R T X T H E F U T U R E O F T H E F I E L D

Drawing on work in personality, community

and motivational psychology, the functional

model identifies four essential characteristics of

self-determined behavior: (a) the person acted

autonomously; (b) the action was

self-regulated; (c) the person initiated and

re-sponded to the event(s) in a psychologically

empowered manner; and (d) the person acted in

a self-realizing manner The model posits that

people become self-determined as they develop

or acquire a set of component elements of

self-determined behavior, including learning to set

goals, solve problems, make decisions, and

ad-vocate for one’s needs as well as by having

op-portunities to make choices and experience

con-trol in life Our research has empirically

validated this framework (Wehmeyer,

Kelch-ner, & Richards, 1996), explored the relative

self-determination of youth with disabilities

(Wehmeyer & Metzler, 1995), provided

evi-dence of the relationship between student

self-determination and positive adult outcomes

(Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997, 1998), and

ex-amined environmental barriers to

self-determination (Wehmeyer & Bolding, 1999).

We have identified instructional methods and

materials to promote self-determination

(Weh-meyer, Agran, & Hughes, 1998) and have

de-veloped and empirically validated an

instruc-tional model to enable educators to teach youth

to become more self-determined and to become

self-regulated problem solvers (Wehmeyer,

Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000).

Current research is examining key operators in

why people become causal agents in their lives,

including exploring the development and

ac-quisition of causal and agentic capability and

examining how such capability is used to

re-spond to opportunities and threats to create

causal action and, in turn, enable individuals to

become more self-determined While our

ear-liest work was with youth with cognitive and

other disabilities, later work, including the

in-structional model and our efforts to examine

the key operators in causal and agentic action,

is applied to all youth, though not excluding

youth with disabilities or other at-risk groups.

Positive Bodies

Positive psychology will need to go “under the

hood,” so to speak Whereas most positive

psy-chology researchers are focused at the cognitive

and behavioral levels, we believe that a growing

group of researchers will trace human strengths

to the neurological (see Isen, this volume),

bi-ological (see Ryff & Singer, this volume; lor, Dickerson, & Klein, this volume), and phys- iological (see Dienstbier & Zillig, this volume) levels.

Tay-From a positive psychology perspective, the investigative focus turns to those bodily struc- tures and processes that enable humans to thrive and flourish With the exciting advances that are being made at the juncture of psychol- ogy and the neurosciences, we look forward to discoveries about brain structures and functions that are implicated in the manifestation of hu- man strengths This approach has received little attention to date, but it holds enormous promise for stimulating future advances in understand- ing and applying positive psychology concepts.

Positive Families

What are the characteristics of families that duce happy, well-adjusted offspring who con- tribute meaningfully to society? Admittedly, this is a very complex question; nevertheless, it needs to be addressed by positive psychology scholars One place to start in such positive family research would be to examine the role of family rituals in the inculcation of values An- other line would be to determine how families explain everyday adversity, how they set goals for the future, and how they engender hope in their offspring (McDermott & Hastings, 2000; McDermott & Snyder, 2000; Snyder, Mc- Dermott, Cook, & Rapoff, 1997) In addition to the traditional male and female two-parent and child(ren) model, positive psychology also would be wise to examine the various forms that families are taking in the 21st century Whatever the structure, however, the family will be a crucial arena for fostering the tenets

pro-of positive psychology For these reasons, and countless others, the family should capture the attentions of positive psychology researchers Positive psychology also should open its doors to child psychology and any other disci- pline that focuses on research aimed at under- standing and promoting the welfare of children The training of clinical child psychologists, for example, would focus on helping children in ar-

eas of their weakness and enhancing the

strengths of all children (see Brown, Johnson, Roberts, & Reinke, this volume).

Positive Schools

Although families are expected to provide the necessary stimulation and nurturing for healthy

C H A P T E R 5 5 T H E F U T U R E O F P O S I T I V E P S Y C H O L O G Y 761

development, the reality is that many families

struggle to meet the very basic food and shelter

needs of their children Therefore, school

be-comes a place where adjunctive instruction and

services are offered In our experience, the

school and families embrace such psychological

and physical health programs Some critics

ar-gue that such programs take precious time away

from “real learning,” but we contend that

pos-itive psychological support sets the stage for

better learning It is not an either-or issue, in

our estimation, but rather one in which children

deserve excellent instruction in both life skills

and content areas.

School psychologists often have been

identi-fied as being responsible for making sure that

the children with special needs (e.g., learning

disabilities, behavioral problems, physical

prob-lems), are given optimal environments for

learning These professionals play a key role in

our schools, and positive psychology should

reach out to them The tenets of positive

psy-chology should prove very attractive to school

psychologists in their work to facilitate the very

best in children with special needs, as well as all

children This approach is based on adding

var-ious positive psychology experiences to

class-room activities For example, the junior editor

of this volume (SJL) has established a series of

classroom experiences to enhance the hope of

junior high-school students (Lopez, Bouwkamp,

Edwards, & Teramoto Pedrotti, 2000)

Further-more, assuming that such educational activities

prove to be beneficial for both the psychological

and the academic development of students, we

believe that positive psychology principles and

applications should become a part of the teacher

instruction curricula in colleges We look

for-ward to the day in which teachers

systemati-cally use such positive psychology approaches.

Our guess is that the very best of teachers

al-ready weave positive psychology into their

teaching plans and styles.

Youth Development

Benjamin Franklin said that wasted strengths

are like sundials in the shade This is

particu-larly true about the untapped assets of children

because they often are in need of help to realize

their potentials As adults, we are entrusted

with promoting youth development This

re-quires that we view all children as needing some

support or guidance, not just those who are

gifted or at risk for problems (Snyder, Tran, et

al., 2000) Positive psychology does not point an

accusing finger of “look at those lousy kids and the problems they have created.” Rather, posi-

tive psychology views all children as our

chil-dren and asks what we can do to help bring out the best in them In this regard, perhaps the greatest gift we can give to children is our time.

As adults, we sometimes get caught up in own activities, and we do not carve out enough time to spend with our children and those in the neighborhood Children hunger for positive models To accomplish this, it is far better if children have the option of turning to real peo- ple than to the television screen that is filled with people committing violence against each other.

Positive Workplaces

Turner, Barling, and Zacharatos (this volume) explain how the work setting can be a more pos- itive place that yields better outcomes related to both the financial bottom line and the devel- opment of healthy people The work of indus- trial/organizational and vocational psycholo- gists also points to how the workplace provides

an arena for workers to develop resources, find meaning, and pursue social, emotional, and psy- chological well-being We must not neglect the nurturing of human potential in today’s work- place.

Jobs, Careers, and Callings: The Meaning of Work—Amy Wrzesniewski

How do people differ in their experience of work? This is an important question, given that people spend more than one third of their wak- ing life at work and increasingly define them- selves by what they do for a living Research has shown that most people have one of three distinct relations to their work, seeing it as a Job, Career, or Calling (Bellah, Madsen, Sulli- van, Swidler, & Tipton, 1985; see also Schwartz, 1986, 1994; Wrzesniewski, Mc- Cauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997) The distinc- tions, drawn starkly, are these: People with Jobs focus on financial rewards for working, rather than pleasure or fulfillment, those with Careers focus primarily on advancement, and those with Callings focus on enjoyment of fulfilling, socially useful work Employees in a wide range

of occupations, from clerical to professional, were unambiguous in seeing their work pri- marily in one of these three ways Jobs, Ca- reers, and Callings are each represented within

762 P A R T X T H E F U T U R E O F T H E F I E L D

occupations as well Having a Calling was

as-sociated with the highest life and job

satisfac-tion and with missing the fewest days of work

(Wrzesniewski et al., 1997) Jobs, Careers, and

Callings as general orientations toward work

also predicted the goals people pursue in a job

search, as well as quality of and occupational

level in the new job (Wrzesniewski, 1999)

Re-cent research has shown that people in menial

jobs can transform their relations to their work

and do so by shaping the tasks and

relation-ships that are part of the job in ways that make

the work more meaningful (Wrzesniewski &

Dutton, 2000) As a conceptual approach to

studying work, Jobs, Careers, and Callings offer

a rich opportunity for understanding the

mean-ing of work.

