The Cambridge History of the English Language Volume 4 Part 2 pptx

6 0 2 : Its beginnings [about 1380 in Cleanness} are literary, but the available evi­ dence shows that it was fairly rare until the 19th century.. A noticeable increase in use during t

yuppishness or puppy biscuit h a s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y e n c o u n t e r e d these f o r m s

earlier, b u t m a y b e i n v e n t i n g t h e m at the m o m e n t o f use T h e s e t w o sorts

o f w o r d s — the e s t a b l i s h e d a n d the s p o n t a n e o u s l y p r o d u c e d — d o n o t differ from e a c h other i n k i n d , a n d are n o t r e c o g n i s a b l y different i n form

In s y n t a x , a fairly clear distinction exists b e t w e e n g r a m m a t i c a l p a t t e r n s

or r u l e s , w h i c h are e s t a b l i s h e d as the p r o d u c t o f p a s t history, a n d s e n t e n c e s ,

w h i c h are s p o n t a n e o u s l y p r o d u c e d as the e x p r e s s i o n s o f c u r r e n t c o m p e ­tence In v o c a b u l a r y , o n the o t h e r h a n d , w o r d s are indifferently o f either kind A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f the b l u r r i n g o f the diachronic—synchronic axis

in v o c a b u l a r y , l e x i c o l o g i s t s m a y u s e the s a m e t e r m , such as 'derivation', to refer to either the historical origin o f a f o r m or its c u r r e n t p a t t e r n o f p r o ­duction Yet the t w o d o n o t always c o i n c i d e

A n excellent, t h o r o u g h o v e r v i e w o f the h i s t o r y o f the study o f w o r d

origins is Etymology b y Y a k o v M a l k i e l ( 1 9 9 3 ) N o t l i m i t e d to E n g l i s h , it p r o ­

v i d e s b o t h a s u r v e y o f the g e n e r a l subject a n d m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n o n

e t y m o l o g i c a l studies o f E n g l i s h A m o n g w i d e l y u s e d e t y m o l o g i c a l diction­aries are t h o s e b y C T O n i o n s ( 1 9 6 6 ) , E r n e s t K l e i n (1966—7), a n d R o b e r t

B a r n h a r t & Sol S t e i n m e t z ( 1 9 8 8 )

2.1.2 A taxonomy of word origins

T h e t a x o n o m y o f w o r d origins u s e d h e r e is b a s e d o n that defined a n d exemplified b y A l g e o ( 1 9 7 8 , 1980) a n d is m o s t similar to t h o s e u s e d b y

C a n n o n (1987) a n d B a r n h a r t a n d B a r n h a r t (1982—) It p a y s p a r t i c u l a r atten­tion to the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a w o r d a n d the s o u r c e s from w h i c h it is

c o n s t r u c t e d , its e t y m a T h e p r i m a r y factors are (1) w h e t h e r a w o r d h a s a n

e t y m o n — is b a s e d o n a n y earlier w o r d s ; (2) w h e t h e r the w o r d o m i t s a n y p a r t

o f an e t y m o n ; (3) w h e t h e r the w o r d c o m b i n e s t w o or m o r e e t y m a ; a n d (4)

w h e t h e r a n y o f its e t y m a are from a l a n g u a g e other t h a n E n g l i s h T h e inter­section o f t h o s e four factors defines six m a j o r e t y m o l o g i c a l or historically derivational classes, as follows:

3 S h o r t e n i n g s : w o r d s that o m i t p a r t o f their e t y m a Caff is a short­

e n i n g o f cafe (1931), PC of police constable (before 1 9 0 4 ) , telly o f

television ( 1 9 4 0 ) , a n d w i t h c h a n g e d p a r t o f s p e e c h , burgle o f burglar

( 1 8 7 2 )

4 C o m p o s i t e s : w o r d s that c o m b i n e two or m o r e etyma Tower block is

p r o d u c e d b y c o m p o u n d i n g (1966), a n d privatise by affixation (1948)

5 B l e n d s : w o r d s that c o m b i n e t w o or m o r e e t y m a a n d o m i t p a r t o f

at least one Chunnel b l e n d s t w o w o r d s , channel a n d tunnel ( 1 9 2 8 ) ;

a n d brekker, the w o r d breakfast and the suffix -er ( 1 8 8 9 )

6 L o a n w o r d s o r b o r r o w i n g s : w o r d s w i t h at least o n e n o n - E n g l i s h

e t y m o n Courgette is from F r e n c h ( 1 9 3 1 ) , zucchini from Italian ( 1 9 2 9 ) , a n d strudel from G e r m a n ( 1 8 9 3 ) ; spring roll is a translation

o f a C h i n e s e t e r m for an e g g roll (late 1 9 6 0 s )

Classes (2)—(5) are varieties o f w o r d - f o r m a t i o n proper, w o r d s m a d e

from other w o r d s i n the l a n g u a g e , as i n the OED2 (1989, xxvii—xxviii),

w h i c h also d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t w o p r o c e s s e s o f b o r r o w i n g — a d o p t i o n

a n d adaptation A d o p t i o n is said to b e a p o p u l a r p r o c e s s , b o r r o w i n g w o r d s

w i t h m i n i m u m c h a n g e , as sima (a g e o l o g i c a l t e r m for 'the c o n t i n u o u s b a s a l

layer o f the earth's crust, c o m p o s e d o f relatively heavy, b a s i c r o c k s i n silica

a n d m a g n e s i a , that u n d e r l i e s the sialic c o n t i n e n t a l m a s s e s a n d f o r m s the

c r u s t u n d e r the o c e a n s ' ) w a s a d o p t e d from G e r m a n (1909) A d a p t a t i o n is said to b e a l e a r n e d p r o c e s s that alters the m o r p h o l o g i c a l s h a p e o f the bor­

r o w e d w o r d , as snorkel or schnorkel (an u n d e r w a t e r b r e a t h i n g a p p a r a t u s ) w a s

a d a p t e d from G e r m a n Schnorchel (1944) T h e distinction b e t w e e n ' a d o p t i o n '

a n d ' a d a p t a t i o n ' is a t e n u o u s o n e a n d often, as i n t h e s e t w o e x a m p l e s , cor­relates p o o r l y w i t h p o p u l a r v e r s u s l e a r n e d b o r r o w i n g

T h e OED also identifies s o m e foreign w o r d s as 'alien', n o t y e t natural­

i z e d i n E n g l i s h A n e x a m p l e is %ori, a J a p a n e s e t e r m u s e d i n E n g l i s h for

w h a t are also called thongs or flip-flops— a sandal w i t h a thong L i k e the a d o p ­

tion—adaptation dichotomy, the naturalized—non-naturalized o n e is unclear, b e i n g b a s e d o n v a r i a b l e factors such as the italicisation o f foreign

w o r d s B o t h t h e s e o p p o s i t i o n s are c o n t i n u u m s rather t h a n discrete

categorisations L o a n w o r d s r a n g e from t h o s e like ngwee (a unit o f Z a m b i a n

currency, 1966) w i t h exotic spellings, p r o n u n c i a t i o n s , m o r p h o l o g y , a n d

reference to t h o s e like street (a prehistorical l o a n from L a t i n , d o u b t l e s s

m a d e before the A n g l o r S a x o n i n v a s i o n o f B r i t a i n ) w h i c h few E n g l i s h

s p e a k e r s w o u l d t h i n k o f as foreign

In a d d i t i o n to the p r e c e d i n g m a j o r six classes, there are t w o others

u s e d b y e t y m o l o g i s t s , w h i c h are t y p e s o f i n c o m p l e t e e t y m o l o g y T h e y are (7) native d e v e l o p m e n t s , w o r d s that are p h o n o l o g i c a l a n d s e m a n t i c

d e v e l o p m e n t s o f earlier w o r d s i n E n g l i s h a n d are therefore n o t t r a c e d to

Go

a n o t h e r origin (like town, w h i c h d e v e l o p e d from O l d E n g l i s h tun 'an

e n c l o s e d p l a c e ' ) a n d (8) f o r m s o f u n k n o w n origin, w o r d s a b o u t w h o s e earlier h i s t o r y w e h a v e insufficient i n f o r m a t i o n to m a k e s t a t e m e n t s (like

nitty-gritty, w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n 1961 w i t h the spelling knitty-gritty b u t w h o s e

b e g i n n i n g is m y s t e r i o u s )

2.2 The growth of the vocabulary

C h a n g e that is o n - g o i n g i n p r e s e n t - d a y E n g l i s h is easiest to see i n the vocabulary, a l t h o u g h it certainly exists i n all aspects o f l a n g u a g e (Barber 1964; Foster 1 9 6 8 ) In r e c e n t times, i n t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n the U K

a n d the U S a n d b e t w e e n e a c h o f t h o s e countries a n d the rest o f the

E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g w o r l d h a s b e e n so extensive, w i t h c o n s e q u e n t m u t u a l influence o f the t w o varieties, that a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l f o r m o f E n g l i s h h a s arisen L o c a l a n d n a t i o n a l a c c e n t s r e m a i n h i g h l y distinctive, a n d to a small extent n a t i o n a l g r a m m a t i c a l differences c a n b e identified In v o c a b u l a r y , there are n a t i o n a l w o r d s little k n o w n e l s e w h e r e , a n d s o m e t i m e s n o t e v e n

t h r o u g h o u t the c o u n t r y to w h i c h t h e y are native, for e x a m p l e , British bap 'a b r e a d roll u s e d for s a n d w i c h e s ' a n d A m e r i c a n poor boy 'a s a n d w i c h m a d e

o n a l o n g roll o f b r e a d ' B y a n d l a r g e , h o w e v e r , the v o c a b u l a r y o f the

