Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy Part 1 potx

viii C o n t e n t s7.3 Rance France and Severn UK tidal barrages 50 Chapter 8 Deployment of renewable energy technologies 8.1 Characteristics and costs of common RETs 53 8.3 Measuring p

Green Energy

Technology, Economics and Policy

Green Energy

Technology, Economics and Policy

Editors

U Aswathanarayana, General Editor

Mahadevan International Centre for Water Resources Management, Hyderabad, India

T Harikrishnan, Section 3

IAEA, Vienna, Austria

K.M Thayyib Sahini, Section 6

IAEA, Vienna, Austria

an informa business

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

Typeset by MPS Ltd (A Macmillan Company) Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd,

Padstow, Cornwall

All rights reserved No part of this publication or the information

contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior

permission from the publishers.

Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this

publication and the information herein, no responsibility is

assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to the

property or persons as a result of operation or use of this

publication and/or the information contained herein.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Green energy : technology, economics, and policy / U Aswathanarayana,

T Harikrishnan, K.M Thayyib Sahini.

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-415-87628-5 (hard back : alk paper) — ISBN 978-0-203-84146-4 (e-book)

1 Renewable energy sources 2 Renewable energy sources — Costs I Aswathanarayana, U.

II Harikrishnan, T (Tulsidas) III Thayyib Sahini, K M (Kadher Mohien) IV Title.

TJ808.G693 2010

Published by: CRC Press/Balkema

P.O Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden,The Netherlands

e-mail: Pub.NL@taylorandfrancis.com

www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk – www.balkema.nl

ISBN: 978-0-415-87628-5 (Hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-203-84146-4 (eBook)

Dedicated to my Late Father, Sudarsanarao.

Units, Abbreviations and Acronyms, Definitions

Chapter 1 Renewables and climate change (U Aswathanarayana) 7

viii C o n t e n t s

7.3 Rance (France) and Severn (UK) tidal barrages 50

Chapter 8 Deployment of renewable energy technologies

8.1 Characteristics and costs of common RETs 53

8.3 Measuring policy effectiveness and efficiency 58

8.6 An Integrated Strategy for the deployment of RETs 628.7 Renewable energy development in China and India 63

Section 3: Supply-side energy technologies (T Harikrishnan, IAEA) 65

9.2 Efficiency improvement in power generation 70

9.3 Fuel switching in fossil fuel power plants 71

10.3 Sustainable nuclear fuel cycle options 90

10.3.2 Uranium resources and production 92

Chapter 11 Next generation green technologies (T Harikrishnan) 109

11.2.6 Environmental benefits of gasification 117

Section 4: Demand-side energy technologies (U Aswathanarayana) 149

13.1 Industrial energy use and CO2emissions profile 151

14.2 Passive houses and zero-energy buildings 179

16.6.2 Electricity grid and peak demand response 210

16.6.4 Technologies for demand reduction 211

Section 5: Making green energy competitive (U Aswathanarayana) 215

Chapter 17 Roadmaps and phases of development of low-carbon

17.1 Why low-carbon energy technologies? 21717.2 Emission reductions and Research Development &

17.3 Innovation Systems in Technology Development 22017.4 Research, development and Demonstration in the

17.4.4 Industry – Process Innovations 225

18.3 Commercialization of power generation

xii C o n t e n t s

18.5 Regional deployment of key power generation

18.7 Strategy for accelerating deployment 236

Chapter 19 Energy efficiency and energy taxation (U Aswathanarayana) 239

19.1 Matrix of Economic Evaluation Measures 239

19.4 Energy Efficiency of Renewable Energy Systems 244

20.8 Pollution as a negative externality 26320.9 Energy futures and options markets 26520.10 Energy and Information technology 266Chapter 21 Renewable energy policies (U Aswathanarayana) 269

21.2 Market-based strategies to promote green energies 272

21.3.1 The Dutch Green Electricity programme 27421.3.2 The USA Green Electricity Market 27521.3.3 U.K Green Electricity Market 277

Chapter 22 Goals of the green new deal (K.M Thayyib

22.3 Decarbonising electricity production 286

Chapter 23 Ways of “greening the economy’’