Positive Communities

Vibrant communities are ones that pull together

for the purpose of fostering the development of

healthy children Cultural and historical

pres-ervation unite yet other communities

Irrespec-tive of the nature of the community mission,

effective communities share unifying goals

(Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton,

1992) Moreover, when such community

pur-suits result in goal attainments, celebrations are

warranted to mark the accomplishments We

mention this because we believe that

commu-nity striving leads to the development of

posi-tive connections, and community-wide

celebra-tion increases the likelihood of future striving.

The area of community psychology has yet

to receive the scholarly attention that it

de-serves Perhaps with the assistance of their

col-leagues in positive psychology, and with further

attention to making good things happen rather

than solely trying to prevent bad things (see

Snyder, Feldman, et al., 2000), there may be an

increase in research focusing on community

forces Community is a concept that positive

psychology can and should embrace.

Breaking Away: Issues for Training in

Positive Psychology

For decades, psychology students have been

taught about human foibles, and the pathology

model spread across generations of young,

mal-leable minds In turn, those students took

aca-demic and applied jobs and imparted the same

psychology of the negative to their intellectual

offspring The positive psychology mission to

illuminate and promote human flourishing can

be accomplished only when a critical mass of positive psychology professionals collaborate with laypeople who have identified their strengths and acknowledged the role of their abilities and talents in their daily functioning For this to happen, psychologists assume that health rather than illness is the natural state of the human condition In the immediate future, however, our goal is to ensure that there is bal- ance between the two psychologies—positive and negative.

We encourage readers to think about the sumptions they make about their research par- ticipants, their clients, their partners, children, and themselves Psychological science has sug- gested that we use a negative lens for viewing people When it comes to your view of human behavior, you concern yourself with what you think is most important to developing a better

as-understanding of a person What you see

de-termines what working hypotheses you develop and test The Aristotle-Galileo “pendulum de- bate” demonstrates this point Aristotle as- sumed that a stone suspended by a string real- ized its natural state when it was at rest Therefore, he concerned himself with the “time

to come to rest” and built hypotheses related to the “swinging stone” around this metric On the other hand, Galileo was more interested in the “time per swing” because he believed that the swinging state was natural in the absence of friction Thus, what you believe and therefore see influences what you examine So, if on first blush a researcher or clinician sees symptoms of illness instead of a person’s strengths, this will determine the hypotheses that are constructed.

Another Side to Human Nature—

Dacher Keltner

The future of positive psychology is bright and promises to include an impassioned cadre of young scholars across the disciplines of psy- chology, as this volume suggests The advances this field will bring are numerous, from new ideas about relationships to studies of well- being and virtue Perhaps the most lasting of these contributions is the opportunity positive psychology creates to contemplate the more positive, beneficent nature of human nature Many of the great traditions in the behav- ioral sciences have portrayed human nature in

a rather unflattering light For Freud, humans were conflicted, defensive, and neurotic For

C H A P T E R 5 5 T H E F U T U R E O F P O S I T I V E P S Y C H O L O G Y 763

utilitarian approaches that have shaped social

psychology, humans were rational seekers of

outcomes that maximize self-interest—an

as-sumption that is echoed in certain versions of

evolutionary psychology Other branches of

psychology have placed greater emphasis on

the negative: We study aggression and not

peace-making; we study negative emotion and

not positive emotion; we study relationship

dis-satisfaction and dissolution rather than

satis-faction.

These, of course, are just assumptions about

human nature Positive psychology offers an

alternative, scientific approach to human

na-ture In many ways it has the power of the

cognitive revolution in psychology, which

sim-ply raised the question of how thought guides

behavior Positive psychology asks about

posi-tive human nature.

This emphasis is already producing scientific

advances in at least three ways First,

research-ers are now studying what was

underrepre-sented in psychology This is clearly seen in the

study of positive emotions Early emotion

the-orists widely assumed that the number of

neg-ative emotions outnumbered the positive ones

(for no real reasons) Inspired in part by the

work of Fredrickson, we are now discovering

that there are numerous positive emotions,

in-cluding awe, love, desire, relief, hope, pride, and

joy These states may operate in different ways

than the negative ones, and they certainly are

embedded in many activities humans cherish

most Were it not for positive psychology, these

states might still continue to be ignored.

Second, many widespread assumptions about

human nature are being challenged by research

within positive psychology For example, it was

widely assumed as part of a Freudian legacy in

the understanding of bereavement that people

who are grieving are best served by working

through their negative emotions, such as anger

and guilt My own research with George

Bon-anno has shown this to be an erroneous

as-sumption (and one worries about clinical

treat-ments based on this assumption) We have

found that bereaved individuals who express a

great deal of anger do worse over the long haul,

whereas those individuals who laugh and gain

some distance from the loss do better.

Finally, research within positive psychology

will help develop a more nuanced view of many

phenomena that have largely been viewed

through a more “negative” lens For example,

the literature on teasing has largely focused on

its hostile content and antisocial outcomes, as

evident in the literature on bullying and ization This is no doubt true and one facet to teasing Yet it would be erroneous to assume that these extreme kinds of teasing represent the teasing of most people in their day-to-day lives My own research on teasing starts from

victim-a different victim-assumption: thvictim-at most tevictim-asing flects the human capacity to play and pretend, and that it serves a variety of pro-social func- tions, from expressing affection to socialization.

re-As positive psychology progresses, it will generate many inspiring insights about human nature, from the inspiration people find in vir- tue and beauty to the ways people devote them- selves to community These insights will origi- nate in a simple scientific question positive psychology asks: What is good about human nature?

Undoubtedly, personal and professional ences determine what you “see.” Thus, your view of human nature may be influenced by your training (Snyder, 1977) The paradigm within which you have been professionally trained guides what you see in human behavior and the routes that you take to positively influ- ence human change For positive psychology to become fully viable, there will need to be rig- orous graduate programs with faculty and courses devoted to this perspective The same will be necessary for internships in positive psy- chology Clinical, counseling, personality, and social psychology programs, or interfaces of scholars from two or more such programs, offer possible arenas for the teaching of positive psy- chology at the graduate level To further aware- ness, however, there will need to be undergrad- uate courses in positive psychology.

experi-At the organizational level, there eventually will need to be organizations and conventions devoted to positive psychology perspectives Likewise, as with the scholarly and educational evolution of any area, there will need to be books that give voice to the key ideas in positive psychology, as well as journals that serve as outlets for research All of these matters, and more, are necessary for the proper education in positive psychology.

The Future of Positive Psychology—

Barbara Fredrickson

Positive psychology shows tremendous ise Although many of the ideas central to the field predate the emergence of the positive psy-

prom-764 P A R T X T H E F U T U R E O F T H E F I E L D

chology movement, only now—in response to

the movement and with resources like this

handbook—have these various ideas been

united under the common mission of

develop-ing the science of human flourishdevelop-ing To realize

this promise fully, the field needs to broaden

the range of phenomena targeted for study For

instance, here and elsewhere I have pointed out

that the scientific study of positive emotions

lags far behind the study of negative emotions.

