The Economics of Tourism and Sustainable Development phần 6 docx

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 149TOTAL Tourism- Non-specific Total Imports* Taxes Domestic Internal Tourism tourism connected industries output of less sup

Table 6 (continued)

TOURISM INDUSTRIES

1 – Hotels 2 – Second * * * 12 – Sporting TOTAL

output tourism output tourism output tourism output tourism output

3 Electricity, gas and water

(at purchasers’ price)

Total gross value added of

activities (at basic prices)

Compensation of employees

Other taxes less subsidies on

production

Gross Mixed income

Gross Operating surplus

Notes:

X  does not apply.

*** Means that all tourism industries of the proposed list have to be considered one by one in the enumeration.

* The imports referred to here are exclusively those which are purchased within the country of reference (1) Corresponds to the margins of the travel agencies.

(2) Corresponds to the margins of the tour operators.

(3) The value is net of the amounts paid to travel agencies and tour operators.

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 149

TOTAL Tourism- Non-specific Total Imports* Taxes Domestic Internal Tourism tourism connected industries output of less supply tourism ratio

tourism output tourism output tourism (at basic products price)

output and imports

Table 6 (and link to Table 5.3) Domestic supply and internal tourism

consumption by products (net valuation)

TOURISM INDUSTRIES

1 – Hotels 2 – Second * * * 12 – Sporting TOTAL

output tourism output tourism output tourism output tourism output

4 – Travel agency, tour X X

operator and tourist

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 151

TOTAL Tourism- Non-specific Total Imports* Taxes Domestic Internal Tourism tourism connected industries output of less supply tourism ratio

tourism output tourism output tourism (at basic products price)

output and imports

Table 6 (and link to Table 5.3) (continued)

TOURISM INDUSTRIES

1 – Hotels 2 – Second * * * 12 – Sporting TOTAL

output tourism output tourism output tourism output tourism output

and fishery products

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 153

TOTAL Tourism- Non-specific Total Imports* Taxes Domestic Internal Tourism tourism connected industries output of less supply tourism ratio

tourism output tourism output tourism (at basic products price)

output and imports

Table 6 (and link to Table 5.3) (continued)

TOURISM INDUSTRIES

1 – Hotels 2 – Second * * * 12 – Sporting TOTAL

output tourism output tourism output tourism output tourism output

3 Electricity, gas and water

(at purchasers’ price)

Total gross value added of

activities (at basic prices)

Compensation of employees

Other taxes less subsidies on

production

Gross Mixed income

Gross Operating surplus

Notes:

X  does not apply.

*** Means that all tourism industries of the proposed list have to be considered one by one in the enumeration.

* The imports referred to here are exclusively those which are purchased within the country of reference (1) Corresponds to the margins of the travel agencies.

(2) Corresponds to the margins of the tour operators.

(3) The value is net of the amounts paid to travel agencies and tour operators.

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 155

TOTAL Tourism- Non-specific Total Imports* Taxes Domestic Internal Tourism tourism connected industries output of less supply tourism ratio

tourism output tourism output tourism (at basic products price)

output and imports

taxes less subsidies on products

products consumed by tourists

value added by industry products used by industry

Table 8 Tourism gross fixed capital formation of tourism industries

and other industries

T O U R I S M

and home and passenger passenger passenger passenger similar ownership similar transport transport transport transport (imputed)

A.2 Intangibles fixed X

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 159

8 – 9 – 10 – 11 – 12 – TOTAL Public Others Total tourism Passenger Passenger Travel Cultural Sporting tourism Adminis- grosstransport transport agencies services and other industries tration fixed capital

and others

(1)

(1) (1)

(1) (1)

160 The economics of tourism and sustainable development

Table 8 (continued)

T O U R I S M

and home and passenger passenger passenger passenger similar ownership similar transport transport transport transport (imputed)

X  does not apply.

(1) Only of tourism purpose.

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 161

8 – 9 – 10 – 11 – 12 – TOTAL Public Others Total tourism Passenger Passenger Travel Cultural Sporting tourism Adminis- grosstransport transport agencies services and other industries tration fixed capital

and others

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 163

Table 10 Non-monetary indicators

10 a) Number of trips and overnights by type of tourism and categories of visitors

Inbound tourism Domestic tourism Outbound tourism Same- Tourists Total Same- Tourists Total Same- Tourists Total day visitors day visitors day visitors visitors visitors visitors

Number of

trips

Number of

overnights

10 b) Number of arrivals and overnights by means of transport (*)

3.2 Motor coach or bus and

other public road transportation

3.3 Private vehicles

3.4 Vehicle rental

3.5 Other means of land transport

TOTAL

164 The economics of tourism and sustainable development

10 c) Number of establishments and capacity by forms of accommodation

Capacity utilization (rooms)

Capacity utilization (beds)

10 d) Number of establishments according to tourism characteristic and connected activities and number of employed persons