E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g w o r l d is so i n t e r t w i n e d that it m u s t b e treated as a funda­

m e n t a l unity, w i t h only m a r g i n a l n a t i o n a l variation

2.2.1 The si^e of the vocabulary

T h e E n g l i s h v o c a b u l a r y h a s g r o w n m u c h i n size since 1776 E x a c t l y h o w

m u c h is difficult to say e v e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y b e c a u s e there are n o a c c u r a t e

c o u n t s o f the n u m b e r o f w o r d s u s e d i n E n g l i s h either i n 1 7 7 6 or today

E s t i m a t e s o f the size of the v o c a b u l a r y b a s e d u p o n dictionaries are flawed

b y the h i g h l y selective c o n t e n t s o f all w o r d b o o k s T h e r e are said to b e

a b o u t 6 1 6 , 5 0 0 f o r m s i n the s e c o n d edition o f The Oxford English Dictionary

(1: xxiii) Yet it r e c o r d s chiefly literary v o c a b u l a r y a n d p r i m a r i l y the E n g l i s h

l o n g e r t h a n the 6 1 6 , 5 0 0 f o r m s o f the OED; i n d e e d , it is p o t e n t i a l l y u n l i m ­

ited i n size In t h i n k i n g o f the size o f the E n g l i s h vocabulary, w e m u s t b e clear a b o u t w h a t k i n d o f v o c a b u l a r y w e h a v e i n m i n d : the w o r d s u s e d b y

a l m o s t e v e r y E n g l i s h speaker, the w o r d s u s e d b y an a v e r a g e p e r s o n , the

w o r d s u n d e r s t o o d b y a n a v e r a g e p e r s o n , all the w o r d s u s e d b y a n y E n g l i s h speaker, all p o s s i b l e w o r d s , w h e t h e r actually attested or not, the w o r d s m o s t often u s e d b y m a n y p e r s o n s , a n d so on

T h o s e v a r i o u s v o c a b u l a r i e s differ n o t o n l y i n size b u t also i n character

O n e c o u n t ( F i n k e n s t a e d t , L e i s i & Wolff 1 9 7 0 ) i n d i c a t e s that o n l y a b o u t 5.4

p e r cent o f the w o r d s i n a d i c t i o n a r y are d e s c e n d e d from O l d E n g l i s h ,

w h e r e a s a n o t h e r ( N e u h a u s 1 9 7 1 : 39—40) i n d i c a t e s that, i n a r u n n i n g text from n e w s p a p e r s , 74.5 p e r cent o f the w o r d s derive from O l d E n g l i s h Clearly, the n a t u r e of the often u s e d v o c a b u l a r y is different from that o f

s e l d o m u s e d w o r d s

2.2.2 Wordfrequency

T h e frequency w i t h w h i c h w o r d s are u s e d h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s as a practical

m a t t e r i n stylistics, for e x a m p l e i n setting an a p p r o p r i a t e r e a d i n g level for school b o o k s

T h e w o r d frequencies in two standard corpuses of English, the B r o w n

C o r p u s for A m e r i c a n and the L O B C o r p u s for British, are r e p o r t e d by Hofland a n d J o h a n s s o n (1982) In the L O B Corpus, the 100 m o s t frequent

w o r d s are, w i t h only 8 exceptions, g r a m m a t i c a l words T h e 10 m o s t frequent

w o r d s in that corpus are the, of and, to, a, in, that, is, was, it T h e 8 n o n - g r a m ­ matical w o r d s a m o n g the 100 m o s t frequent are said, time, Mr, made, new, man, years, people T h e analysis m a d e by Hofland a n d J o h a n s s o n (1982) w a s o f w o r d shapes; so for e x a m p l e , say, says, saying, said w e r e each counted as separate

w o r d s , w h e r e a s time the n o u n a n d time the verb w e r e c o u n t e d as the s a m e

w o r d A subtler analysis appears in J o h a n s s o n a n d Hofland (1989), w h i c h deals w i t h the L O B C o r p u s only, but analyses a t a g g e d version distinguishing various classes of words T h a t analysis presents the frequencies of w o r d shapes a n d also of forms b e l o n g i n g to different w o r d classes In addition, it gives frequencies of typical combinations of w o r d s a n d of w o r d classes

M a g n u s L j u n g (1974) h a s m a d e a study of the frequency o f m o r p h e m e s

to b e found i n a list ( T h o r e n 1959) a d a p t e d from the 8,000 m o s t frequent

w o r d s i n the Thorndike—Lorge (1959) list T h e last w a s c o m p i l e d to s h o w

w o r d frequencies for p e d a g o g i c a l use

2.2.3 Gauging changes in the si^e of the vocabulary

G i v e n s u c h fluctuation i n w h a t w e m e a n b y the V o c a b u l a r y ' of E n g l i s h a n d the p r o b l e m s i n c o u n t i n g it, a n y e s t i m a t e o f its i n c r e a s e i n size since 1776

m u s t b e v i e w e d sceptically Yet it s e e m s certain that the v o c a b u l a r y h a s

i n c r e a s e d significantly In a s a m p l e o f w o r d s from the OED (the first s h a p e

or sense o n e a c h p a g e o f v o l u m e 1 ) , 3 9 3 o f 1,019 are first attested after

1776 T h o s e figures s u g g e s t that the p r e - 1 7 7 6 v o c a b u l a r y (626 w o r d s i n the

s a m p l e ) h a s i n c r e a s e d b y 63 p e r cent, b u t are s u s p e c t b e c a u s e o f the

selectivity o f the OED a n d the s a m p l e

T h e m o s t c o n v e n i e n t s o u r c e for e s t i m a t i n g a n i n c r e a s e i n the size o f the

E n g l i s h v o c a b u l a r y is the Chronological English Dictionary ( F i n k e n s t a e d t ,

Leisi & Wolff 1 9 7 0 ; r e v i e w e d b y D e r o l e z 1 9 7 2 , also 1 9 7 5 ) H o w e v e r , that

w o r k m u s t b e u s e d w i t h c a u t i o n b e c a u s e it is b a s e d o n The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, a selection from the OED, a n d the latter is n o t reliable

for the earliest dates o f u s e o f w o r d s , a l t h o u g h it is the best r e c o r d w e have

O f the 8 0 , 5 0 6 d a t e d w o r d s the CED covers, 5.4 p e r cent o r i g i n a t e d i n O l d

E n g l i s h , 18.9 p e r cent i n M i d d l e E n g l i s h , a n d 75.7 p e r cent i n M o d e r n

E n g l i s h O f the latter, a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o r i g i n a t e d after 1 7 7 6 (a 3 4 p e r cent

i n c r e a s e over p r e - 1 7 7 6 v o c a b u l a r y )

A n i n d i c a t i o n o f the c a u t i o n w i t h w h i c h such figures m u s t b e v i e w e d ,

h o w e v e r , is the fact that the Chronological English Dictionary also i n d i c a t e s

that o f the w o r d s o r i g i n a t i n g after 1 7 7 6 , 5 1 p e r cent w e r e c o i n e d i n the m i d

-n i -n e t e e -n t h c e -n t u r y (1826—75) a -n d o -n l y 4 p e r ce-nt i -n the early t w e -n t i e t h

c e n t u r y (1901—50) Clearly w h a t t h o s e figures s h o w is n o t the g r o w t h o f the v o c a b u l a r y , b u t the extent o f the l e x i c o g r a p h e r ' s sources S u c h a

c a u t i o n is a p p l i c a b l e to a l m o s t all statistical c o n c l u s i o n s b a s e d o n OED

materials N e v e r t h e l e s s , it s e e m s intuitively o b v i o u s that the E n g l i s h

v o c a b u l a r y h a s g r o w n a n d c o n t i n u e s to d o so Objective s u p p o r t for that

o b v i o u s intuition r u n s i n t o p r o b l e m s o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n , continuity, a n d identification

2.2.3.1 D o c u m e n t a t i o n

T h e p r o b l e m o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n is to find s t r o n g e v i d e n c e for the origin o f

a w o r d O u r m a j o r s o u r c e for s u c h d o c u m e n t a t i o n is the OED H o w e v e r , the e v i d e n c e o f the OED h a s to b e u s e d c a u t i o u s l y b e c a u s e w e k n o w that

its earliest date o f attestation is frequently n o t the earliest d o c u m e n t a b l e

u s e o f a w o r d T h e s o u r c e s d r a w n u p o n b y the OED are n o t e v e n l y distrib­

u t e d across the centuries T h e OED is b i a s e d i n favour o f literature a n d

particularly o f c a n o n i c a l l y e n s h r i n e d authors M o r e o v e r , i n e s c a p a b l y the

OEDs r e a d e r s w e r e i n c o n s i s t e n t i n the t h o r o u g h n e s s w i t h w h i c h t h e y

g a t h e r e d citations

T h e i m p r o v e d availability o f scholarly s o u r c e s (editions, b i b l i o g r a p h i e s ,

i n d e x e s , c o n c o r d a n c e s , a n d the like) since the w o r k o n the OED w a s d o n e

e n a b l e s u s to see h o w m u c h w a s m i s s e d b y the c o m p i l e r s o f that g r e a t d i c ­

t i o n a r y a n d h o w c a u t i o u s w e m u s t b e i n d r a w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s from it

(Schäfer 1 9 8 0 ) W e are n o w a w a r e that the OEDs datings are often i n a d e ­

q u a t e b y several d e c a d e s or e v e n m o r e t h a n a century T h u s , the adjectival

abominate is first d o c u m e n t e d i n the OED from 1850; b u t it w a s u s e d at least

as early as 1 5 9 4 (Bailey 1 9 7 8 : 1 ) A s electronic texts b e c o m e m o r e available,

it will b e feasible to e s t i m a t e m o r e a c c u r a t e l y h o w c a u t i o u s w e n e e d to b e

in u s i n g the OEDs e v i d e n c e , a n d it will b e c o m e easier to c o r r e c t that evi­

dence

Several e s t i m a t e s o f the rate o f g r o w t h o f the E n g l i s h v o c a b u l a r y h a v e

b e e n b a s e d o n The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 1 9 6 8 edition T h e r e are,

h o w e v e r , t w o p r o b l e m s w i t h u s i n g that w o r k as a b a s i s for study First, the

principles o n w h i c h it w a s a b r i d g e d from the OED p a r e n t w o r k are n o t

clear; a n d s e c o n d , the text o f the p a r e n t w o r k itself is seriously flawed, i n the w a y s s u g g e s t e d above