Plus, some positive emotions have hardly

basked in the empirical spotlight at all, namely,

awe, serenity, gratitude, and elevation

Al-though this handbook is impressively

compre-hensive, in this early moment, positive

psy-chology no doubt carries significant gaps I

encourage interested readers to locate those

gaps, see them as opportunities, and make

em-pirical contributions to fill them.

Even more important, to realize its full

po-tential the field needs to build the ranks of

sci-entific psychologists who devote their careers to

understanding what makes people thrive

Re-cruiting graduate students and reorienting

re-cent Ph.D.s to become active, contributing

pos-itive psychologists is perhaps the first hurdle.

Such efforts are already under way, with both

the Positive Psychology Summer Institute and

the Positive Psychology Young Scholars Grants

Program While these programs begin to

insti-tutionalize training and outreach within

posi-tive psychology, more widespread efforts to

cultivate the next generation of positive

psy-chologists are needed For instance, doctoral

programs with multiple faculty working as

pos-itive psychologists could develop graduate and

postdoctoral training programs in positive

psy-chology These training programs would need

to cross boundaries within psychology, drawing

on the strengths of multiple subdisciplines

within psychology and related fields With

these and other active efforts to

“broaden-and-build” itself, the field of positive psychology

will flourish.

Closing Thoughts on Breaking Away:

Advice From a Grandmother

As the other passengers were slowly boarding

the plane, a white-haired woman sat down next

to one of the editors (CRS) As we came to

cruising altitude, we began a lively conversation

that was to continue across the skies from

Phil-adelphia to Kansas City I learned that, because

of a mandatory age retirement rule, this woman had to quit her teaching position over 15 years ago She fondly recounted how she had spent those postretirement years with her grandchil- dren In fact, on this occasion, she was going to visit her brand-new great-grandson “What do you do for a living?” she asked I recounted the short version of my life as a professor and men- tioned my work in positive psychology Upon hearing about this, she became very animated, asking question after question about positive psychology The time passed quickly, and we soon were off the plane, walking up the ramp

to the terminal building She turned and opined,

“Positive psychology, that’s a good way to spend your time.” With that, she waved and disappeared into the outstretched arms of smil-

ing family members Positive psychology, that’s

a good way to spend your time We agree.

Please join us.

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150, 151, 154, 231–41, 261–

62, 266, 270n.5, 278, 532,

603, 604, 624, 626, 665, 680,

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262, 263, 266, 267, 268,270nn.3, 13, 292, 322, 354,

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109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114,116

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Clements, C M., 206Cleroux, J., 519

111, 193, 682, 691Costello, C G., 20Cote, J., 518Cottrill, K L., 522Courage, M L., 322Cousins, Norman, 620, 623Cowen, E L., 84

Cowen, S S., 166Cowger, E L., 636Cox, C., 193Coyle, C., 691Coyle, C P., 694Coyle, C T., 447, 452, 453, 454Coyne, J C., 371, 708Cozzarelli, C., 233, 234Cozzolino, R., 446Craig, A., 209Craig, K J W., 270n.1Craig, Y., 604Crammond, B., 192Crandall, E K B., 604Crandall, R., 404Crandall, V C., 205Crandall, V J., 205Cranson, R W., 636Crant, J M., 723Crary, W G., 373Crawford, D., 690Crewe, N., 688, 691, 693Crits-Christoph, P., 51Crocker, J., 705, 707Crofton, C., 358Cronbach, L J., 160Croog, S H., 358, 586, 650Crook, T H., 677Cross, J A., 490Cross, S., 356Cross, S E., 477Crothers, M., 266Crow, D M., 580Crow, F., 691Crowson, J J., Jr., 258Crumbaugh, J C., 267Crumpler, C A., 460, 466Cruzen, D., 203

Csikszentmihalyi, I., 90, 91, 92,

93, 102Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 3, 7,

14, 15, 22, 66, 89–102, 116,

196, 197, 217, 285, 328, 465,468–69, 706, 712n.4, 752Cuerdon, T., 575

Culbertson, F M., 545Cummings, E M., 559

Cunningham, A J., 208Cunningham, J A., 208Cunningham, M R., 529Cupach, W R., 449Curbow, B., 233Curry, L A., 262, 263, 264Curtis, R C., 371Curtis, W J., 86Cutler, S J., 678, 683n.1Czajka, J M., 721Dabbs, J., 580Dabul, A J., 416Dadds, M R., 506Dahms, L., 500Dahn, P F., 291Dakof, G A., 593Dalal, A K., 653Dalgleish, T., 461Dalla Lana, R., 604Damasio, A R., 160Damon, W., 96, 136, 467Daniels, L., 529Danoff-Burg, S., 150, 151Dantzer, R., 204d’Aquili, E G., 446Darby, B W., 449, 450Darley, W K., 400Darwin, C., 487, 711Daubman, K A., 124, 528, 529,533

Davidson, D., 560Davidson, D L., 449Davidson, J E., 191Davidson, J M., 635Davidson, K., 627Davidson, R J., 112, 122, 176,

536, 548Davies, J L., 636Davies, M., 161, 163, 167Davies, Robertson, 619–20Davis, Christopher G., 130, 154,

355, 358, 441, 585, 586, 589,

590, 598–606, 613, 615, 693Davis, G A., 195

Davis, K E., 425, 476Davis, M H., 487, 488Davis, M R., 487Davison, K P., 579, 580Dawes, R M., 21, 337, 490, 491,492

Day, J D., 736Dean, T., 655

de Avila, M E., 253DeBoer, S F., 517DeCasper, A J., 314, 320

de Champlain, J., 519

de Charms, R., 90Deci, E L., 89, 90, 91, 313, 386Decker, S., 358, 692

DeClaire, J., 160DeFalco, K., 165DeFries, J., 112

Dittman-Kohli, F., 615Dittmann-Kohli, F., 329, 331Ditto, P H., 403

DiVesta, F J., 503Dixon, D N., 38Dixon, Norman F., 621, 622Dixon, R A., 329

Dixon, W A., 292Dobbin, J P., 627Dobbins, G H., 415Doctor, J., 694Dodd, N G., 722Doherty, R W., 477Dohrenwend, B P., 77, 756Doise, W., 27

Dolhinow, P J., 123Dollard, J., 313Donahue, E M., 109Donahue, R L., 317Donne, John, 437Donnelly, M., 670Donovan, S., 634Dooley, W K., 677, 679, 680,683

Dougherty, C J., 442Douvan, E., 113, 561, 756Dovidio, J F., 488, 490, 494, 531,533

Dow, K H., 590Downey, G., 427Doyle, D., 647Doyle, W J., 559Drago, F., 561Dreiffus, J J., 560Droppleman, L F., 108, 252Drotar, D., 670, 695Druker, S M., 632Dryfoos, J G., 664Dubanoski, J P., 208Dubois-Dauphin, M., 560DuBreuil, S C., 360Duchamp, Marcel, 175DuCharme, K A., 281

Duff, M A., 318Dugal, S S., 398Dugan, K., 294Dukes, R L., 707Dulac, S., 518Dulin, J., 532Dunbar, K., 196Duncan, B L., 55, 708Duncan, M., 93Duncker, K., 338Dunkel-Schetter, C., 149, 358Dunn, D S., 355, 358, 692, 693Dunn, J B., 561

Dunn, M., 692, 694Dunning, D., 403Durant, W., 746Durbrow, E H., 77Durkheim, Emile, 576, 577Durlak, J A., 165Durning, P., 670Durrett, M E., 126Dutcher, L W., 399Dutton, J E., 762Duval, S., 396, 398Dweck, C S., 203, 227, 250, 284,

