BIOMES OF THE EARTH - OCEANS Phần 10 pot

magma molten rock beneath Earth’s surface mangrove common name for any of several species of trees and shrubs that dominate the INTERTIDAL ZONE on many tropical and subtropical shores ma

lava molten rock (MAGMA) on Earth’s surface

limestone sedimentary rock containing mostly calcium carbonate

lithosphere the outer rocky layer of the Earth comprising the crust and upper part of the MANTLE About 20 plates make up the lithosphere

longitude a measure of angular distance in an east-west direction The Greenwich Meridian (an imaginary line passing north to south through Greenwich, London) is zero degrees longitude The International Date Line is 180° longitude

longshore drift the movement of sediment along a shore caused by waves, winds, and currents.

magma molten rock beneath Earth’s surface

mangrove common name for any of several species of trees and shrubs that dominate the INTERTIDAL ZONE on many tropical and subtropical shores

mantle the layer of dense, hot rock lying between Earth’s crust and core The lower mantle flows slowly, like a thick molasses, causing plates to move

mariculture the farming of marine organisms

marine protected area (MPA) a region of the ocean under special legal protection, typically to conserve its habitats and communities of organisms

meiofauna minute animals that live between sediment particles

mid-ocean ridge a mountain chain on the ocean floor formed where plates are moving apart It is the birthplace

of new ocean floor

migration the mass movement of animals from one region

to another, usually to find food or a breeding place

monsoon a seasonal reversal in prevailing wind direction that occurs in the Tropics

navigation the process of establishing location and tion to find the way to a particular destination

direc-nekton aquatic animals that can swim powerfully against currents

nutrients substances, such as nitrates and phosphates, that plants need in small amounts to make organic (carbon- based) substances by photosynthesis

ocean the continuous expanse of salt water that covers 71 percent of Earth’s surface The term also refers to one of the five oceans: Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, and Southern

GLOSSARY 233

ocean basin a low-lying region of Earth’s CRUST that

con-tains an ocean The continental slope marks the edge of an

ocean basin

oceanography the scientific study of the ocean and its

inhabitants

overfishing harvesting a fish population at a level beyond

which its numbers can be replaced by natural breeding

pack ice floating platforms of ice in polar regions that form

when seawater freezes

pelagic having to do with organisms that live in the

ocean’s surface waters or in midwater

photosynthesis the process by which plants, and some

pro-tists and bacteria, trap sunlight in order to make organic

(carbon-rich) substances such as carbohydrates

phytoplankton plant plankton; plankton that

photosyn-thesize

plankton organisms that float freely in the ocean at the

mercy of currents They swim weakly, if at all

plate (tectonic or lithospheric plate) a segment of

Earth’s rocky surface consisting of CRUST and attached

upper MANTLE About 20 slowly moving plates make up

Earth’s surface

plate tectonics the modern theory that Earth’s surface is

divided into moving plates Their movements generate

continental drift and are responsible for phenomena such

as earthquakes and volcanoes close to plate boundaries

prokaryotes various forms of bacteria They are

single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus

protists single-celled organisms that have a nucleus They

include plantlike forms, such as diatoms and

dinoflagel-lates, and animal-like forms, such as radiolarians

radar (radio detection and ranging) the use of radio

waves to measure the size, position, and motion of objects

remotely operated vehicle (ROV) a robotic underwater

vehicle attached to and operated by a surface vessel or a

submersible

respiration the process inside cells by which organisms

break down food molecules to release energy

salinity a measure of the saltiness of water Most seawater

has a salinity close to 35, or 35 grams of dissolved salts in

1,000 grams of seawater

satellite remote sensing the use of satellites to detect

fea-tures of Earth’s surface

scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) a portable device for breathing air underwater The aqualung

is the best-known type

sea a named part of an ocean, such as the Sargasso Sea Also, an alternative name for the water in an ocean

seafloor spreading the process producing new oceanicCRUSTat mid-ocean ridges

sea grasses types of flowering plants, related to lilies, that grow in the sea

sea ice ice that forms when seawater freezes

seamount a submerged volcanic cone that rises at least 3,280 feet (1,000 m) above the ocean floor