In p a r t i c u l a r , e x c e r p t i n g o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y b o o k s for t h e OED

w a s to h a v e b e e n d o n e i n A m e r i c a , b u t c i t a t i o n sups for that c e n t u r y d i d

n o t r e a c h M u r r a y , a n d so, d e s p i t e efforts to c o v e r t h e p e r i o d , it is s e r i o u s l y

u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e OED C o m m e n t s u p o n t h e g r o w t h o f t h e

E n g l i s h v o c a b u l a r y b a s e d (as t h e y g e n e r a l l y a r e ) o n OED e v i d e n c e , often

t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m o f t h e Shorter OED, s h o w a significant d e c l i n e i n t h e

p r o d u c t i o n o f n e w w o r d s i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( F i n k e n s t a e d t & Wolff 1 9 7 3 : 2 9 ; N e u h a u s 1 9 7 1 : 3 1 ) T h e t e m p t a t i o n is to e x p l a i n t h a t

S h a k e s p e a r e w a s over-read; the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y u n d e r - r e a d — that is

w h a t the g r a p h s show W e h a v e n o reliable data o n w h i c h to b a s e g e n e r a l i ­sations a b o u t the g r o w t h o f the E n g l i s h vocabulary To g e t such data w e

n e e d , n o t a c o m p u t e r i s a t i o n o f the faulty OED s a m p l i n g , b u t a w h o l l y n e w

a p p r o a c h

6

2.2.3.2 C o n t i n u i t y

T h e p r o b l e m o f continuity is a m o r e difficult a n d g e n e r a l l y an u n s o l v a b l e one After a w o r d is c o i n e d i n E n g l i s h , w e u s u a l l y a s s u m e that all later

i n s t a n c e s o f the w o r d derive from the initial c o i n a g e B u t clearly there is n o

r e a s o n w h y that s h o u l d b e the case for m a n y w o r d s A w o r d m a y b e i n d e

-p e n d e n d y r e b o r r o w e d or r e f o r m e d m a n y times

For e x a m p l e , cosmos 'the w o r l d ' w a s u s e d b y O r m i n the spelling cossmos

a b o u t 1200 a n d identified as o f G r e e k origin i n the Middle English Dictionary (Kurath & K u h n 1 9 5 4 - ) T h e first citation o f the w o r d i n the OED is

from 1650: A s the g r e a t e r W o r l d is called C o s m u s from the b e a u t y

t h e r e o f , w i t h the reference to ' b e a u t y ' e c h o i n g the G r e e k sense ' w o r l d , order, b e a u t y ' despite the L a t i n a t e f o r m of the ending T h e n e x t citation is

from a n 1848 translation from G e r m a n o f Humboldt's Cosmos Thereafter,

the Q E D h a s citations illustrating several c l o s e l y related senses from 1 8 5 8 ,

1 8 6 5 , 1 8 6 9 , 1 8 7 2 , 1 8 7 4 , 1 8 8 2 , a n d 1 8 8 5 T h i s e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s that cosmos

h a s b e e n b o r r o w e d i n t o E n g l i s h at least three times, t w i c e (1200 a n d 1650) from G r e e k or L a t i n , a n d o n c e (1848) from G e r m a n

T h e l a c k of e v i d e n c e for c o n t i n u e d u s e o f cosmos b e t w e e n 1200 a n d 1650

a n d b e t w e e n 1650 a n d 1 8 4 8 s u g g e s t s that the t w o earlier b o r r o w i n g s w e r e

abortive; p r e s e n t - d a y u s e o f cosmos b e g i n s w i t h its 1 8 4 8 b o r r o w i n g from

G e r m a n T h e OEDs 1865 citation, h o w e v e r , h a s the spelling Kosmos a n d

refers to the P y t h a g o r e a n c o n c e p t o f n u m e r i c a l order; it is at least influenced b y G r e e k directly a n d m a y b e a n o t h e r i n d e p e n d e n t b o r r o w i n g

It a p p e a r s that the w o r d i n c o n t e m p o r a r y u s e is n o t d e s c e n d e d from a n early M i d d l e E n g l i s h b o r r o w i n g from G r e e k , b u t from a late M o d e r n bor­

B e c a u s e the G r a e c o - L a t i n v o c a b u l a r y h a s b e e n influential also o n other

E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s a n d is the basis for m u c h scientific t e r m i n o l o g y , it is often difficult to b e sure o f the origin o f a p a r t i c u l a r n e w w o r d f o r m e d from u l t i m a t e G r a e c o - L a t i n sources W i t h o u t detailed k n o w l e d g e o f its

history, w e c a n n o t p r e d i c t the origin o f a w o r d like hopioid American Heritage (1969) derives it from G r e e k haploeides; World Book (1988) derives it from

G r e e k haplous a n d E n g l i s h -oid; Random House ( F l e x n e r 1987) a n d Webster's New World ( N e u f e l d t 1988) derive it from the E n g l i s h formatives haplo- a n d -old; The Oxford English Dictionary Supplement (OEDS) derives it from

G e r m a n haploid T h e u l t i m a t e G r e e k s o u r c e is n o t i n d o u b t , b u t the

i m m e d i a t e E n g l i s h s o u r c e is a m a t t e r o f d i s a g r e e m e n t

To m e e t this p r o b l e m , the editors o f Webster's Third ( 1 9 6 1 : 7a) c o i n e d the

e t y m o l o g i c a l label ' I S V for ' I n t e r n a t i o n a l Scientific V o c a b u l a r y ' , that is,

w o r d s o f u n c e r t a i n origin u s e d i n several l a n g u a g e s A c o m p a r a b l e l a b e l

w a s u s e d i n the OED (1989: xxviii): ' m o d £' s t a n d i n g for ' m o d e r n f o r m a ­

tion' T h e s e labels avoid a m i s s t a t e m e n t w h e n e x a c t i n f o r m a t i o n is lacking,

b u t t h e y are an a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t of i g n o r a n c e rather t h a n a n e t y m o l o g y

2.3 Creating as a source of new words

W o r d s that are c o i n a g e s ex nihilo are e x t r e m e l y rare, i f t h e y exist at all

W o r d s that s e e m to b e o f that t y p e are u s u a l l y w o r d s a b o u t w h o s e h i s t o r y

w e m e r e l y h a v e insufficient i n f o r m a t i o n

A n a p p a r e n t e x c e p t i o n to that g e n e r a l i s a t i o n is the u s e of c o m p u t e r

-g e n e r a t e d trade n a m e s , b u t that e x c e p t i o n is m o r e a p p a r e n t t h a n real

W h e n a n e w n a m e for a p r o d u c t is s o u g h t from a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m , the

c a n d i d a t e s are u n l i k e l y to b e r a n d o m l y g e n e r a t e d stings o f letters I n s t e a d the c o m p u t e r h a s b e e n p r o g r a m m e d to p r o d u c e o n l y c e r t a i n p a t t e r n s o f letters ( C V C V C , C V C C V C , etc.) a n d certain final s e q u e n c e s are p r o m i n e n t

i n the trade n a m e s selected from s u c h lists: -an, -ar, -el, -ex, -on It s e e m s clear

that the h u m a n b e i n g s w h o m a k e the final selection from c o m p u t e r - g e n ­

e r a t e d lists are g u i d e d b y a s s o c i a t i o n s i n c h o o s i n g a trade n a m e For

e x a m p l e , e v e n if, as r e p o r t e d (Praninskas 1968: 1 4 ) , Teflon w a s a c o m p u t e r

-g e n e r a t e d n a m e , the last p a r t o f it clearly e c h o e s nylon, a n d the first p a r t is

c o n s o n a n t w i t h tough, s u g g e s t i n g a t o u g h , s m o o t h surface S u c h c o n s i d e r a ­

tions are v e r y likely to h a v e e n t e r e d into the c h o i c e o f the n a m e , w h i c h is

to that extent n o t a p u r e creation

E c h o i c or o n o m a t o p o e i c w o r d s are a t y p e o f creation, for e x a m p l e , burp, bu%% fi^j plop, %ap, %ip H o w e v e r , t h e y are n o t p u r e i m i t a t i o n s o f s o u n d s ,

since there are clearly c o n v e n t i o n s o f i m i t a t i o n , a n d certain s o u n d s , such

as / 2 / i n several o f the p r e c e d i n g e x a m p l e s , a c q u i r e the v a l u e o f p h o n e s

-t h e m e s

2.4 Shifting as a source of new words

Shifting m a y b e of s h a p e , g r a m m a r , s e m a n t i c s , or p r a g m a t i c s

66

2.4.1 Shift of shapes

S h a p e shifting is illustrated b y the b a c k shngjob from boy It is a m i n o r k i n d

o f shifting that involves neither loss n o r addition, b u t alteration of the spelling or p r o n u n c i a t i o n of a form

2.4.2 Grammatical shifts

E n g l i s h h a s g r e a t freedom of shifting forms from o n e p a r t of s p e e c h to another B e c a u s e of the sparse m o r p h o l o g i c a l m a r k i n g for p a r t s of speech,

a l m o s t a n y E n g l i s h w o r d c a n b e u s e d as a n o u n , verb, or adjective-like attributive N o n c e u s e s are frequent, a n d so are established shifts