285, 355Dwyer, J., 253Dyck, R., 634Dykema, J., 253Dymond, R F., 487D’Zurilla, T J., 262, 289, 290,

294, 295, 704Eagly, A H., 280, 474Earle, T L., 518, 523Earls, F., 82, 557Early, S., 258, 487, 488Easterbrook, J A., 161Easterlin, B L., 637Ebbesen, E B., 416Ebbinghaus, H., 190Eccles, J S., 203Eckhart, Meister, 178Eco, Umberto, 619, 620Edmonds, S., 598Edwards, C P., 562Edwards, D L., 634Edwards, Lisa M., 263, 700–711,761

Eells, T D., 22Egeland, B., 82Ehrenberg, M F., 416Ehsani, A A., 517Eifert, G H., 635Einon, D F., 125Eisenberg, N., 319, 486, 487, 488,

490, 501, 507Eisenberger, R., 196Eisenstadt, J M., 193, 194Eiser, J R., 476

Ekman, P., 121, 129, 176Elder, G., 503

Elder, G H., Jr., 75, 81

Eysenck, M W., 115Faber, J., 415Fabes, R A., 319Fabricius, W V., 315, 322Fahey, J L., 586, 615Fahrbach, S E., 561Fainberg, A., 740Faircough, D L., 670Fairhurst, S K., 281Fairle, H., 221Falk, V T., 604Fantz, R L., 314Farber, M L., 257Farh, J L., 415Farina, C J., 258Farwell, L., 463Fava, Giovanni A., 54, 551, 553Fazio, R H., 374

Fee, R., 416, 448Feeney, J., 474Feeny, D., 669Fegley, S., 503Fehr, B., 474, 476Fehr, R., 425Feigl, Herbert, 41Feinberg, L F., 694Feinman, S., 315Feist, G J., 191, 192, 193, 195Feldman, D B., 14, 53, 100, 219,

260, 264, 266, 267, 268, 404,

666, 758, 762Feldman, D H., 193Feldman, S., 31Feldman, S I., 427Femia, E E., 682Ferguson, P C., 638Fernandez, M E., 680Fernandez-Ballesteros, R., 285Ferrell, B R., 590

Ferring, D., 593Ferris, G R., 717Ferry, P J., 669Feshbach, N D., 501, 505Feshbach, S., 501Festinger, Leon, 226, 367Feynman, Richard, 313, 314Fields, P B., 414

Field, T M., 480Fifer, W P., 314, 317, 320Filipp, S H., 559, 593Fincham, F D., 450, 453Fine, M., 688, 689Fine, P., 692Finke, R A., 192Finkel, D., 112Finkenauer, C., 616Finn, S E., 376Fisch, R., 377Fischer, K W., 385, 391Fischer, S A., 46

Fischler, G L., 289Fishbein, M., 281Fisher, L M., 330Fisher, R., 41, 163Fisher, R H., 586, 604Fisher, S W., 468Fisk, A D., 678Fiske, D W., 313, 414Fiske, S T., 284Fitch, V L., 208Fitchett, G., 654Fitzgerald, T E., 233, 234Fivush, R., 386

Fjellstrom, G G., 322Flaubert, Gustave, 181–82Fleming, A S., 558Fleshner, M., 548Fletcher, B., 265Fletcher, B L., 36, 37Fletcher, J., 634Fletcher, J M., 20Flinn, M V., 558Floyd, R K., 54, 266Flugel, J C., 63Foa, E B., 154Foege, W H., 681Foerster, Heinz von, 747Fogelman, Eva, 503Foley, K M., 680Folkman, S., 126, 130, 149, 150,

153, 155, 156, 516, 585, 589,

613, 626, 682, 689, 709, 736Follete, W C., 21

Foner, A., 545Fong, G T., 338Fontaine, K R., 235, 270n.5Fontana, A F., 417Fontana, A M., 559Ford, Donald H., 747Ford, H., 289Ford, M E., 126Fordyce, M W., 69, 637Fordyce, W E., 688Forgas, J P., 161Forsterling, F., 284Forsyth, D R., 416Foucault, Michel, 139, 435, 438Foulks, E F., 16

Fox, B., 227Fox, H., 725Fox, N A., 501Foy, J G., 522Foy, M R., 522Foy, T., 523Fracchia, L N., 521Fraley, R C., 20Frances, D., 558Francis, M E., 154, 578, 614, 615Frank, J B., 282

Frank, Jerome D., 257, 266, 282Frank, R G., 689, 690, 691, 692,694

Frankenhaeuser, M., 519, 523, 524

Gandhi, Mohandas, 502, 508Ganster, D., 396

Garb, H N., 20, 21Garcia-Marquez, C., 521Garde, M., 636, 637Gardner, C S., 724Gardner, H., 160, 173, 191Gardner, W L., 142Garfield, S L., 55Gariglietti, K P., 268Garmezy, N., 75, 77, 78, 82Garner, R L., 704Garrett, J T., 710Garrett, M T., 705Garrett, M W., 710Garrett, R., 341Garrison, B., 239Gaschke, Y N., 107, 161Gassin, E A., 453Gatz, M., 677Gautama Buddha, 746Gauvin, S., 196Gazzaniga, M S., 613Geary, D C., 203Geary, D G., 404Gecas, V., 136, 367Gee, S., 203Geher, G., 164Gelderloos, P., 634Gelman, R., 318Gelman, S., 315Gelpi, E., 521Gentner, D., 316Georgaca, E., 16George, J M., 535Gerbner, G., 250Gere, M A., 166Gergen, K J., 16, 21, 383, 384,

389, 390, 576Gergen, K L., 29Gergen, M M., 576Gerin, W., 518, 559Germond, J., 321Gessa, G L., 561Getz, L L., 561Getzels, J W., 89, 197Geva, N., 532, 533Gewirtz, J L., 321Gholson, B., 322Gibbs, J C., 505Gibbs, N., 159Giele, A Z., 81Giesler, B., 370Giesler, R B., 370Gigerenzer, G., 337, 338Gil, K., 688

Gilbert, D T., 370Gilbert, K R., 653Gilbert, P., 208

Gillespie, J M., 650Gillham, J E., 3, 5, 53, 69, 248,

250, 665Gilligan, C., 387, 388, 389, 491Gilman, S L., 16, 17

Gilson, B S., 693Girard, B., 518Girard, M., 448, 449, 450Giuliano, T., 163, 372Given, C W., 233, 234Gladis, M M., 51Glantz, M D., 77Glaser, R., 574, 614, 626Glaserfeld, Ernst von, 747Glass, D C., 203Glass, G V., 575Glass, L., 476Glazer, H I., 519Gleason, J B., 468Gleicher, F., 739Glick, J., 315Glock, C Y., 652Glover, J A., 191Glu¨ck, Judith, 327–43Glueckauf, R L., 694, 695Glynn, L M., 559Godshall, F J., 291, 690Goertzel, M G., 193Goertzel, T G., 193Goertzel, V., 193Goethe, Johann von, 189Goffin, R C., 178, 183n.2Goffman, E., 368, 371, 383Gohm, C., 68, 69Gold, E R., 251Gold, P E., 522Gold, P W., 560Goldberg, D P., 720Goldberg, L R., 33, 109Goldfried, M R., 284, 289, 290,294

Goldman, R., 648Goldman, S L., 163Goldsmith, H H., 70Goldsmith, L T., 193Goldstein, Jeffrey, 620Goldstein, Kurt, 183n.4Goleman, D., 159, 160, 166, 632,