seaweeds multicelled marine algae

sonar (sound navigation and ranging) a technology that uses sound to detect the direction and distance of an object underwater

species the world population of genetically similar uals that interbreed to produce fertile offspring

individ-subduction the process by which one plate is forced beneath another one

submarine a cigar-shaped, piloted underwater craft

submarine canyon a steep V-shaped valley in the CONTINENTAL SHELF

-submersible a small, piloted underwater vehicle with a viewing cabin

suspension feeder an animal that feeds by sifting particles out of seawater

symbiosis a close relationship between individuals of ferent species by which one or both benefit

dif-thermocline a layer in the WATER COLUMN across which the temperature rapidly changes

trade winds prevailing winds in low latitudes that blow toward the equator

transform plate boundary (transform fault) the ary where two plates slide alongside each other

bound-trench a deep region of the ocean floor that forms where one plate is being forced (subducted) beneath another one

tsunami (seismic sea wave) a giant wave or series of waves, produced by an earthquake, volcano, landslide, or other major water displacement

turbidity current an underwater avalanche of sediment that forms or enlarges a submarine canyon

GLOSSARY 235

upwelling the rising of cool, nutrient-rich, deep water to

the surface waters

vertebrate an animal with a backbone (vertebral column)

or similar structure

water column the vertical expanse of seawater from

sur-face to seabed

wave (sea wave) a vertical disturbance that travels along

the sea surface

wetland a flat, low-lying area of land that is covered in

water or has water-saturated soil

zooplankton animal plankton

Ballard, Robert D Adventures in Ocean Exploration Washington,

D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2001.

Broad, William J The Universe Below New York: Simon & Schuster,

Couper, Alastair, ed Atlas and Encyclopedia of the Sea 2nd ed

Lon-don: Times Books, 1989.

Doubilet, David Water, Light, Time London: Phaidon Press, 1999 Earle, Sylvia A Atlas of the Ocean Washington, D.C.: National Geo-

graphic Society, 2001.

Ellis, Richard Deep Atlantic New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1996 Köhler, Annemarie, and Danja Köhler The Underwater Explorer Lon-

don: New Holland, 1997.

Nybakken, James W Marine Biology: An Ecological Approach 5th ed.

San Francisco, Calif.: Benjamin Cummings, 2001.

Paxton, John R., and William N Eschmeyer, eds Encyclopedia of Fishes 2nd ed San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press, 1998.

Pirie, Gordon, ed Oceanography: Contemporary Readings in Ocean ences 3rd ed New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Sci-Prager, Ellen The Oceans New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000.

Sobel, Dava Longitude London: Fourth Estate, 1996.

Summerhayes, C P., and S A Thorpe, eds Oceanography: An trated Guide London: Manson, 1996.

Illus-Thurman, Harold V., and Alan P Trujillo Essentials of Oceanography.

7th ed Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2001.

Van Dover, Cindy Lee The Octopus’s Garden Reading, Mass.:

Addi-son Wesley, 1997.

Weber, Michael J., and Judith, A Gradwohl The Wealth of Oceans.

New York: W W Norton, 1995.

Wilson, Edward O The Diversity of Life Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard

University Press, 1992.

Worldwatch Institute, ed Vital Signs 2003: The Trends That Are Shaping Our Future New York: W W Norton, 2003.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

237

American Association for the Advancement of Science

Australia’s national marine research agency.

FAO Fisheries Department

WEB SITES

239

Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution

URL: http://www.hboi.edu The Florida-based oceanographic institution.

International Maritime Organization

URL: http://www.imo.org The United Nations agency responsible for improving mar- itime safety and preventing pollution from ships.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

URL: http://www.noaa.gov The U.S federal government agency specializing in atmos- pheric and oceanographic sciences.

NOAA’s Aquarius

URL: http://www.uncw.edu/aquarius

Aquarius is an undersea laboratory owned by NOAA and

operated by the University of North Carolina at Wilmington.

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

URL: http://sio.ucsd.edu

A leading oceanographic institution based at the University

of California at San Diego.

WEB SITES 241

The United Kingdom’s largest oceanographic center for

learn-ing and research.