In n o n c e shifts, for e x a m p l e o f n o u n s to v e r b s (Clark & C l a r k 1 9 7 9 ) , the

m e a n i n g of the n o n c e v e r b derives from that of the u n d e r l y i n g n o u n a n d the context — b o t h the i m m e d i a t e lexical context a n d the b r o a d n o n -linguistic context that w e call cultural k n o w l e d g e T h u s , the m e a n i n g o f

porch i n to porch a newspaper 'to deliver b y t h r o w i n g i n t o the p o r c h o f a h o u s e '

d e p e n d s o n the n o u n sense of porch, the c o - o c c u r r e n c e w i t h newspaper, a n d

familiarity w i t h the fact that n e w s p a p e r s are i n s o m e l o c a t i o n s b r o u g h t to

a private h o u s e b y deliverers w h o t h r o w t h e m o n t o the porch

In o n e e x a m i n a t i o n of over 8,700 c o n v e r t e d forms (Biese 1941) the

c h r o n o l o g i c a l distribution of the forms b y p e r c e n t a g e w a s as follows:

to 14c 15c 16c 17c 18c 19c

.16 09 20 20 11 26

E x c e p t for a dip i n the e i g h t e e n t h century, w h i c h is p r o b a b l y e x p l a i n e d

by the g a p i n the OEIJs r e s o u r c e s , M o d e r n E n g l i s h h a s a fairly c o n s i s ­

tent rate of shifted parts of speech, w i t h s o m e i n c r e a s e i n m o r e recent times

A type of g r a m m a t i c a l shift that h a s b e c o m e m o r e i m p o r t a n t i n r e c e n t

times is the u s e of a trade n a m e as a g e n e r i c Escalatorbegan as a p r o p r i e t a r y

n a m e , b u t h a s l o n g since c e a s e d to b e so T h e s e c o n d h a l f of Coca-Cola like­

w i s e has b e c o m e g e n e r i c ; the c o m p a n y is fighting to p r e v e n t its n i c k n a m e

from the first half, coke, from following suit Ziploc ( 1 9 7 0 ) , a b r a n d n a m e for

a plastic b a g that fastens b y sealing t w o i n t e r l o c k i n g strips, h a s b e c o m e

g e n e r i c u n d e r the respelling %iplock (1982) O t h e r trade n a m e s that are often

u s e d g e n e t i c a l l y b u t still m a i n t a i n legal status as p r o p r i e t a r y n a m e s are

Band-Aid (a U S t e r m for a n a d h e s i v e p l a s t e r ) , Biro (a U K t e r m for a ball­

p o i n t p e n ) , Cellophane, Filofax (a U K l o o s e - l e a f r e c o r d b o o k ) , Polaroid, U S Scotch tape a n d its U K c o u n t e r p a r t Sellotape Teflon is likely to w i n out over the

n o n - p r o p r i e t a r y termpolytetrafluoroethylene\ it a l r e a d y h a s m e t a p h o r i c a l u s e i n the political t e r m teflon-coated ' p o s s e s s i n g a n ability to e s c a p e the c o n s e ­

q u e n c e s o f one's a c t i o n s ' Hoover"is u s e d g e n e t i c a l l y o n l y i n the U K , e v e n

t h o u g h the trade n a m e w a s U S i n origin; it a n d Xerox h a v e further shifted

p e r cent T h e s e figures s u g g e s t strongly that this t y p e o f c o n v e r s i o n h a s

i n c r e a s e d strikingly i n frequency i n r e c e n t times

L i n d e l o f (1938: 39) o b s e r v e d that c o m b i n a t i o n s o r i g i n a t i n g i n A m e r i c a

c o m p r i s e d 6 p e r c e n t o f the e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e x a m p l e s , 17 p e r c e n t o f

t h o s e from the first h a l f o f the n i n e t e e n t h century, 33 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e from the s e c o n d h a l f o f the n i n e t e e n t h century, a n d a b o u t 3 9 p e r cent o f early t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y ones H e c o n c l u d e d :

And there is one thing which has struck me more and more while col­lecting and arranging my examples, namely the very prominent part which the language of America seems to play in the creation of words of our type

T h i s c o n c l u s i o n is i n k e e p i n g w i t h a w i d e s p r e a d b u t l a r g e l y u n s u b s t a n t i a t e d belief that A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h is m o r e i n n o v a t i v e t h a n British If w e

s u p p o s e that the n u m b e r , o f i n n o v a t i o n s i n a l a n g u a g e m a y b e p a r t l y cor­related w i t h the n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s s p e a k i n g it, the i n c r e a s i n g size o f the

A m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n m i g h t strike u s as s u g g e s t i n g that A m e r i c a n i n n o v a ­tions o u g h t to b e m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n t h e y h a v e b e e n S u c h a c o m p a r i s o n

m i g h t s u g g e s t that B r i t i s h E n g l i s h is actually m o r e i n n o v a t i v e than

A m e r i c a n

68

l a p p i n g a n d fuzzy B e c a u s e the s e m a n t i c d i m e n s i o n o f l a n g u a g e is treated

o n l y i n c i d e n t a l l y i n this chapter, the v a r i o u s types o f s e m a n t i c shift will n o t

b e dealt w i t h i n detail T h e y i n c l u d e , h o w e v e r , the following:

1 Referential shift, a c h a n g e i n the realia that are the referents o f a

t e r m , w i t h a c o n s e q u e n t c h a n g e i n the term's m e a n i n g T h e tech­

n o l o g y o f p r i n t i n g h a s d e v e l o p e d from h a n d p r e s s e s t h r o u g h

offset to laser; as a result the reference a n d sense o f the v e r b to print

h a s c h a n g e d

2 G e n e r a l i s a t i o n , an e x p a n s i o n i n the r a n g e o f a term's referents

Chap (a s h o r t e n i n g of chapman) earlier m e a n t 'a c u s t o m e r ' b u t h a s

g e n e r a l i s e d its m e a n i n g to i n c l u d e a n y p e r s o n

3 Specialisation, a c o n t r a c t i o n i n the r a n g e of a term's referents

Frock w a s o n c e a t e r m for the g a r m e n t o f a m o n k or c l e r g y m a n (hence the r e l a t e d v e r b to unfrock); it g e n e r a l i s e d to v a r i o u s outer

g a r m e n t s a n d t h e n specialised to a w o m a n ' s dress

4 A b s t r a c t i o n , a shift i n a term's referent to s o m e t h i n g less concrete

Zest d e n o t e d o r a n g e or l e m o n peel u s e d for flavouring, b u t b e c a m e

the m o r e abstract ' g u s t o '

5 C o n c r e t i o n , a shift i n a term's referent to s o m e t h i n g less

abstract Complexion m e a n t a c o m b i n a t i o n of the qualities (hot,

cold, w e t , d r y ) b u t c a m e e v e n t u a l l y to d e n o t e the c o n d i t i o n o f facial skin

6 M e t a p h o r Kite w a s a t e r m for a bird o f p r e y before it w a s u s e d for

a toy that h o v e r s i n the air like the bird

7 M e t o n y m y Tin w a s the n a m e o f a m e t a l before it w a s u s e d for a

10 Litotes Strictly referring to the n e g a t i o n o f an o p p o s i t e (not bad for

12 Pejoration Lady, early a t e r m for a w o m a n h e a d o f a h o u s e h o l d ,

the A n g l o - S a x o n t e r m for a q u e e n , or an epithet o f the V i r g i n

M a r y , is n o w often u s e d c o n d e s c e n d i n g l y ('the little lady', 'the ladies, G o d b l e s s ' e m ' ) a n d is therefore rejected b y m a n y feminists

2.4.4 Pragmatic shifts

Pragmatics h e r e d e n o t e s the relationship b e t w e e n a n e x p r e s s i o n a n d its users, also called usage P r a g m a t i c or u s a g e shifts are o f several k i n d s :

1 A c h a n g e i n the level o f formality o f use B e g i n n i n g as a fairly

f o r m a l w o r d w i t h the sense 'guide, ruler', governor came i n the n i n e ­

t e e n t h c e n t u r y to b e u s e d as a h i g h l y colloquial t e r m o f a d d r e s s for

any socially superior m a n (often r e p r e s e n t e d asgov'ner)

2 A c h a n g e i n a w o r d ' s acceptability Bloody w a s o n c e a strongly

t a b o o e d w o r d , o f w h o s e u s e as an intensifier the OED\ r e m a r k e d ,

' n o w constantly i n the m o u t h s o f the l o w e s t classes, b u t b y

r e s p e c t a b l e p e o p l e c o n s i d e r e d " a h o r r i d w o r d " , o n a p a r w i t h

o b s c e n e or p r o f a n e l a n g u a g e ' G B Shaw's u s e o f the w o r d i n

Pygmalion w a s i n t e n d e d to b e sensational a n d is said to h a v e

a c h i e v e d that effect at the play's opening T h o u g h still h i g h l y col­loquial, the w o r d is n o l o n g e r l i m i t e d to the 'lowest c l a s s e s ' b u t is found a m o n g e v e n quite 'respectable p e o p l e ' Conversely, a t e r m

like nigger, w h i c h w a s o n c e u n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y u s e d b y 'respectable

p e o p l e ' , is n o w u n a c c e p t a b l e i n polite society L i n g u i s t i c t a b o o h a s shifted from sex, e l i m i n a t i o n , a n d sacrilege to r a c e a n d ethnicity

a n d later b y e x t e n s i o n as a n a m e for the O l d E n g l i s h d i g r a p h x

( 1 9 5 5 ) It is n o w also u s e d for the p h o n e t i c s o u n d r e p r e s e n t e d i n

the IPA b y the d i g r a p h , t h o u g h that s e n s e is n o t i n the OED

T h e t y p e o f p r a g m a t i c shift that h a s r e c e i v e d the g r e a t e s t a m o u n t o f

p o p u l a r attention, t h o u g h less scholarly investigation, is u s a g e variation, that i s , fluctuation i n the a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f a form A n i n f o r m a t i v e , histori­

cally o r i e n t e d h a n d b o o k o n u s a g e is Webster's Dictionary of English Usage