633, 635Golinkoff, R M., 318Golub, S., 222Gonick, M R., 687Gonzalez, A S., 521Gonzalez, J L., 581Gonzalez, L., 46Good, G E., 292Goodenough, U., 460Goodman, E., 239Goodman, J., 628Goodnow, J J., 368Goodwin, F K., 161Goranson, R., 448Gordon, E., 75

Ha, Y W., 368Haaga, D A F., 206Haan, N., 589Haas, L J., 737, 738Habermas, J., 612Hackett, G., 704Hackman, J., 265Hackman, J R., 717Hagberg, J M., 517Haggerty, R J., 46Haidt, Jon, 50, 51, 753Haith, M M., 317Halberstadt, A G., 151Hall, G Stanley, 646Hall, J A., 163Hall, J L., 522Hall, P D., 636Hallet, A J., 452Hallinan, P K., 468Halling, S., 413, 414, 415, 416Hall-Merenda, K E., 721Ham, T., 294

Hamel, B., 152Hamera, E K., 30Hamill, C., 449Hamilton, D L., 399Hamilton, J A., 101Hamilton, N A., 265Hammen, C L., 355Hammer, A L., 233Hancock, K., 209Handel, S J., 319Handelsman, Mitchell M., 355,731–42

Hanmer, T J., 387Hanson, E., 143, 161Hanson, L R., Jr., 31Hanson, S., 692Hansson, R O., 493Harackiewicz, J M., 530Harder, D W., 411Harding, C G., 318Hardman, C E., 468Hardy, Thomas, 278Hargrave, T D., 448, 451Haring, M J., 68Harlan, E T., 321Harlow, H F., 368, 472, 557

Harlow, M K., 557Harlow, R E., 66Harned, D B., 462Harner, L., 317Harper, D., 16Harrington, D M., 192, 196Harris, A H S., 452Harris, A T., 96Harris, C., 258, 260, 262, 264,

265, 266, 353Harris, C V., 669Harris, D B., 328Harris, J., 397, 398, 399, 400–401,402

Harris, John, 181Harris, M L., 559Harris, P L., 468Harris, R N., 353Hart, C H., 502Hart, D., 385, 503Hart, J., 558Hart, K., 691Hart, P M., 715Harte, J L., 635Harter, Susan, 367, 382–92,712n.4

Hartshorne, H., 507Harvey, C D., 650Harvey, John H., 423–32Haselton, M G., 613Hastie, R., 354Hastings, P D., 509Hastings, S., 267, 668, 760Hatano, G., 338

Hatch, L R., 678, 683n.1Hatem, M., 217Hater, J J., 721Hatfield, E., 473, 474, 476, 477,

487, 580Hathaway, S R., 451Hathaway, W., 649Hauser, S T., 389Havercamp, S M., 446Haviland, J M., 319Haviland-Jones, J M., 461Hawkins, D A., 690Hawkins, J., 315Hawkins, J D., 85Hay, D F., 500Hay, L L., 459Haybittle, J L., 237Hayek, Friedrich A., 746, 747Hayes, A., 52

Hayes, J R., 176, 196Haynes, C T., 635Haynes, O M., 107Hazan, C., 240, 474, 476Hazareesingh, N A., 209Hazen, N L., 126Headey, B., 67, 116Hearn, G., 250Hearnshaw, L S., 732Hearth, A K., 258

450, 680Highberger, L., 492Hight, T L., 416Hilbert, R A., 612Hilgard, E R., 746Hill, C A., 372Hill, K G., 85Hillary, Edmund, 321Hillerbrand, E T., 262, 294Hinton-Nelson, M D., 667, 672Hipp, K M., 654

Hippocrates, 13Hirt, E R., 338, 529, 530Hitler, Adolf, 509Hixon, J G., 355, 370, 374Hobbes, Thomas, 438, 439, 486,619

Hobbs, F H., 676Hoberman, H M., 46Hoblitzelle, W., 411Hocevar, D., 191Hochschild, A R., 140Hodges, L., 284Hofer, S M., 677Hoffman, E., 460Hoffman, H G., 694Hoffman, J T., 264, 691Hoffman, Martin L., 486, 487,

492, 493, 501, 503Hoffman, R R., III, 754Hogan, R., 502Hoge, D R., 646Hogg, M A., 399Holahan, C J., 577, 579Holahan, C K., 577, 709Holden, C., 447Holden, J., 706Holleran, S., 355Holliday, S G., 330Hollon, S D., 5, 283Holloway, S D., 249Holmberg, D., 429, 682Holmes, J G., 367, 431, 476, 477Holmes, T S., 194

Holroyd, K A., 151Holt-Lunstad, J., 559Holzberg, A D., 403Honaker, L M., 738Hood, L., 318Hood, R W., Jr., 179, 183n.3Hooker, K., 233, 235, 598Hooyman, N R., 678, 679Horn, J L., 677

Horney, Karen, 383Hornsey, M J., 399Hornstein, H A., 492Horowitz, M J., 590Horwatt, K., 521Horwitz, J., 706

Horwitz, R I., 548Houdbine, A., 448House, J S., 549, 556House, P., 220Houston, B K., 265Houston, D A., 505Houts, A C., 21Hovland, C I., 368Howard, J A., 505Howe, M., 31Howell, J M., 721Howell, M., 217Hoyer, W J., 679Hoyle, R H., 397, 398Hoyt, M F., 52, 602Hoyt, W T., 448, 450, 454Hubbard, B., 115

Hubble, M A., 55, 708Hudson, J A., 386Hudson, L M., 209Hufeland, Gottlieb, 620Hughes, C., 760Hughes, R., Jr., 505Hull, C L., 499Hull, E., 519Hull, J G., 680, 682Hume, David, 278, 486, 487, 488Hummer, R A., 647

Hunsberger, B., 652Hunsley, J., 154Hunt, J., 90, 590Hunt, M G., 154Hunt, W., 208Hunter, G., 397Hunter, M A., 416Hunter, Walter S., 746Hurrell, J J., 725Hursthouse, R., 462Husband, S D., 294Hutchinson, C., 233Hutton, D G., 353, 384Hutton, P H., 139Huxley, A., 179Hwang, C., 412Hynes, G J., 152, 153Iannotti, R J., 505Ickes, W., 425, 487Ickovics, J R., 524, 557, 584Iker, H., 270n.11

Ilardi, S S., 6, 267, 270n.3, 354Ilko, S A., 416

Imao, R A K., 291, 292Imber, L., 218

Ingersoll, G M., 670Inghilleri, P., 90, 95, 100Inglehart, R., 113Ingram, C D., 562Ingram, R E., 52, 265, 267, 283,

355, 759Inouye, D K., 246Insel, T R., 561, 564

Johnson, W B., 732Johnson-Laird, P N., 197, 368Johnston, M., 208

Joiner, T E., 109, 126, 127, 131,

416, 708Jones, E., 220Jones, E E., 29, 353, 355, 366,

416, 425Jones, J E., 448Jones, J H., 732Jones, M L., 694Jones, R A., 354Jones, S C., 366Jones, S E., 732Jones, S M., 166Jones, W H., 448Jordan, A E., 736Jordan, J V., 389Jorgenson, P F., 461Josephs, R A., 370Joss, J., 217Jost, J T., 371Joubert, L., 620Jourard, S M., 573Joyce, James, 227Juda, A., 194Judge, T A., 307, 715Jung, Carl, 542Juniper, E., 669Jurankova, E., 562Kabat-Zinn, J., 633, 634, 637, 638,640

Kaczala, C M., 249Kaemingk, K., 559Kagan, J., 613Kahle, K., 266Kahn, B E., 124, 529, 530, 531,533