The Ocean Conservancy

URL: http://www.oceanconservancy.org

A nongovernmental organization with its headquarters

in Washington, D.C., that raises awareness of ocean

issues through science-based advocacy, research, and public

education.

The World Conservation Union (IUCN)

URL: http://www.iucn.org

The world’s largest organization that brings together

non-governmental organizations, governments, and

interna-tional agencies to foster wildlife conservation alongside

sustainable development.

UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center

(UNEP-WCMC)

URL: http://www.unep-wcmc.org

UNEP-WCMC compiles and publishes data on the state of

the world’s biodiversity.

United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)

URL: http://www.unep.org

The United Nations agency with a focus on environmental

conservation and sustainable development.

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI)

URL: http://www.whoi.edu

Based in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, WHOI is the world’s

largest independent oceanographic institution.

World Resources Institute

URL: http://www.wri.org

An independent, nonprofit environmental research and icy organization based in Washington, D.C.

pol-WWF (formerly, the World Wildlife Fund)

URL: http://www.panda.org

An international nongovernmental organization that carries out promotional and practical conservation work in many countries, including field projects and scientific research.

A

abyssal plains 7abyssal ridges 7acid rain 64, 65adaptation 96Agassiz, Alexander 172Age of Dinosaurs 40, 121Age of Discovery 163aggregates 191Agulhas Current 85

air See atmosphere

aircraft carriers 182air masses 74air pressure 60–61, 88–89air travel 179–180albedo 71

Albert I (prince of Monaco)171–172

algaecoral and 151–152, 155lichens and 140sea grasses and 109seaweed and 106, 108, 151

algin 195alien species 210–211Alps, formation of 37

Alvin (submersible) 157, 177

amphibians 121amphipods 111Amundsen, Roald 166anchovies 79, 80, 81, 211ancient exploration 159–160Andes, formation of 36anglerfishes 144, 146animals 110–134evolution of 99

on islands 27–28

near seamounts 28–29

in tsunamis 89Antarctica 15, 16, 167Antarctic Circumpolar Current16

Antarctic Convergence 15–16

Antarctic Ocean See Southern

OceanAntarctic Treaty 15anticyclones 73–74aqualung 174aquariums 198Arabs 163archaebacteria 97, 98archaeology 159

arches, sea 48, 48 Arctic Ocean 5, 5, 17–18, 18, 40

Aristotle (Greek philosopher)168

arthropods 111Ascension Island 148Asia, sea routes to 164–165associations, close 155asthenosphere 31

Atlantic Ocean 12–13, 13 boundaries of 5, 5

continental drift in 12, 33formation of 40

hurricanes in 13mapping of 34

as mature ocean 38, 40mid-ocean ridges in 34

seas in 9, 18–22, 21

shores of 23upwelling in 79atmosphere 69–93

circulation in 70–74, 72

definition of 33, 69

and evolution 97, 98, 99formation of 33

pressure in 60–61, 88–89auks 124–126

Australia 167autonomous underwater vehi-cles (AUVs) 176

avalanches, underwater 6–7avarol 195

Azores (islands) 12

B

bacteria 97, 98–99, 102–103,158

Baffin, William 166Baffin Island 166baleen whales 130–131ballast water 210–211Baltic Sea 20–22bar, sand 49, 50bar-built estuaries 24barnacles 111, 140barracudas 119barrier islands 24, 49–51Barton, Otis 175basalt 31–32basins, ocean 4–6, 11, 38–39,76

bathyscaphe 175bathysphere 175bay(s) 9, 23, 47bay barriers 49beach compartments 51–52Beebe, William 175

Belize 197Bellingshausen, Fabian von167

Bengal, Bay of 14, 15, 89, 90

243

Note: Italic page numbers refer to illustrations.