( G i l m a n 1 9 8 9 ) It d o c u m e n t s , for e x a m p l e , fluctuations i n the r e p u t a t i o n

o f like as a c o n j u n c t i o n a n d s u m m a r i s e s the h i s t o r y (p 6 0 2 ) :

Its beginnings [about 1380 in Cleanness} are literary, but the available evi­

dence shows that it was fairly rare until the 19th century A noticeable increase in use during the 19th century provoked the censure we are so familiar with Still, the usage has never been less than standard, even if primarily spoken

2.5 Shortening as a source of new words

S h o r t e n i n g i n c l u d e s a v a r i e t y o f p r o c e s s e s : a b b r e v i a t i o n , a l p h a b e t i s m , acronymy, elision, clipping, ellipsis, a n d b a c k f o r m a t i o n

n o u n c e d 'eff e m ' S p e c i a l letter n a m e s , such as t h o s e o f the

signal alphabet, are s o m e t i m e s u s e d , as i n ack ack for AA (anti­

aircraft), i n this case w i t h a n o n o m a t o p o e t i c effect T h e letters are

n o t n e c e s s a r i l y the initials o f s e p a r a t e w o r d s or e v e n m o r ­

p h e m e s : TV from television a n d A m e r i c a n PJs or pee/ays from pyjamas S o m e f o r m s h a v e the a p p e a r a n c e o f s h o r t e n i n g s , b u t are

really a l p h a b e t i c a l r e b u s e s : 10U for T o w e y o u ' a n d L-train for

'el(evated) train'

3 O t h e r s h o r t e n i n g s are s e q u e n c e s o f letters, typically the initial

letters o f several w o r d s , p r o n o u n c e d a c c o r d i n g to n o r m a l

o r t h o e p i c a l p r i n c i p l e s : aids ' a c q u i r e d i m m u n e deficiency syn­

d r o m e ' S o m e forms m i x the two k i n d s o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n : Beeb from BBC, w i t h c l i p p i n g o f the final C, a n d posslq (pro-

n o u n c e d / ' p a s o l k j u : / ) from person of opposite sex sharing living quarters A v o w e l m a y b e i n s e r t e d to facilitate p r o n u n c i a t i o n , as i n the last e x a m p l e a n d also in Wrens from WRNS ( W o m e n ' s R o y a l

N a v a l S e r v i c e ) , w i t h a singular Wren b y b a c k f o r m a t i o n a n d

d o u b t l e s s a p u n o n the b i r d (alluding to bird as a slang t e r m for a

w o m a n ) A c r o n y m o u s w o r d s are s o m e t i m e s f o r m e d so that their

letters spell out a w o r d o f a p p r o p r i a t e m e a n i n g : possum is a t e r m

for a n electronic d e v i c e e n a b l i n g a p a r a l y s e d p e r s o n to o p e r a t e

m a c h i n e s like t e l e p h o n e s a n d t y p e w r i t e r s ; it is from POSM for patient operated selector mechanism, w i t h a p u n o n the L a t i n v e r b

m e a n i n g T a m able'

4 A n elision is the o m i s s i o n o f a s o u n d for p h o n o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s ,

such as aphesis, s y n c o p e , or assimilation: 'cause (also spelled 'cos, cos, co%) from because; fo'c'sle from forecastle; or ice tea from iced tea (in

w h i c h -ed is p r o n o u n c e d / 1 / b u t o m i t t e d b e c a u s e o f the i m m e d i ­

ately following / t / )

5 A clipping is a s h o r t e n i n g of a s p o k e n or w r i t t e n form, either at a

m o r p h e m e b o u n d a r y or b e t w e e n such b o u n d a r i e s , as curio w a s

c l i p p e d from curiosity or bumf from bum fodder

6 A n ellipsis (as the t e r m is u s e d h e r e ) is the o m i s s i o n o f a w o r d or

w o r d s from a c o m p o u n d or p h r a s e , as television i n ' S h e b o u g h t a

n e w television' is a clipping from television set

2.5.2 Backformation

B a c k f o r m a t i o n is a f o r m o f s h o r t e n i n g i n w h i c h the o m i t t e d m a t e r i a l is or

is p e r c e i v e d to b e a formative, typically an affix Its o m i s s i o n p r o d u c e s a

n e w f o r m w i t h a m e a n i n g related to b u t distinct from that o f the e t y m o n

B a c k f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n a surprisingly p r o d u c t i v e s o u r c e of n e w w o r d s ( P e n n a n e n 1 9 6 6 , from w h o m the following e x a m p l e s a n d dates are t a k e n ) Verbs are the p a r t o f s p e e c h m o s t often b a c k f o r m e d , a n d the e t y m o n is

often a n a g e n t n o u n i n -er: swindle ( 1 7 8 2 ) , edit ( 1 7 9 3 ) , commentate ( 1 8 1 8 ) , shop­ lift ( 1 8 2 0 ) , bushwhack (1834), housekeep ( 1 8 4 2 ) , scavage ( 1 8 5 1 ) , sculpt (1S64),

7^

play-act (1812), typewrite ( 1 8 8 7 ) , barn-storm ( 1 8 9 6 ) , p a n h a n d l e ( 1 9 0 4 ) , sleep-walk (1923),proof-read ( 1 9 3 4 ) , divebomb ( 1 9 4 4 ) , name-drop (1960)

O t h e r v e r b s are f o r m e d from action n o u n s , m a n y w i t h the suffixes -ion

or -ation a n d -ing, b u t also a v a r i e t y o f others: donate ( 1 7 8 5 ) , demarcate ( 1 8 1 6 ) , enthuse ( 1 8 2 7 ) , jell ( 1 8 3 0 ) , daydream ( 1 8 4 5 ) , coeducate (1855), extradite ( 1 8 6 4 ) , proliferate ( 1 8 7 3 ) , tongue-lash ( 1 8 8 7 ) , dry-clean ( 1 8 9 9 ) , backfire ( 1 9 0 6 ) , backform ( 1 9 1 3 ) , psychoanalyse ( 1 9 2 3 ) , window-shop ( 1 9 3 4 ) , air-condition ( 1 9 4 2 ) , automate

( 1 9 5 4 )

S o m e v e r b s are f o r m e d from adjectives, especially participial adjectives

in -ed\ sulk ( 1 7 8 1 ) , ill-treat ( 1 7 9 4 ) , isolate ( 1 8 0 7 ) , handpick ( 1 8 3 1 ) , ill-use ( 1 8 4 1 ) , jerry-build ( 1 8 8 5 ) , streamline ( 1 9 2 7 ) , mass-produce ( 1 9 4 0 ) , bottle-feed ( 1 9 5 7 )

N o u n s are also b a c k f o r m e d from adjectives: megalith ( 1 8 5 3 ) , y i d ( 1 8 9 0 ) , metronym ( 1 9 0 4 ) , highbrow (1911), snoot ( 1 9 3 0 ) , peeve ( 1 9 5 2 ) ; a n d from o t h e r

n o u n s : letch ( 1 7 9 6 ) , prizefight ( 1 8 2 4 ) , homoeopath (1830), lithograph ( 1 8 3 9 ) , palmist ( 1 8 8 6 ) , osteopath ( 1 8 9 7 ) , telepath (1907) Occasionally, an adjective is

f o r m e d from a noun: gullible ( 1 8 2 5 )

o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , to i n a d e q u a t e data from that p e r i o d T h e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y

e v i d e n c e w a s p r i m a r i l y from the first h a l f o f the c e n t u r y only W i t h c o r r e c ­tions m a d e for t h o s e factors, the e v i d e n c e strongly s u g g e s t s a rise i n p r o ­ductivity o f b a c k f o r m a t i o n P e n n a n e n ( 1 9 6 6 : 1 5 0 ) also c o m m e n t e d o n the relative p r o d u c t i v e n e s s o f British a n d A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h i n b a c k f o r m i n g

n e w w o r d s :

Although the coining of back-formations is at present mainly carried on

in America on the various levels of spoken and written usage, it should

be emphasized that the difference here is one of degree only This means that the same experimental and creative impulses are inherent in British English as well, even if they are controlled with greater reserve and moderation in Britain than in the U.S

S u c h c o m m e n t s are n o t u n u s u a l i n C o n t i n e n t a l studies o f c h a n g e i n the

E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e E v e n if lexical i n n o v a t i o n is m o r e frequent i n A m e r i c a n

t h a n i n British E n g l i s h (a g e n e r a l i s a t i o n for w h i c h there is little objective

s u p p o r t ) , the characterisation o f A m e r i c a n as less c o n t r o l l e d a n d o f B r i t i s h

as r e s e r v e d a n d m o d e r a t e is p a r t o f a w i d e r s t e r e o t y p i n g o f the two cul­tures b y E u r o p e a n s

2.6 Composing as a source of new words

T w o c o m m o n t y p e s w e r e n a m e d b y S a n s k r i t g r a m m a r i a n s : t a t p u r u s h a ('his s e r v a n t ' ) a n d b a h u v r i h i ('[having] m u c h r i c e ' ) , b o t h t e r m s b e i n g e x a m ­

p l e s o f the sort o f c o m p o u n d t h e y n a m e E a c h consists o f a modifier a n d

a n o u n , b u t t h e y differ i n the w a y t h e y relate to their referents A t a t p u r u s h a

c o m p o u n d is e n d o c e n t r i c , that i s , the n o u n i n the c o m p o u n d refers to the

referent that the w h o l e c o m p o u n d d e n o t e s : airlink is a l i n k b y air a n d black­ board is a b o a r d that is b l a c k (or at least w a s so originally) O n the o t h e r

h a n d , a b a h u v r i h i c o m p o u n d is exocentric, that i s , the n o u n i n the c o m ­

p o u n d h a s a different referent from the c o m p o u n d itself: blockhead is

s o m e o n e w h o h a s a h e a d that is a b l o c k a n d high-potency d e s c r i b e s s o m e t h i n g

that is h i g h i n potency In b o t h types, the p o s s i b l e s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s

b e t w e e n the t w o p a r t s o f the c o m p o u n d are e x c e e d i n g l y v a r i e d , so s y n ­tactic r u l e s to p r e d i c t t h e m a n d s e m a n t i c r u l e s to i n t e r p r e t t h e m are difficult

to frame, a l t h o u g h efforts to d o so h a v e b e e n m a d e (Lees 1 9 6 0 ; L e v i 1 9 7 8 ;