Kahn, D., 99Kahn, R L., 545, 676, 677, 678,

679, 681, 719Kahneman, D., 64, 65, 224, 337Kaiser, J., 692

Kalmar, K., 291Kamarck, T., 626Kameda, M., 450

Kamen-Siegel, L., 253Kameoka, V A., 208Kampf, H C., 492Kanouse, D E., 31Kant, Immanuel, 352, 439, 463,

491, 746Kaplan, B H., 452Kaplan, D., 476Kaplan, J S., 702Kaplan, M., 284Kaplan, R M., 53, 264, 669Kaplan, S., 208

Karasek, R A., 717, 718Karlson, J I., 194Karney, B R., 115Karniol, R., 320Kashiwagi, K., 249Kashubeck, S., 756Kaslow, F W., 22Kaslow, N J., 249Katkovsky, W., 205Kato, P., 704Katz, I R., 680Katz, J., 208, 370, 453Katz, L., 678Katz, L D., 536Katz, S T., 183n.4Kaufman, G D., 648Kawachi, I., 560Kaye, K., 321Kazak, A., 670Kazdin, A E., 283Keane, S P., 283Keany, C M.-H., 695Keasey, C B., 320Keating, D., 78Keating, D P., 316Keating, J P., 490Keener, A D., 107, 112Keith, B., 688Keith, D., 248, 665Keith, P M., 370Keith-Spiegel, P., 732, 733, 737Kekes, J., 327, 329, 339, 341Kelchner, K., 760

Keller, Helen, 693Keller, M B., 46Kelley, Harold H., 33, 247, 319,

354, 355, 423, 429, 431, 599Kelloway, E K., 715, 718, 720,

721, 722Kelly, A E., 386, 577Kelly, E L., 115Kelly, G A., 367, 368Kelly, George A., 746, 747, 748Keltner, Dacher, 622, 625, 753,762–63

Kemeny, M E., 206, 237, 586,

593, 601, 615Kemp, B J., 691Kemper, T D., 461Kendall, P C., 283, 289

Kohlberg, L., 327, 340, 411, 449,

490, 491, 499, 503Kohlenberg, R J., 360Kohler, W., 487Ko¨hler, Wolfgang, 190Kohn, P M., 150Kohut, H., 414Kolander, C., 706Kolata, G., 181Kolb, D A., 166Kolditz, T., 353Konarska, M., 520, 521Koocher, G P., 732, 737Koopmans, S J., 517Korabik, K., 561Korchin, S J., 13Kosciulek, J F., 695Kosonen, P., 338Kosterman, R., 85Kovacs, M., 239Kowalski, R M., 383Kozak, M J., 154Kraemer, G W., 558, 564Kraiger, K., 532

Kramer, D., 166Kramer, D A., 330, 331, 342Kramer, G P., 338

Krampf, R F., 399Krantz, A., 576, 578Krantz, D H., 338Krantz, S E., 204Krapp, A., 90Krause, J S., 691, 693Krauskopf, C J., 289, 293Krauss, B J., 264Krauss, H H., 264Krauss, S., 112Krebs, D L., 486, 488, 493, 505

Kremen, A M., 128Krevans, J., 505Krile, D., 509Kring, W., 724Krisha, V., 636Kriska, M., 562Kristal-Boneh, E., 560Kristeller, J L., 651Kroeber, A L., 189Krueger, J., 416Kruger, K., 558Kruglanski, A W., 332Krull, D S., 355, 369, 370, 371Kubey, R., 94

Kuczaj, S A., II, 319Kueneman, K., 627Kuhn, Thomas, 216Kuhn, T S., 754Kuiper, N A., 626Kuipers, P., 121Kulessa, G., 227Kulka, R A., 113, 561, 756Kunda, Z., 338, 366, 396Kunz, G., 413

Kunzmann, Ute, 327–43Kupersmidt, J., 321Kurdek, L A., 509Kurtz, D A., 707Kurylo, Monica, 687–95Kushe, C A., 166Kushner, Harold S., 646, 653Kutchins, H., 16

Kvetnansky, R., 520, 521–22, 523Kyle, D., 206

LaBarre, W., 174L’Abate, L., 614Labouvie-Vief, G., 329, 331, 342Labroo, A., 528

Lachman, M E., 207LaGuardia, R L., 519Lahey, B B., 509Laird, S., 265, 691Lakatos, I., 216Lamb, J., 665Lamb, M E., 317Lambert, J D., 548Lambert, M J., 51Landgraf, J M., 670Landgraf, R., 564Landis, Carney, 746Landis, K R., 549, 556Landsbergis, P A., 716Lane, J D., 577Lane, R D., 163, 564Lange, Carl, 173Langenbucher, J W., 18Langer, E J., 208, 214–29, 331,

632, 636Langston, C A., 412Lantieri, L., 165, 166Lanzetta, J T., 487Lao-Tzu, 746

Lesserman, J., 239Leung, K., 416Leung, P., 694Levenson, R W., 121, 127, 128,

129, 149, 487Levin, H., 502Levin, J S., 647Levin, P F., 529Levine, A., 203Levine, G F., 250Levine, R., 521, 523, 732Levine, S., 358, 521, 522, 523,

559, 586, 650Levine, Seymour, 518Levinson, D., 461Levinson, D M., 637Leviton, G L., 31, 687Levitt, M J., 506Levy, J A., 480Lewandowski, A M., 21Lewin, Kurt, 26, 687Lewinsohn, P M., 46, 130Lewis, B P., 492Lewis, C C., 669Lewis, C S., 413Lewis, H A., 667Lewis, J., 282, 636Lewis, L., 691Lewis, M., 315, 461, 467Lewis, S J., 411

Li, L., 690, 692

Li, L W., 548Libero, D Z., 107Lichtman, R R., 206, 358, 589Lickona, T., 165, 501Lidz, C W., 732Lieberman, M A., 598Lifton, R J., 384, 389, 390, 391Lightman, S L., 562

Lim, J., 400Limayem, M., 196Lin, E H., 253–54Lincoln, Abraham, 504Linden, W., 518, 519, 523Lindenberger, U., 329, 335Linehan, M M., 655Linkowski, D C., 693

Lipman-Blumen, J., 102Lipps, T., 487

Lipsitt, L P., 321Lishner, David A., 389, 425, 440,485–94, 501

Litt, M D., 203, 233, 234, 236,266

Little, B L., 284Little, B R., 66, 259, 548Little, M., 736

Little, T D., 207Liu, D., 558Liu, W T., 710Livesley, W J., 20, 109Livneh, H., 688Liwag, M D., 386Lloyd, 178Lobel, M., 451, 654Locke, Edwin A., 91, 282, 283,299–311

Locke, John, 278Lockwood, G A., 208Loeber, R., 81Loewy, E H., 442Loftus, E., 360Londerville, Susan, 502, 506Long, B C., 233

Long, L., 319Lonigan, C J., 20Lopez, Shane J., 16–17, 19, 21, 26–

42, 45–55, 263, 266, 268, 336,

668, 672, 700–711, 751–64Lorenzo-Hernandez, J., 707Lorion, R P., 740Lorr, M., 108, 252Love, G D., 545, 549Lovejoy, A., 436Lowell, E L., 278Lowe, R., 692Lowery, C R., 21, 404Lowrance, R., 531Lowry, R J., 460Lubart, T I., 189, 192, 197Lubin, B., 107

Lubinski, D., 20Luborsky, Lester, 6Lucariello, J., 317Lucas, Richard E., 45, 48, 63–70,

109, 711Luce, C., 492Luciana, M., 112, 535Lucker, G W., 193Luckman, T., 367Luckow, A., 561Ludermann, P M., 319Ludwig, A M., 194Ludwig, M., 564Ludwig, T., 452Luecken, L J., 559Luhtanen, R., 707Lukoff, I F., 28Luks, A., 494Lum, B J., 329