biomes, definition of xvii

birds 25–26 See also seabirds

cycle of 63–64

as defense 152–154, 195human use of 192, 195

at hydrothermal vents 43,158

in seawater 63, 64, 192temperature and 55chemosynthesis 98, 158

Cheng Ho See Zheng Ho

Chernobyl disaster (1986) 193Chesapeake Bay 23, 46China 163, 181, 188chlorofluorocarbons 223–224chromite 191

chronometers 167, 168–169cilia 142

clams 25, 142cleaning stations 156cliffs 23, 46–48, 85climate

air circulation in 73–74currents and 13, 76–79definition of 69

El Niño and 80–81Gulf Stream and 12–13, 76

of Indian Ocean 13, 14–15natural cycles in 91water cycle and 2–3

v weather 69

climate change 91–93 See also

global warmingclouds 1, 2–3, 33, 90cnidarians 110–111coastal plain estuaries 23coastal strip 22

coastline 22coccolithophores 42, 103–104cockles 142

cod 120, 147, 171, 208–209,220

cogs 163cold seeps 158colonization 160–161color(s)

of coral reefs 57–58

in dark zone 145

of fishes 152satellites monitoring 177

of seawater 57–59Columbus, Christopher 163,

164, 165

comb jellies 105, 211comets 33

commensalism 155compasses, magnetic 161–162conservation, marine 221–222consumers 136

continental drift 32–38, 41

in Atlantic Ocean 12, 33

in Indian Ocean 14and land levels 45–46continental margin 6–7continental rise 6continental shelves 6–7

in Arctic Ocean 17habitat loss in 211–212inshore islands on 27national control of216–217

in Southern Ocean 16continental slope 6–7Convention on BiologicalDiversity (CBD) 224–225Cook, James 166–169copepods 55, 104–105, 111

coral 151, 154

algae and 151–152, 155location of 19, 29reproduction in 154

coral atolls 12, 153, 153

coral bleaching 92–93,

214–215, 215

coral reefs 151–154color of 57–58formation of 11, 213global warming and92–93, 214health of 92–93, 213–215islands and 11–12, 28organisms inhabiting151–154

symbiosis in 155–156

in tsunamis 89core, Earth’s 31Coriolis, Gustave-Gaspard de 71Coriolis effect

and air circulation 71–73,

72, 74

deposit feeders 150deposition 46, 47, 49, 51–52depth, of ocean 1, 59–60

depth zones 143–146, 145

desalination 179deserts 3, 73–74desiccation 139deterrence 181–182Dias, Bartholomeu 164

diatoms 42, 103, 104

Dietz, Robert 34–35dimethyl sulfide (DMS) 65dinoflagellates 103, 202Dinosaurs, Age of 40, 121dinosaurs, extinction of 43distributaries 24

diversity 99–100, 199–200diving 61, 173–175diving bell 174diving vehicles 62, 146, 156,

157, 175–176, 176 DMS See dimethyl sulfide

DNA 94Dohrn, Anton 172doldrums 74dolphins 126–129dorsal fins 115dredging 191, 212drift nets 186drugs, pharmaceutical 195

DSLs See deep scattering layers

E

Earth See also crust

amount of water on 1formation of 30magnetic field of 35, 130movement of plates of

34–38, 37, 45, 173 rotation of 71–73, 72,

82–83

structure of 30–32, 32 view from space 2

earthquakes 31, 34, 36, 37, 45,86

East African Rift Valley 38

easterlies 73, 74East Pacific Rise 11East Wind Drift 16ebb tides 82echinoderms 112, 141–142echolocation 127–128ecology 135–158ecosystems, definition of 135ecteinascidin 195

eels 148

EEZs See exclusive economic

zonesEgypt 159–161electromagnetic spectrum 57electronics 172–173

El Niño 44, 80–81, 92–93, 214

El Niño–Southern Oscillation(ENSO) 80–81

elvers 148embryonic ocean 38energy sources 192–194energy transfer 137–138

ENSO See El Niño–Southern

Oscillationenvironmental healthmanagement of 216–227

of ports 180threats to 199–215wetlands in 26, 199

epipelagic zone See sunlit zone

Erik the Red 162erosion

definition of 46deposition linked to51–52

on rocky shores 46–48, 85salt from 64

sea grasses and 109

by waves 46–48, 85wetlands and 26estuaries 23–25, 62–63eukaryotic cells 98–99European exploration 76,163–172

evaporation 1, 3, 20Everest, Mount 6, 46

evolution 95, 96–99

on islands 28

of new species 10, 28, 96

of reptiles 120–121near seamounts 29Ewing, Maurice 34