W a r r e n 1 9 7 8 )

It h a s b e e n said that the aspiration o f the g r a m m a r i a n is to r e d u c e all l a n ­

g u a g e to g r a m m a r — that i s , to w r i t e r u l e s for everything Efforts to i n c o r ­

p o r a t e w o r d f o r m a t i o n i n t o s y n t a x or to w r i t e s e p a r a t e r u l e s for the

l e x i c o n , w h e t h e r for E n g l i s h or universal g r a m m a r , aspire to that e n d ( C h a p i n 1 9 6 7 ; L j u n g 1970; M e y s 1 9 7 5 ; Aronoff 1 9 7 6 ; L i e b e r 1 9 8 1 )

74

H o w e v e r , e x p e r i m e n t s i n v o l v i n g the creation a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f n o v e l

c o m p o u n d s c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o n o u n s l e d P a m e l a D o w n i n g (1977: 840—1)

to c o n c l u d e that ' a t t e m p t s to characterise c o m p o u n d s as derived from a

l i m i t e d set o f [sentential] structures c a n only b e c o n s i d e r e d m i s g u i d e d A

p a r a p h r a s e r e l a t i o n s h i p n e e d n o t i m p l y a derivational one.'

A l t h o u g h n o u n s are the p a r t o f s p e e c h m o s t often c o m p o u n d e d , o t h e r

p a r t s m a y also be A v a r i e t y o f c o m p o u n d adjective p u t s a n o u n before the

adjective, as i n ice-cold In these c o m p o u n d s the adjective is frequently a

s e n s o r y w o r d (a c o l o u r or other t e r m such as cold, sharp, soft, sweet) or a n

e x p r e s s i o n o f d e p r i v a t i o n {blind, dead, deaf drunk, mad, naked), a l t h o u g h

others also occur T h e n o u n serves as an intensifier T h e p a t t e r n is a n c i e n t

(ice-cold in O l d E n g l i s h is-calde) b u t is still p r o d u c t i v e : dirt-cheap ( 1 8 2 1 ) , broke ( 1 8 8 6 ) , ra^or-sharp ( 1 9 2 1 ) , ra^or-thin ( 1 9 7 1 ) In the p r e c e d i n g e x a m ­

stone-ples, the s e m a n t i c relationship is 'as X as Y ' (as c h e a p as d i r t ) , b u t other

r e l a t i o n s h i p s o c c u r i n the pattern Bone-tired (1825) is n o t 'as tired as a b o n e '

b u t rather 'tired all the w a y into the b o n e s '

A p o o r l y d o c u m e n t e d k i n d o f c o m p o u n d i n g is r e d u p l i c a t i o n ( T h u n

1 9 6 3 ) T h r e e m a i n varieties c a n b e r e c o g n i s e d Identical r e d u p l i c a t i o n s are

the least frequent: turn-turn ( 1 8 6 4 ) , goody-goody ( 1 8 7 1 ) , /#/#(1886), hush-hush ( 1 9 1 6 ) C o n s o n a n t a l (or ablaut) r e d u p l i c a t i o n s are m o r e frequent: hee-haw ( 1 8 1 5 ) , wiggle-waggle ( 1 8 2 5 ) , tick-tock ( 1 8 4 8 ) , flip-flop ( 1 9 0 2 , after a n o n c e u s e

in 1 6 6 1 ) R h y m i n g r e d u p l i c a t i o n s are the m o s t frequent: rumble-tumble ( 1 8 0 1 ) , tragtag (1820 i n ragtag and bobtail), chock-a-block ( 1 8 4 0 ) , honky-tonk ( 1 8 9 4 ) , heebie-jeebies ( 1 9 2 3 ) A s the last three e x a m p l e s show, there m a y b e a

l i n k i n g or e x t e n d i n g syllable after either e l e m e n t

E n g l i s h also h a s several d e v i c e s for freely c r e a t i n g r e d u p l i c a t i n g c o m ­

p o u n d s A v a r i e t y o f b a b y t a l k is illustrated b y doggy-woggy a n d fu^-wuf^y,

a n d Y i d d i s h - E n g l i s h m a k e s f o r m s like fear-shmear, courage-shmourage T h e y

are e a c h a n o p e n set o f t r u e reduplications S u c h playful d e v i c e s are d o u b t ­less o f s o m e antiquity, b u t b e c a u s e their p r o d u c t s are s e l d o m r e c o r d e d , w e

h a v e scant d o c u m e n t a t i o n for their a g e

2.6.2 Affixing

Affixation is also i n s o m e respects a l e x i s / g r a m m a r borderline p h e n o m e ­

n o n ( H i r t l e 1970; H u d s o n 1 9 7 5 ; L j u n g 1976) It is also an area of w o r d formation particularly susceptible to v o g u e s a n d oddities of use, such as the

several senses o f non- ( A l g e o 1 9 7 1 ) , i n t e r p o s i n g as in in-damn-defensible ( M c M i l l a n 1 9 8 0 ) , a n d the -ers suffix i n bonkers, champers, congratters, crackers, honkers, jabbers, jeepers, lumpers, preggers, starkers (Stein 1984) E v e n apparently

simple affixes, such as the adjective-forming -ed, m a y have g r e a t complexities

of use a n d history (Hirtle 1969; H u d s o n 1975; B e a r d 1976; Ljung 1976)

A study (Ljung 1970) o f derivational suffixes i n the T h o r e n (1959) w o r d list found 199 suffixes, o f w h i c h 135 are n o u n - f o r m i n g , 52 adjective-forming, a n d 12 verb-forming T h e eight m o s t frequent d e n o m i n a l adjec­

tive suffixes, i n o r d e r o f frequency, w e r e -y, -al, -ful, -ous, -less, -ly, -ic, -ish

T h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n c o m p o u n d i n g , affixing, a n d other f o r m s o f

w o r d derivation is s o m e t i m e s unclear Para- i n f o r m s like paratroops a n d para­ medic ' m e d i c a l c o r p s m a n i n a p a r a c h u t e u n i t ' r e p r e s e n t s parachute, n o t

m e r e l y the older affix Tele- i n telecamera, telecast, telecommunication, teleconference,

a n d telecourse r e p r e s e n t s television or telephone, n o t m e r e l y the affix m e a n i n g

'distant' S u c h cases m i g h t b e d e s c r i b e d as n e w m e a n i n g s o f the affixes

para- a n d tele-, n e w c o m b i n i n g f o r m s o f the n o u n s parachute a n d television, or

e v e n b l e n d s of the n o u n s (telecamera—television+camera) Similarly, Watergate,

the n a m e o f a b u i l d i n g that w a s the site o f a covert o p e r a t i o n l e a d i n g to a political cover-up a n d scandal, h a s b e c o m e the s o u r c e o f a n e w c o m b i n i n g

form, -gate, d e n o t i n g a s c a n d a l o u s cover-up; a n d -holic'm workaholic'and choco­ holic is u s e d i n the sense ' o n e w h o is i n o r d i n a t e l y fond o f

2.7 Blending as a source of new words

Folk etymology and other forms of semantic crossing due to clang associa­

tion are also a kind of blending, as buxom in the recent sense 'busty' blends the form buxom (whose earlier m e a n i n g w a s 'obedient') with the sense of bosom

B l e n d i n g is n o t l i m i t e d to the c o m b i n a t i o n o f t w o specific e t y m a , b u t

c a n also i n the case o f p h o n e s t h e m e s i n v o l v e w h o l e sets o f w o r d s T h u s

bash c o m b i n e s the first c o n s o n a n t o f w o r d s like bang, bump, blow w i t h the

r h y m e o f crash, dash, smash; similarly, bonk c o m b i n e s the s a m e first c o n s o ­

n a n t w i t h the r i m e o f conk

2.8 Borrowing as a source of new words

E v e n if b o r r o w i n g h a s r e c e n t l y b e c o m e less i m p o r t a n t as a s o u r c e for n e w

E n g l i s h w o r d s t h a n formerly, it is still noteworthy Unfortunately, the m o s t

c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y o f b o r r o w i n g i n E n g l i s h , A History of Foreign Words

7 6

in English b y M a r y S S e r j e a n t s o n ( 1 9 3 5 ) , is n o w far o u t o f date L o a n w o r d s

i n c l u d e a n u m b e r o f types ( H a u g e n 1950; C a r s t e n s e n 1 9 6 8 ) , such as the following:

1 F o r e i g n w o r d s , w h i c h h a v e b e e n i m p e r f e c d y a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o the

E n g l i s h s y s t e m i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n , spelling, m o r p h o l o g y , s e m a n t i c s ,

or o t h e r w i s e (faute de mieux)

2 L o a n w o r d s , t a k e n i n t o E n g l i s h w i t h n o m o r e t h a n s o u n d - s u b s t i ­

tution for foreign s o u n d s , transliteration o f the spelling, or an

a d j u s t m e n t o f inflectional m o r p h o l o g y (glasnost from R u s s i a n , honcho from J a p a n e s e , schlep from Y i d d i s h )

3 L o a n translations, substitutions o f native m o r p h e m e s for foreign

o n e s m o t i v a t e d b y similarity o f m e a n i n g {house of tolerance from

F r e n c h maison de tolerance)

4 H y b r i d c o m p o u n d s , a b o r r o w i n g o f a c o m p l e x f o r m w i t h l o a n

translation for p a r t o f it {coffee klatsch from G e r m a n Kaffeeklatsch)