Manton, K G., 677Manzi, J M., 399Maracek, J., 33Maranto, C L., 195Marcatonis, E., 222Marcell, M., 317Marciniak, D., 294Marcus, D K., 251Marcus, J., 321Margid, S., 636Markman, K D., 338Marks, N F., 545, 548Marks, S B., 249Marks, T., 355Markus, H., 373, 384, 385, 396Markus, H M., 354, 356Markus, H R., 398, 547, 682Marlatt, G A., 651

Marmarosh, C., 293Marmot, M G., 207, 545Marold, D B., 387Maroto, J J., 238Marquis, D P., 317Marrero, D G., 670Marsh, H W., 94Marshall, T H., 139Marston, P J., 476Martel, F L., 561, 562, 563Martin, D J., 207Martin, J., 760Martin, L H., 139Martin, L L., 576Martin, L R., 254Martin, P., 716Martin, Rod A., 623, 626, 627Martin, W L., Jr., 736Martindale, C., 191, 192, 197Martineau, W H., 126Martinez, A M., 163Martinez, R O., 707Martinez Sanchez, M A., 680Martocchio, J., 96

Marwell, G., 136, 270n.7Mashburn, D., 655Maslach, C., 395, 398, 403, 493Maslow, Abraham H., 7, 66, 90,

173, 191, 194, 267, 300, 302,

327, 340–41, 352, 390, 460,462–63, 542, 632, 638Mason, L., 30

Massimini, F., 90, 94, 96, 98, 100Masten, Ann S., 74–86, 282Masters, J C., 126, 319, 503Matarazzo, J D., 264Matas, L., 126Mathew, R., 682Mathews, K E., 493Mathias-Riegel, B., 480

Mathur, S., 126Maton, K I., 705, 712n.3Matthews, K A., 193, 524, 559Matthews, L L., 490

Maturana, Humberto R., 747Mauger, P A., 448, 449, 450, 451Mauritzen, J., 647

Mauss, M., 438Mavin, G H., 354Maxwell, N., 329May, M S., 507May, Rollo, 182, 191, 194Maydeu-Olivares, A., 704Mayer, John D., 54, 107, 143,

149, 159–67, 173, 722Mayers, P., 94, 96Mayne, T J., 154, 578Mayol, A., 355Mazzeo, R S., 520, 523McAdams, D P., 90, 329, 331,

391, 430, 467, 576, 591, 599,

614, 615McCabe, A., 319McCall, G J., 367, 369McCarthy, M E., 503McCarthy, M M., 560, 561, 562McCarty, M E., 321

McCarty, R., 520, 521McCaul, K D., 404McCauley, C R., 761McClain, T M., 162McClear, K., 300McClelland, David C., 190, 249,

278, 638McCluskey-Fawcett, K A., 123McColl, M A., 691

McCormick, S E., 319McCoy, C L., 319McCrae, R R., 67, 108, 109, 110,

111, 193, 591, 679, 682, 688,691

McCubbin, J A., 563McCuddy, M., 396McCullough, Michael E., 53, 54,

263, 446–55, 460, 463–64,

584, 655, 752, 753–54McDavis, K., 488McDermott, D S., 259, 260, 267,270nn.10, 13, 666, 667, 668,

672, 757, 760McDermott, H D., 305McDonald, H E., 530McDonald, L M., 561McDonnell, P., 506McDougall, William, 486, 487,

488, 493, 620–21, 623McEwen, B S., 521, 524, 545,

548, 557, 559, 560, 565, 584McFarland, C., 402, 403McFarlin, D B., 374McGaugh, J L., 522McGhee, P E., 628McGill, K L., 355

266, 267, 270nn.3, 14, 292,

322, 354, 603Michaels, S., 478Michalos, A C., 66Michelangelo, 189, 190Mickley, J R., 654Migulla, K J., 224Miketta, G., 159Mikulincer, M., 126, 245Milano, R A., 693Miles, M S., 604Miller, D., 216, 390Miller, D T., 136, 224, 353, 354,

402, 403Miller, G A., 270n.1, 429, 430,

535, 537Miller, J., 634Miller, J B., 389, 390Miller, K., 371Miller, N., 531, 533Miller, N E., 313, 519Miller, P., 488Miller, P H., 320Miller, R S., 353Miller, S D., 55, 708Miller, S M., 203Miller, T., 459, 465Miller, T Q., 452Mills, D E., 627Mills, J., 428Mills, M K., 400Milner, C., 722Milton, L., 372Minchoff, B., 626Mineka, S., 114Miner, K N., 594Mirabi, M., 682Miranti, J G., 705Mirowsky, J., 203, 207Mischel, W., 367, 416Mishoe, S C., 670Mistry, J., 321Mitchell, D R D., 720Mitchell, J., 205Mitchell, T., 416Mithaug, D., 760Monahan, D., 233Mondeville, Henri de, 620Moneta, G., 92, 95Monsour, A., 385Montaigne, Michel, 439Montgomery, B M., 423, 427

Moon, C., 260, 270n.12, 317Moon, M., 678

Moore, B S., 708Moore, D., 690, 692Moore, L I., 694Moore, L P., 506Moore, M K., 314, 436Moore, P J., 237Moore, S G., 506Moores, M., 166Moos, R H., 126, 577, 604, 683Moran, T., 494

More, T A., 173Moreland, R L., 374Morgan, B., 694Morgan, C., 180Morgan, M J., 125Morgan, W P., 521Moriarty, A E., 75, 82Morrell, J I., 561Morris, T., 237Morris, W N., 141, 142Morrison, E W., 723–24Morrongiello, B A., 317, 321Morrow, W R., 13

Mosnarova, A., 562Mossey, J., 680Moutinho, K., 721Mowrer, O H., 160Mrazek, P J., 46Mueller, A D., 687Mueller, C M., 250Mueller, C W., 115Muhlenkamp, A., 30Mulcaster, Richard, 620Mulder, B., 637Mulhern, R K., 670Mullarkey, S., 718Mullet, E´., 448, 449, 450Mullett, J., 487Mullin, J T., 314Mullins, L L., 691Mulvey, J., 678Mumford, E., 575Mundell, C E., 20Munoz-Dunbar, R., 702Muraven, M B., 416Murch, R L., 590, 601Murison, R., 522Murphy, C., 239Murphy, G., 487Murphy, K R., 415Murphy, Lois, 75, 82Murphy, M., 634, 635, 638, 736Murray, C., 160

Murray, C J L., 46Murray, E J., 614Murray, Henry, 70Murray, K T., 321Murray, N., 529, 533Murray, S L., 367, 375, 431, 476,477

Murstein, B I., 473

154, 248, 250, 252, 355, 358,

441, 465, 585, 598–606, 613,615

Noll, R B., 670Noller, P., 474Norcross, J C., 282North, J., 447Nowicki, G P., 124, 528Nowlis, S M., 401Nozick, R., 329Nunley, E P., 163, 174, 180, 181Nurius, P., 384, 385

Nussbaum, Martha, 437Nyenhuis, D L., 692Nygren, T E., 532Nystul, M S., 636, 637Oatley, Keith, 20, 121, 461, 464Oberst, U E., 746

O’Connell, W E., 622O’Connor, C., 461O’Connor, L E., 448O’Connor, P J., 521O’Connor, T G., 389O’Day, D H., 558Oden, M H., 709, 757Odle, C., 265Oelmu¨ller, W., 329Ogston, W D., 580Ogus, E D., 561O’Halloran, J P., 635Ohannessian, C M., 238Ohbuchi, K., 450Oishi, Shigehiro, 48, 63–70, 706,711