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 165

166 The economics of tourism and sustainable development

INDICATORS PROPOSED IN THE FRAMEWORK OF ESEPI

Table A General indicators

1 Ratio tourists/residents

2 Ratio tourist overnight stays/residents * (365
k), where k is the number of

days spent by residents outside the area considered

3 Number of tourists/km 2 (in the reference period and in peak season)

4 Passenger-km travelled by tourists in relation to total passenger-km, divided

by type of transport

Table B Air pollution

and reference period

tourist accommodation

Emissions of NMVOC due to tourist transportation tonnes, yr

Emissions of NMVOC due to energy used for tourist tonnes, yr

accommodation

Emissions of SO2due to energy used for tourist tonnes, yr

accommodation

Emissions of particles due to tourist transportation tonnes, yr

Emissions of particles due to energy used for tourist tonnes, yr

accommodation

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 167

Table C Climate change

and reference period

Emissions of CO2due to energy used for tourist tonnes, yr

accommodation

Emissions of N2O due to tourist transportation tonnes, yr

Emissions of N2O due to energy used for tourist tonnes, yr

accommodation

Emissions of NOxdue to energy used for tourist tonnes, yr

accommodation

(for emissions of chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs) and halons)

(for emissions of chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs) and halons)

Emissions of particles due to tourist transportation tonnes, yr

Emissions of particles due to energy used for tourist tonnes, yr

accommodation

Additional indicators

Emissions of CO due to tourist transportation

Emissions of CO due to energy used for tourist accommodation

Emissions of NMVOC due to tourist transportation

Emissions of NMVOC due to energy used for tourist accommodation

168 The economics of tourism and sustainable development

Table E Marine environment and coastal zones

and reference period Percentage of nutrients (N and P) discharged through %, yr

sewage water attributable to tourism

establishments in relation to total land area in coastal

zones

(time series of the previous one)

railways, ports, airports in relation to total land area

in coastal zones

Total no of tourists arriving into the country by sea %, yr

in relation to total no of sea passengers

Total no of yachts and other pleasure boats arriving no., yr

to countries

no of ships during the tourist season

Discharge of sewage water to coastal water by type tonnes, yr

of treatment

Table D Loss of biodiversity

and reference period Percentage of area occupied by tourist establishments %, yr

in relation to total land area within certain types

of land, e.g mountain area, beaches

(time series of the previous one)

Area occupied by roads, railways, ports, airports, % or km 2 , yr

with regard to the total area of a given country

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 169

Table E (continued)

and reference period Percentage of organic substances (BOD) discharged %, yr

through sewage water attributable to tourism

Additional indicators

Percentage of certain fish and other marine species caught by tourists

(e.g lobster, salmon)

Number of tourist ports

Table F Ozone layer depletion

and reference period

emissions of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons)

Number of refrigerators in hotels (for emissions of number, yr

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons)

Emissions of NOxdue to energy used for tourist tonnes, yr

accommodation

Table G Resource depletion

and reference period Annual use of mineral oil or natural gas as a fuel tonnes or km 3 , yr attributable to tourism

Water abstraction due to tourism in relation to total %, yr

water abstraction for household purposes, divided

by groundwater and surface water

170 The economics of tourism and sustainable development

Table G (continued)

and reference period Percentage of area changed for tourism purposes (e.g ski centres, golf courses, beach areas owned by hotels, pleasure ports, etc.)

No of visitors per year and per km 2 in protected areas

Percentage of area occupied by roads, railways, ports, airports, with regard to the total area of a given country

Percentage of fish catch of certain valuable species taken by tourists

Percentage of animals killed through hunting by tourists in relation to all animals killed through hunting

Annual use of energy attributable to tourism

Table H Dispersion of toxics

No core indicator was selected

Additional indicators

Percentage of batteries in municipal wastes during tourist seasons in comparison

to other periods of the year

Amount of petrol containing lead sold per month during tourist seasons in relation to the same amount outside tourist seasons

Emissions of lead from the transport sector due to tourism

Table I Urban environmental problems

and reference period Discharge of sewage water within ‘tourist urban areas’ tonnes, yr

attributable to tourism, by type of treatment

Water supply to the tourism sector within ‘tourist litres, yr

urban areas’

Percentage of waste attributable to tourism within %, yr

‘tourist urban areas’

Additional indicators

Emissions of air pollutants due to tourist transport in ‘tourist urban areas’

An accounting framework for ecologically sustainable tourism 171

Table I (continued)

and reference period Road traffic density during the tourist season in relation to road traffic density during other periods of the year within ‘tourist urban areas’ (for noise)

Air traffic density during the tourist season in relation to air traffic density during other periods of the year within ‘tourist urban areas’ (for noise)