Chapter 24 Poverty, environment and climate change

24.2 Climate change challenge and poverty 310

24.6 Integrating poverty eradication, environment

xvi L i s t o f F i g u r e s

Figure 9.8 An example of shuttle tanker operation from a capture

plant on-shore to an injection well offshore 77

Figure 10.3 Ranges of levelized costs associated with new nuclear

Figure 10.4 Unplanned scrams per 7 000 hours critical 104Figure 10.5 Industrial accidents at nuclear power plants per 1 000 000

Figure 10.6 Evolution of the total annual collective dose (man Sv)

Figure 10.7 World average radiation exposure for a person 106Figure 11.2.1 Open top twin air entry re-burn gasifier 114

Figure 11.3.2 Approximate global distribution of wave power levels

Figure 11.4.1 Two-well Enhanced Geothermal System 134Figure 12.1 Paths to the various energy products from algae 138

Figure 12.3 Detailed process of biodiesel from algae 142

Figure 13.1 CO2emissions per tonne of steel produced 155Figure 13.2 Energy efficiency of various cement clinker production

Figure 14.1 System efficacy of various light sources 177Figure 15.1 Fuel efficiency improvements of different power trains 189Figure 15.2 Energy densities of batteries and liquid fuels 190

Figure 15.4 Projected GHG reduction of light duty vehicles and fuels 194Figure 16.1 Capital cost of different storage options 205Figure 16.2 Discharge times and system ratings of different storage options 205Figure 16.3 General layout of electricity networks 208

Figure 16.5 Relationship between quantity and power 209Figure 17.1 Schematic working of the innovation chain 221Figure 17.2 Relationship between government expenditure and

Figure 17.3 CO2saving achieved by technology clusters 223Figure 18.1 Learning curves, deployment costs and learning investments 231

Table 10.2 Current nuclear power reactor types 88

Table 10.4 Nuclear fuel cycle stages and activities 90Table 10.5 Thorium utilization in different experimental and power reactors 93

Table 11.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of different types of gasifiers 114

Table 11.3.2 Operating and proposed tidal power facilities 125

Table 12.1 Summary of processes for converting algae to energy 138Table 12.2 Flue gas composition from coal fired power plant that

could be used for algae cultivation and biofuel generation 139Table 12.3 Fuel yield per acre of production per year 139Table 12.4 Comparative advantages and disadvantages of

Table 13.1 Energy and CO2emissions of key industries 151Table 13.2 Industrial CO2reductions by sector in the ACT and

Table 13.3 Industrial direct energy and process CO2emissions in

Table 13.4 Final energy use by energy carrier and direct CO2emissions

Table 13.5 Global technology prospects for direct casting 156Table 13.6 Global technology prospects for CCS for cement kilns 159Table 13.7 Global technology prospects for biomass feedstocks

Table 13.8 Global technology prospects for membranes 162Table 13.9 Global technology prospects for black liquor gasification 163Table 13.10 Global technology prospects for energy-efficient

Table 13.11 Best Available Technology (BAT) for the paper

Table 13.12 Global technology prospects for inert anodes and

bipolar cell design in primary aluminium production 165

Table 14.1 Final Energy consumption in the services and residential

Table 14.2 Reduction below the baseline scenarios in 2050 by scenario 173Table 14.3 Comparison of BAT for cold appliances and energy

efficiency options in the European Union, India and China 176

L i s t o f T a b l e s xix

Table 15.2 Costs of plug-in hybrids in terms of driving range 191Table 15.3 Performance and use of different fuel cells 192Table 15.4 Technology breakthroughs in the transport sector 199

Table 16.2 Cost performance of transmission systems 203Table 16.3 Cost comparisons of base-load supply systems 206Table 17.1 Emission of greenhouse gases by some important countries 218Table 17.2 Top five countries for energy-related CO2emissions in

Table 17.3 Key technologies on the supply-side and demand-side 219Table 17.4 Emission reduction and RD&D investment 220Table 18.1 Gives the observed training rates for various electricity supply

Table 20.4 Comparative electricity generating costs (2001 US cents/kWh)

Table 21.2 New renewable capacities built and planned in the USA 276

economical and policy interventions needed to make the Renewable EnergyTechnologies (RETs) competitive in the market are covered in Section 5 Section 6gives a vision of a Green New Deal integrating the technological, socioeconomic andpolicy strands The final section 7 provides an overview and Integration.