5 S e m a n t i c l o a n s , substitutions of foreign m e a n i n g s for t h o s e o f

native m o r p h e m e s m o t i v a t e d b y a similarity o f shape, i n effect a

t y p e o f l o a n w o r d folk e t y m o l o g y (mogul 'a m o u n d o n a ski s l o p e ' from N o r w e g i a n muge w i t h interference from E n g l i s h mogul

N o r w e g i a n f e m t e n 'fifteen')

2.8.1 Sources of loanwords

Several efforts h a v e b e e n m a d e to assess the relative i m p o r t a n c e o f v a r i o u s

l a n g u a g e s as sources for b o r r o w i n g i n p r e s e n t - d a y E n g l i s h G a r l a n d

C a n n o n (1987: 69—97) h a s d e s c r i b e d the first three o f the following

cor-p u s e s , totalling 1,262 l o a n w o r d s ; the fourth is o f the l o a n w o r d s e n t e r e d i n

The Barnhart Dictionary Companion, v o l u m e s 1—4:

1 4 0 7 l o a n w o r d s from The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since

4 166 l o a n w o r d s , i n c l u d i n g 2 2 l o a n translations, listed i n The Barnhart

Dictionary Companion Index (D B a r n h a r t 1 9 8 7 , 53—4)

T h e s e c o r p u s e s , w h i c h are m o d e s t i n size, r e p o r t l o a n w o r d s from a

p e r i o d o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 y e a r s (1963—88) T h e l a n g u a g e s (or i n s o m e cases, g e o g r a p h i c a l areas) from w h i c h t h e y r e c o r d b o r r o w i n g a n d the per­

c e n t a g e o f l o a n w o r d s for e a c h l a n g u a g e (or area) w i t h i n e a c h c o r p u s are as follows T h e r a n k i n g is an a v e r a g e o f the four c o r p u s e s :

E a c h o f the following l a n g u a g e s , w h i c h share r a n k s 30—56, r e p r e s e n t s less t h a n 1 p e r cent of the total: A m h a r i c , A n n a m e s e , B a s q u e , B h u t a n e s e ,

C a t a l a n , C z e c h , H a w a i i a n , H u n g a r i a n , Irish, K h m e r , M o n g o l i a n , P a p u a n , Pashto, P i d g i n E n g l i s h , Pilipino, Polish, P r o v e n ç a l , Punjabi, S a m o a n , S c o t s ( G a e l i c ) , S e r b o - C r o a t i a n , Tahitian, T h a i (and L a o ) , T u r k i s h , U r d u , W e l s h ,

W e s t Indian

A l t h o u g h there are s o m e d i s c r e p a n c i e s , o n the w h o l e the four c o r p u s e s tell a r e m a r k a b l y c o n s i s t e n t story T h e g r e a t e s t d i s c r e p a n c y is the h i g h per­

c e n t a g e o f R u s s i a n l o a n w o r d s i n The Barnhart Dictionary Companion T h e

m o s t likely e x p l a n a t i o n for the d i s c r e p a n c y is that the r e a d e r s for that

F r e n c h is clearly the m a j o r s o u r c e for r e c e n t E n g l i s h l o a n w o r d s , as it h a s

d o u b t l e s s b e e n since the M i d d l e A g e s Yet v a r i o u s efforts to assess fluctuations i n the influence o f F r e n c h o n E n g l i s h , e v e n w h e n b a s e d o n the

OED, s h o w c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n , d e p e n d i n g o n the m e t h o d s o f a s s e s s ­

m e n t u s e d C o u n t s m a d e by J e s p e r s e n , K o s z a l , B a u g h , M o s s é , a n d H e r d a n

v a r y considerably, a c c o r d i n g to the w a y w o r d s are c o u n t e d ( P e n n a n e n

1 9 7 1 ) Pennanen's o p t i m i s t i c c o n c l u s i o n that 'a sufficiently l a r g e s a m p l e

w h i c h is e v e n l y c a r r i e d out over the entire m a t e r i a l to b e studied will give a relatively c o r r e c t picture o f distribution a c c o r d i n g to time' is d o u b t l e s s correct, p r o v i d e d that its c o n d i t i o n s o f the size, consistency, a n d distribu­tion o f the s a m p l e are m e t a n d p r o v i d e d that the m a t e r i a l b e i n g s a m p l e d is itself c o r r e c t a n d representative T h o s e are c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h at the p r e s e n t time are i m p o s s i b l e to m e e t strictly

Today, t h e r e a s o n s for t h e c o n t i n u e d p r o m i n e n c e o f F r e n c h a r e several T h e p h y s i c a l p r o x i m i t y o f F r a n c e to G r e a t B r i t a i n is o n e factor

G r e a t B r i t a i n is i n c l o s e r p h y s i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t w i t h F r a n c e t h a n

is A m e r i c a

2.8.3 Japanese

T h e p r o m i n e n c e of J a p a n e s e is recent a n d is closely l i n k e d to the rise o f

J a p a n as a m a j o r e c o n o m i c p o w e r i n the late t w e n t i e t h century T h i s is n o t

to say that m o s t J a p a n e s e l o a n s are e c o n o m i c t e r m s or n a m e s for trade objects O n the contrary, t h e y r a n g e over a w i d e variety o f w o r d s : m i l i t a r y

slang from the p e r i o d o f the o c c u p a t i o n (honcho, hootch, mama-san), m a r t i a l arts a n d w e a p o n r y t e r m s (dojo, nunchakus), the arts (hanamichi), cultural objects (darumd), food irumaki, sushi, teriyaki), a n d so on N e v e r t h e l e s s , the

rise o f J a p a n as an e x p o r t e r a n d investor h a s focused attention o n o t h e r aspects o f its culture, for w h i c h E n g l i s h n e e d s n a m e s a n d w h i c h o t h e r w i s e

w o u l d s i m p l y h a v e b e e n i g n o r e d b y E n g l i s h speakers

2.8.4 German

G e r m a n over m a n y y e a r s h a s p r o v i d e d E n g l i s h w i t h a g o o d m a n y l o a n ­

w o r d s , n o t all easily r e c o g n i s a b l e G e r m a n h a s b e e n a prolific s o u r c e o f

w o r d s for the s c i e n c e s : m a t h e m a t i c s , p h y s i c s , c h e m i s t r y a n d biochemistry,

b i o l o g y i n c l u d i n g b o t a n y a n d zoology, g e o l o g y a n d m i n e r a l o g y ; for m e d i ­cine a n d related fields: anatomy, physiology, pathology, a n d p h a r m a c o l o g y ; for the social s c i e n c e s : anthropology, sociology, political science, l i n g u i s ­tics, p s y c h o l o g y , a n d p s y c h i a t r y ; for politics a n d militarism; for t e c h n o l o ­gies like m e t a l l u r g y ; for art, m u s i c , a n d literary criticism; for p h i l o s o p h y a n d

t h e o l o g y ; for skiing; a n d for foods a n d drinks

G e r m a n l o a n w o r d s r a n g e over a c o n t i n u u m from the m o s t to the least

o b v i o u s l y G e r m a n A single G e r m a n f o r m m a y a p p e a r i n v a r i o u s s h a p e s at different p l a c e s i n that c o n t i n u u m T h u s , the s a m e f o r m a p p e a r s i n several

stages o f anglicisation as Kaffeeklatsch, kaffeeklatsch, kaffee klatsch, coffee klatsch, coffee klatch, a n d coffee clutch T h e last variation s e e m s n o t y e t to h a v e b e e n

r e c o r d e d lexicographically, b u t it is u s e d , at least jocularly S o m e l o a n s from

G e r m a n are o b v i o u s : Anschluss, Autobahn, Wanderjahr, a n d Fahrvergnugen,

o n c e a n a d v e r t i s i n g s l o g a n for V o l k s w a g e n a u t o m o b i l e s O t h e r s are n o t at

all so: academicfreedom, dunk, loan word, Vaseline

2.8.5 Greek and Latin

G r e e k a n d L a t i n formatives are h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e s o u r c e s for n e w techni­cal t e r m s c o i n e d i n E n g l i s h Consequently, v e r y r e c e n t w o r d s i n the

scientific a n d technical registers that l o o k like l o a n s from the classical lan­

g u a g e s m a y actually h a v e b e e n f o r m e d w i t h i n E n g l i s h from m o r p h e m e s abstracted from l o a n w o r d s that e n t e r e d E n g l i s h l o n g ago It is frequently difficult or e v e n quite i m p o s s i b l e to say w h e t h e r a g i v e n w o r d is a l o a n w o r d (taken from a G r e e k or L a t i n d i c t i o n a r y ) , or is a c o i n a g e w i t h i n E n g l i s h from existing m o r p h e m e s o f classical origin

Until r e c e n t times, it c o u l d b e a s s u m e d that e d u c a t e d professional

p e o p l e w o u l d h a v e h a d s c h o o l i n g i n L a t i n a n d often i n Greek T o d a y such

a n a s s u m p t i o n is u n w a r r a n t e d i n either the U K or the U S To c o m p e n s a t e

for the i g n o r a n c e o f classical l a n g u a g e s , a w o r k called Composition of Scientific Words ( B r o w n 1956) m a d e its a p p e a r a n c e T h i s b o o k , d e s c r i b e d as 'a

m a n u a l o f m e t h o d s a n d a l e x i c o n o f m a t e r i a l s for the p r a c t i c e o f l o g o tech­

n i c s ' , is a n 8 8 2 - p a g e s y n o n o m y referring m a i n l y G r e e k a n d L a t i n tives to g e n e r a l c o n c e p t s , w i t h extensive cross-references T h e u s e r c a n

forma-l o o k u p either a cforma-lassicaforma-l formative a n d b e referred to the g e n e r a forma-l c o n c e p t

to w h i c h it relates or a g e n e r a l c o n c e p t a n d find a list o f formatives related

to it T h e t e r m logotechnics from the self-description o f the b o o k o n its

title-p a g e is an e x a m title-p l e T h e e n t r y logos ('Gr w o r d , discourse; logion, saying') is cross-referenced to word, w h i c h lists 2 2 w o r d s , from appositum to vocabulum,

w i t h derivatives from t h e m a n d other cross-references; techno- is similarly cross-referenced to art, w i t h 27 w o r d s listed u n d e r it T h e b o o k i n c l u d e s a

m o r p h o l o g i c a l sketch o f L a t i n a n d G r e e k , i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t their spelling