Okamoto, K., 399Okun, M A., 68Oldham, G R., 717O’Leary, A., 281, 523Olekalns, M., 115Oliner, P M., 490Oliner, S P., 490Olinger, L J., 626Oliver, J M., 262, 270n.5Olkin, R., 688

Olson, A M., 437Olson, J M., 622, 629Olthof, T., 468Omarzu, J., 424, 430Omens, A E., 398Omodei, M M., 66, 259O’Neal, G., 692O’Neill, C W., 712n.3Orbell, J M., 490, 491O’Reardon, J P., 46Orme-Johnson, D W., 634, 635Ortony, A., 161, 461

Osborn, A F., 196

Osowiecki, D., 155Ostendorf, F., 416Ostrom, R., 655Ouellette, S., 707Overmier, J B., 244Overwalle, F V., 460, 461Owen, A M., 534Owens, K., 136Oxman, T E., 680, 682Paden, William E., 651, 652Paez, D., 581

Paivio, S C., 149, 154Palfai, T P., 161, 163Palmatier, A D., 265, 691Palmer, R., 690

Palmer, S., 760Palmore, E., 677Paloutzian, R F., 648Palys, T S., 259Pande, N., 653Panksepp, J., 123, 557, 561, 562,

563, 564Pannell, M., 449Pantell, R H., 669Papini, D R., 123Pargament, Kenneth I., 447, 646–56

Paris, F A., 468Park, C., 247, 249, 672Park, C L., 237, 238, 585, 589,

590, 591, 594, 601, 603, 604,

613, 688Park, Y O., 449Parker, I., 16Parker, J C., 208Parker, J D A., 149, 150, 163,177

Parker, L E., 600Parker, S K., 717, 718, 723, 724Parkes, K R., 203

Parkinson, B., 178Parks, B., 94Parmelee, P A., 680, 682, 756Parritz, R H., 558

Parrot, L., III, 448Parrott, T M., 678Parsa, Anita, 148–56, 681Parsons, C K., 720Parsons, J E., 249Parsons, T., 683Partridge, C., 208Pasupathi, M., 330, 334Patrick, B C., 430Patrick, C., 575Patrick, R., 532, 533Patterson, D., 694Patterson, L E., 707Patterson, M G., 716Patterson, T L., 669Patterson, V., 602Patti, J., 165, 166Patton, J., 96

Priester, J R., 122

Prince, L M., 163Prinzmetal, W., 338Pritzker, S., 191Prkachin, K M., 627Prochaska, J O., 282Proctor, W., 633Propst, L R., 655Prosser, Ellie C., 39, 53, 700–711Pruitt, D G., 530

Pruitt, S D., 670Prussia, G E., 284Pruyser, P W., 460, 463Ptacek, J T., 561Puglisi-Allegra, S., 535Pulitzer, Joseph, 189Pulvers, K M., 265, 266, 612, 756Purtillo, R., 442

Puskar, K R., 665Putnam, P., 107Pyle, M., 396Pyszczynski, T A., 354, 626Quamma, J P., 166Quinlan, D M., 163Quinn, J F., 679Quinn, R P., 719Quittner, A L., 671, 694Rabin, B S., 559Rabinowitz, F E., 291Rabkin, J G., 203Rachal, K C., 448, 450, 454Rackley, J V., 450Raczynski, J M., 542Radke-Yarrow, M., 493, 502, 506Radziszewska, B., 321

Rae, D S., 46Rafanelli, C., 54, 551, 553Raggenbass, M., 560Raglin, J S., 521Rahe, R H., 194Raifel, M., 560Raimondi, D., 636Rainforth, M V., 634Rajab, H., 291Rak, C F., 707Ramana, R., 46, 50Ramey, C T., 85Ramey, S L., 85Rand, Ayn, 299, 300, 301, 304,308

Rand, Kevin L., 52, 53, 91, 233,257–68, 278, 282, 283, 300,

342, 361, 389, 553, 599, 655,

682, 691Rank, Otto, 173Rao, P., 636Rape, R., 689Rapoff, M A., 260, 264, 666, 667,

690, 760Rappaport, J., 84Rapson, R L., 473, 477, 487, 580Raskin, J A., 51

Richards, T A., 126Richardson, A., 93Richardson, B Z., 493Richeson, C., 293Richie, D M., 317Richter, L., 532, 754Rideout, M C., 166Ridgeway, D., 315, 319Rieger, E., 266Riemann, R., 109Riesman, D., 383–84Rigatuso, J., 558Riger, A L., 353Riggio, R E., 163Riley, M W., 545Rim, Y., 626Rime´, B., 573Rintala, D., 691Ris, M D., 124Riskind, J., 53Ritter, K Y., 712n.3Ritts, V., 370, 375Ritvo, P., 208Rivak, J., 560Rivera, Patricia, 687–95Rivers, S., 637Rizzo, A A., 694Rizzuto, A M., 648Roach, M A., 320Robbins, A S., 238Robers, T., 476Roberts, J., 694Roberts, K., 315Roberts, Michael C., 663–72, 760Roberts, R C., 462

Roberts, R D., 161Roberts, W., 501Robertson, T S., 399Robins, C., 284Robins, L N., 46Robinson, D K., 634Robinson, D T., 370Robinson, F G., 530Robinson, G F., 124Robinson, J., 509Robinson, J P., 64Robinson, M D., 416Robinson, R., 90, 96, 99Robinson-Whelen, S., 252Robitschek, Christine, 51, 755–56Rocha-Singh, I A., 704

Rochat, P., 314Rochefoucauld, Duke de la, 486Rode, C A., 668

Rodgers, D T., 611Rodgers, R., 294Rodgers, R C., 195Rodgers, W L., 67Rodin, J., 162, 203, 207, 208, 253,578

Rodriguez Echandia, E L., 521

Roe, A., 193Roese, N J., 223Rogers, Carl R., 90, 190, 197, 340,

352, 383, 387, 390, 487, 542Rogers, E M., 399

Rogers, P., 163Rogers, R G., 647Rogers, R J., 136Rogers, R W., 281, 493Rogers, W A., 678Rogoff, B., 321Rohde, P., 46Rohe, D., 691Rokeach, Milton, 301, 339–40,

341, 502Roloff, M E., 450Romzek, B S., 721Ronan, G F., 291, 293Ronning, R R., 191Ronnis, D L., 367Roodin, P A., 679Rose, R., 207Rosen, C E., 705Rosenbaum, M., 46, 278Rosenberg, E L., 121Rosenberg, Morris, 135, 136, 414Rosenberg, R., 691

Rosenberg, R L., 417Rosenblum, K E., 16Rosenman, R H., 452Rosenstock, I M., 281Rosenthal, R., 163Rosenthal, R A., 719Rosenzweig, A S., 528Rosenzweig, S., 322Ross, Alan, 17, 19Ross, C E., 203, 207, 208Ross, H W., 321Ross, L., 337, 338Ross, Lee, 220Ross, M., 136, 592Rossello, J., 710Rosser, R., 668Rossi, A S., 342Rotenberg, K., 354Roth, K A., 521Rothbart, M K., 70Rothbaum, B O., 154Rothbaum, F., 205, 246, 612Rothberg, D., 183n.4Rothenberg, A., 194Rothermund, K., 204, 207Rothman, A J., 578Rotter, J B., 278, 322Rotton, J., 624Rousseau, J J., 437, 486, 619Routh, D K., 13

Rovee, C K., 321Rowe, J., 586Rowe, J O., 413Rowe, J W., 548, 676, 677, 678,

679, 681Roy, M C., 196, 197