I thank Dr R.A Mashelkar, President, Global Research Alliance, for his tive Foreword Drs Makarand Phadke of RIL and R Dhanraj (formerly of AMD)kindly reviewed the manuscript, and made suggestions for improvement The volume ismeant for university students, professionals and administrators in the areas of resourceengineering, energy industries, environmental science and engineering, climate change,economics, etc

June, 2010

xxiv F o r e w o r d

the world population is growing and poor countries are becoming richer, we requirefundamental changes in the way we produce and use energy We require changes in theway we manage forests, land use, and agriculture Greater energy efficiency, manage-ment of energy demand, and diffusion of low-carbon electricity sources such as wind,hydro, and nuclear could produce half of the required emission cuts

The solutions that can potentially lead to ‘carbon neutrality’ are currently sive To satisfy future global energy demand will require improving the performance

expen-of low-carbon technologies and developing breakthrough technologies through not

‘incremental’ but ‘disruptive’ innovations Our current hope rests on potential success

in carbon capture and storage, second-generation biofuels, and solar photovoltaics.The fact that a particular source of energy exists does not mean that it automaticallybecomes techno-economically or a socially acceptable option Thus in the case of windenergy, despite the advances in technology, the costs need to be still brought down.Protests are heard from conscious society so social acceptability remains a challenge.The book provides an interesting analysis of the factors that will make green energycompetitive For instance, it is brought out that the role of technology is as impor-tant as innovative energy taxation policies The book examines both supply side anddemand side energy technologies There is a very thoughtful discussion on nuclearpower economics

This book is a ‘must read’ for students (both in education and research) and fessionals (both producers and managers of sustainable energy solutions) and policyplanners (dealing with energy, environment and economics)

pro-Provision of energy supply with the characteristics of cleanliness, reliability, securityand competitiveness is a challenge facing the 21st century world This book is a valuableresource, which guides us towards an analysis of critical factors that will help us

in achieving this path I offer my congratulations to the authors for this timely andvaluable contribution

President, Global Research Alliance

Albert Schweitzer Haus,

Garnisongasse 14-16/604

A1090, Vienna

Austria

Email:jayarajmanepalli@gmail.com

Sabil Francis (author C.12)

Research Academy Leipzig

Graduate Centre Humanities and Social SciencesUniversity of Leipzig

(source: IEA’s Energy Technology Perspectives, 2008 p 602–613)