Railways traffic density during the tourist season in relation to railways traffic density during other periods of the year within ‘tourist urban areas’ (for noise) Boat traffic density during the tourist season (for example: Venice, Amsterdam) in relation to boat traffic density during other periods of the year within ‘tourist urban areas’ (for noise)

Number of discotheques in open spaces within ‘tourist urban areas’

Number of water-based theme parks within ‘tourist urban areas’

Table J Waste

and reference period

Additional indicators

Amount of sludge from sewage treatment plants attributable to tourism

Emissions of CH4due to the percentage of waste attributable to tourism

Emissions of NOxdue to the percentage of waste attributable to tourism

Table K Water pollution and water resources

and reference period Water abstraction due to tourism in relation to total %, yr

water abstraction for household purposes, divided

by groundwater and surface water

Total no of tourists arriving into the country by inland %, yr

boat in relation to total no of inland boat passengers

attributable to tourism, by type of treatment

172 The economics of tourism and sustainable development

Table K (continued)

and reference period Additional indicators

Total no of yachts and other pleasure boats arriving at inland ports

Amount of waste discharged from the increased no of ships during the tourist season

Percentage of organic substances (BOD) discharged through sewage water attributable to tourism

Percentage of nutrients (N and P) discharged through sewage water attributable

to tourism

6 The effect of climate change and extreme weather events on tourism

Andrea Bigano, Alessandra Goria, Jacqueline Hamilton and Richard S.J Tol

Decisions about whether to take a holiday and where to spend that holidayare by no means secondary ones Such decisions are relevant for our well-being, but, more importantly, are economically relevant because billions ofpeople in the world make analogous decisions every year, many of themmore than once per year.1 This makes tourism an industry of primaryimportance for the world economy: it generates about 7.3 per cent of totalworldwide exports.2For some countries, tourism is the first source of incomeand foreign currency, and many local economies heavily depend on it.Among the factors taken into account by tourists when they decide upontheir holidays, the destinations’ climate characteristics rank very high (Huand Ritchie, 1993; Lohmann and Kaim, 1999) Hence tourists are sensitive

to climate and to climate change (Maddison, 2001; Lise and Tol, 2002;Hamilton, 2003) Climate change will affect the relative attractiveness ofdestinations and hence the motive for international tourists to leave theircountry of origin Yet, until recently, the attention devoted by the tourismliterature to climate change and by the climate change literature to tourismhas been quite limited

The degree of interest is now slowly increasing, and various aspects ofthe relationship between climate change and tourism are being covered Wereview this literature in section 2 Five branches of literature have started

to grow First, there are a few studies (e.g Maddison, 2001) that build istical models of the behaviour of certain groups of tourists as a function

stat-of weather and climate Second, there are a few studies (e.g Abegg, 1996)that relate the fates of particular tourist destinations to climate change.Third, there are studies (e.g Matzarakis, 2002) that try to define indicators

of the attractiveness of certain weather conditions to tourists Fourth, thereare a few studies (e.g Hamilton et al., 2003) that use simulation models of

173

the tourism sector to study the impacts of climate change on tourist flowsand on the tourist potential of destinations Finally, a handful of studies(e.g Berritella et al., 2004) analyse the economic implications of tourism inthe face of climate change.

Section 3 illustrates an empirical study, which represents a first attempt

to cover one of the gaps in the literature, namely the relationship betweentourism demand and extreme weather events More specifically, the studylooks at the relationship between climate characteristics, weather extremesand domestic and international tourism demand for Italy This study draws

on the results on the Italian tourist sector of the WISE project, a sector research project that investigates the impacts of extreme weatherevents (very warm summers, mild winters and storms) on the socioeco-nomic systems of some European countries The results considered insection 3 cover the quantitative analysis of the impacts of climate extremes

multi-on the socioecmulti-onomic system in Italy and the qualitative analysis of viduals’ perception of climate extremes based on results from individuals’surveys In order to put these results in a broader perspective, they are brieflycompared with the results for other European countries Our conclusionsand a brief discussion of future research directions are in section 4

Tourism demand forecasting continues to be a popular theme in thetourism literature Reviews of this literature by Witt and Witt (1995) andLim (1995) show that demand forecasting, in the majority of studies, isfocused on economic factors Morley (1992) criticizes typical demandstudies because they do not consider utility in the decision-making process.Moreover, he suggests an alternative way to estimate demand based on theexpected utility derived from the characteristics of the product Lancaster(1966) originally developed the concept that the characteristics of a goodare more important to the consumer than the actual good itself How thesecharacteristics are perceived will determine the expected utility from theconsumption of the good In the case of tourism, the product is the holiday

at a certain destination and at a certain time, and this product will havecertain characteristics Most importantly, Morley (1992) argues that clim-ate and landscape attributes of countries should be included in the charac-teristics set Seddighi and Theocharous (2002) have applied this theoryusing a logit analysis Political stability was the focus of their study ratherthan environmental characteristics such as climate or landscape Rather