AFC Alkaline Fuel Cell

API American Petroleum Institute

APU Auxiliary Power Unit

ASU Air Separation Unit

ATR Auto Thermal Reforming

B2B Business-to-Business

B2C Business-to-Consumer

B2G Business-to-Government

BEMS Building Energy Management System

BFB Bubbling Fluidised Bed

BIGCC Biomass Integrated Gasification with Combined Cycle

BtL Biomass to Liquids

CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage System

CAT Carbon Abatement Technologies

CBM Coal-Bed Methane

CCS CO2Capture and Storage

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

CdTe Cadmium Telluride

CFB Circulating Fluidised Beds

CFL Compact Fluorescent Light-bulb

CHP Combined Heat and Power

CIS Copper-Indium-Diselenide

CIGS Gallium-doped Copper – Indium–Diselenide

CNG Compressed Natural Gas

CSP Concentrating Solar Power

CTL Coal To Liquids

DME Dimethyl Ether

EGR Enhanced Gas Recovery

EIA Environment Impact Assessment

FBC Fluidised Bed Combustion

FDI Foreign Direct Investment

FGD Flue Gas Desulphurisation

HTGR High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

IEA International Energy Agency

IET International Emissions Trading

IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

IGFC Integrated Gasification Fuel cell combined Cycle

ITER International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor

LED Light Emitting Diode

LNG Liquified Natural Gas

LPG Liquid Petroleum Gases

NEA Nuclear Energy Agency

NGL Natural Gas Liquids

NSG Nuclear Suppliers Group

O&M Operating and Maintenance

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

PFBC Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion

PM-10 Particulate matter of less than ten microns in diameter

PPP Purchasing Power Parity

P&T Partitioning and Transmutation

PV Photovoltaics

PWR Pressurised water Reactor

RDD&D Research, development, demonstration and deployment

RETs Renewable Energy Technologies

SACS Saline Aquifer CO2Storage

SCSC Supercritical Steam Cycle

SMR Small and Medium-sized Reactor

T&D Transmission and Distribution

USCSC Ultra Super Critical Steam Cycle

VHTR Very High Temperature Reactor

D e f i n i t i o n s

Source A: Energy Technology Perspectives, 2008, p 601–605

Source B: International Energy Markets 2004 Carol A Dahl, Pennwell Corporation,

p 475–533

Ad valorem tax: A tax that is a percentage of the price of a good or a service (B)Amortization: Allocating the cost of intangible assets over their legal life as specified

in the tax code (B)

API Gravity: Specific gravity measured in degrees on the American Petroleum Institutescale The higher the number, the lower the density Twentyfive degrees API equals0.904 kg/m3 Forty-two degrees API equals 0.815 kg/m3 (A)

Avoided cost: The amount avoided for the incremental purchase or the production of

a good (B)

Benefits of Pollution: Any costs that you forego by being able to pollute rather than toabate Benefits of pollution are then equal to the costs of abatement (B)

xxx U n i t s , A b b r e v i a t i o n s a n d A c r o n y m s , D e f i n i t i o n s , C o n v e r s i o n C o n s t a n t s

Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a diesel-equivalent, processed fuel made from the cation (a chemical process which removes the glycerine from the oil) of vegetableoils or animal fats (A)

transesterifi-Biogas: A mixture of methane and carbon dioxide produced by bacterial degradation

of organic matter and used as fuel (A)

Blackouts: A non-isolated power loss over an extended period of time due to capacityshortage It may result from peak loads higher than available capacity or fromequipment failure (B)

Black liquor: A by-product from chemical pulping processes which consists oflignin residue combined with water and the chemicals used for the extraction oflignin (A)

Breakeven Pricing: Charging a price for which revenues exactly equal all costs includingopportunity costs (B)

Brent Forward Market: The over-the-counter market for buying Brent Crude oil atsome future date (B)

Clean Coal Technologies (CCT): Technologies designed to enhance the efficiency andthe environmental acceptability of coal extraction, separation and use (A)Clearinghouse: An institution that is a part of an organized exchange that guaranteeseach transaction and matches buyers to sellers when contracts come due (B)Coal: Lignite (with gross calorific value of less than 4165 kcal/kg), sub-bituminous coal(4165–5700 kcal/kg) and hard coal (greater than 5700 kcal/kg, on an ash-free butmoist basis) Clean Coal Technologies (CCTs) are designed to enhance the efficiencyand the environmental acceptability of coal extraction, preparation and use Coal-bed methane is methane found in coal seams, and is a source of unconventionalnatural gas (A)

Coases Theorem on Externalities: In the absence of transaction costs and market power,that private markets will arrive at an optimal allocation in the presence of marketexternalities no matter how property rights are originally distributed (B)

Condensates: Condensates are liquid hydrocarbon mixtures recovered from associated gas reservoirs They are composed of C4 and higher carbon numberhydrocarbons and normally have an API between 50◦and 85◦ (A)

non-Cross Price Elasticity: The percentage change in quantity of one good that results fromthe percentage change in price of another good (B)

Data Mining: Techniques for extracting information from large databases (B)Deregulation: Removing government regulations (B)

Discounted Cash Flow (DCF): The present value of future flows of income (B)Discount Rate: The interest rate for converting or discounting future cash values topresent values (B)

Electricity Generation: Total amount of electricity generated by power plants Itincludes its own use, and transmission and distribution losses (A)

Energy Futures: A standardized contract offered and guaranteed on an organizedexchange to buy or sell an energy product in the future (B)

Enhanced Coal-bed Methane Recovery (ECBM): A technology for the recovery ofmethane through CO2injection into uneconomic coal seams (A)

Enhanced Gas Recovery (EGR): A speculative technology in which CO2 is injectedinto a gas reservoir in order to increase the pressure in the reservoir, so that moregas can be extracted (A)