S i n c e the s e v e n t e e n t h century, E n g l i s h h a s b e e n b o r r o w i n g from the l a n ­

g u a g e s of India, especially H i n d i but also the u n r e l a t e d T a m i l a n d several others O f the m o r e than 1,000 l o a n w o r d s listed b y R a o ( 1 9 5 4 ) , a b o u t 43

p e r cent w e r e b o r r o w e d before 1775 a n d 57 p e r cent after 1 7 7 6 H i s list

d o e s n o t i n c l u d e , h o w e v e r , a g o o d m a n y t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y l o a n s ( H a w k i n s

1984 i n c l u d e s s o m e r e c e n t o n e s )

P o s t - 1 7 7 6 l o a n s i n c l u d e s o m e w o r d s closely tied to Indie social c u s t o m s ,

b u t w i d e l y k n o w n o u t s i d e India, such as purdah, raj, satyagraha, a n d suttee

L i n g u i s t i c s h a s b o r r o w e d such t e r m s as Aryan, sandhi, a n d svarabhakti T h e

p o p u l a r i t y of Indie m u s i c in the W e s t h a s s p r e a d t e r m s like raga, sitar, a n d

vina Indie food is w i d e l y available i n Britain today, so i n a d d i t i o n to older

c u l i n a r y t e r m s like chutney, curry, a n d mulligatawny, there are n o w others such

as puri, samosa, a n d tandoori

T h e food t e r m s a n d s o m e other I n d i e l o a n w o r d s are better k n o w n i n

Britain t h a n A m e r i c a B r i t i c i s m s from India i n c l u d e Blighty ' h o m e ' a n d dekko ' o b s e r v a t i o n , look' Chukker 'a p l a y i n g p e r i o d i n p o l o ' (related to chakra b e l o w ) a n d teapoy 'a t h r e e - l e g g e d s t a n d ' or ( b y folk e t y m o l o g y ) 'a

teapot s t a n d ' are rare

R e c e n t interest i n H i n d u i s m a n d B u d d h i s m h a s m a d e a n u m b e r o f t e r m s

c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e m m o r e familiar to E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s : ashram, chakra, Hare Krishna, karma, mahatma, mandata, mantra, maya, mudra, mukti, nirvana, prana, sutra, swami, Vedanta, yoga Several o f t h o s e t e r m s , especially karma

a n d mantra are u n d e r g o i n g s e m a n t i c c h a n g e i n E n g l i s h , d e v e l o p i n g u s e s distant from their Indie senses Karma n o w h a s the sense ' a t m o s p h e r e , e m a ­

n a t i o n s ' a n d mantra the sense 'slogan'

Indie l a n g u a g e s h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d also to the g e n e r a l v o c a b u l a r y o f

English: gymkhana, jodhpur, madras, polo, puttee d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e Indie associations, a n d m a n y E n g l i s h speakers are u n a w a r e that bangle, cushy, jungle, khaki, loot, pajamas or pyjamas, Parcheesi (a trade n a m e for a b o a r d g a m e derived from a n I n d i a n v e r s i o n calledpachisi), swastika, a n d thug ate from the

l a n g u a g e s o f India

2.9 Recent neologisms

M a n y o l d e r c h a n g e s i n the v o c a b u l a r y are difficult to trace R e c e n t i n n o v a ­tions are potentially easier to track, a l t h o u g h the s a m e p r o b l e m s o f d o c u ­

m e n t a t i o n , continuity, a n d identification exist also for t h e m

2.9.1 The study of neology

T h e s t u d y o f n e o l o g i s m s h a s b e e n o f b o t h scholarly a n d p o p u l a r interest

T h e g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t detailed o f n e w - w o r d b o o k s are the four v o l u m e s

o f The Oxford English Dictionary Supplement (1972—86), edited b y R o b e r t W Burchfield B e c a u s e its p u r p o s e w a s to s u p p l e m e n t the original OED, the Supplement e n t e r e d as ' n e w ' a n y w o r d n o t i n the v o l u m e s p u b l i s h e d b e t w e e n

1884 a n d 1 9 2 8 Consequently, s o m e o f its ' n e w ' w o r d s are rather old T h e

OEDSis n e v e r t h e l e s s the m a j o r scholarly d i c t i o n a r y o f n e o l o g i s m s It h a s

b e e n s u p p l e m e n t e d b y the Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series

( S i m p s o n & W e i n e r 1 9 9 3 )

O t h e r n e w - w o r d dictionaries that are useful for scholars b e c a u s e t h e y

82

cite e v i d e n c e a n d give full lexical entries are three p r o d u c t s o f the

B a r n h a r t s : The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since 1963, The Second Barnhart Dictionary of New English, a n d The Third Barnhart Dictionary of New English (Barnhart, S t e i n m e t z & B a r n h a r t 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 9 0 ) A l t h o u g h t h e y

d o n o t give full illustrative citations w i t h sources, the s u p p l e m e n t s to

Webster's Third ( M i s h 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 8 3 , 1 9 8 6 ) are b a s e d u p o n the extensive files o f

the M e r r i a m - W e b s t e r company T h e s e w o r k s from A m e r i c a n l e x i c o g r a ­

Several p e r i o d i c a l t r e a t m e n t s o f n e w w o r d s are noteworthy 'Words a n d

M e a n i n g s , N e w ' (1944—76) w a s an annual article i n the Britannica Book of the Year for thirty-three years A p e r i o d i c a l d e v o t e d exclusively to n e o l o g y is The Barnhart Dictionary Companion: A Quarterly to Update General Dictionaries

( B a r n h a r t & B a r n h a r t 1 9 8 2 - ) T h e first four v o l u m e s o f the p e r i o d i c a l

h a v e a separate i n d e x that p r o v i d e s v a r i o u s t y p e s o f analysis for the n e o l o ­

g i s m s (D B a r n h a r t 1 9 8 7 )

In 1937 D w i g h t L B o l i n g e r ( 1 9 3 7 - 4 0 ) b e g a n a c o l u m n o n neology,

w h i c h i n 1941 b e g a n to a p p e a r i n American Speech as A m o n g the N e w

W o r d s ' ( 1 9 4 1 - ) E d i t e d b y I Willis Russell from 1 9 4 4 to 1 9 8 5 , it is the

l o n g e s t r u n n i n g p e r i o d i c a l t r e a t m e n t of the subject Fifty Years Among the New Words': A Dictionary of Neologisms, 1941-1991 ( A l g e o & A l g e o 1991)

reprints the first fifty y e a r s o f the c o l u m n w i t h a g l o s s a r y - i n d e x o f the n e w

2.9.2 Types of recent neologisms

E s t i m a t e s o f the relative p r o d u c t i v e n e s s o f o n e or a n o t h e r type o f w o r d

f o r m a t i o n are subject to m a n y variables a n d c o n s e q u e n d y uncertainties

N o t least a m o n g t h o s e is establishing the c o r r e c t e t y m o l o g y o f a w o r d For

e x a m p l e , unconscious 'that p a r t o f the m i n d n o t available to i n t r o s p e c t i o n ,

w h i c h n e v e r t h e l e s s affects b e h a v i o u r ' m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y b e t h o u g h t to b e

either a shift of u s e from the adjective or a clipping o f the c o l l o c a t i o n uncon­ scious mind, or e v e n a r e f o r m a t i o n w i t h the prefix un- T h e OEDs first cita­ tion, d a t e d 1884, is from M a r k Pattison's Memoirs: T c a n n o t h e l p o b s e r v i n g the r e m a r k a b l e force w i t h w h i c h the U n c o n s c i o u s — das Unbewusste — v i n ­

d i c a t e d its power.' T h a t citation s u g g e s t s that the E n g l i s h w o r d is a c a i q u e

o n G e r m a n a n d therefore a b o r r o w i n g S u c h u n c e r t a i n t y is far from unusual

A n y single e s t i m a t e o f the frequency o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f w o r d forma­tion will also b e s k e w e d b e c a u s e of the s a m p l e o f w o r d s e x a m i n e d , the

e t y m o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r i e s u s e d , a n d the w a y the c a t e g o r i e s are a p p l i e d to the sample C o n s e q u e n d y , different estimates are s e l d o m fully c o m p a r a b l e , b u t

u s i n g several estimates rather t h a n o n e h a s the a d v a n t a g e o f o n e estimate's cancelling out the i d i o s y n c r a s i e s o f another B e l o w are the p e r c e n t a g e s for six estimates:

(1) 1,000 w o r d s from The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since 1963

( B a r n h a r t , S t e i n m e t z & B a r n h a r t 1 9 7 3 ; r e p o r t e d b y A l g e o 1 9 8 0 ) ,

a s a m p l e of a b o u t one-fifth o f the w o r d s i n that dictionary;

(2) 1,220 w o r d s i n The Longman Register of New Words (Ayto 1 9 8 9 ) , all

the w o r d s in that dictionary;

(3) 3 9 3 w o r d s from The Oxford English Dictionary, 2 n d edn (OED

1 9 8 9 ) , a s a m p l e consisting of the first f o r m or sense o n e a c h o f

the 1,019 p a g e s of v o l u m e 1 (A—Ba^ouki), p r o v i d e d that f o r m or

sense h a d a n earliest citation date o f 1776 or later;

(4) a b o u t 500 w o r d s b e g i n n i n g w i t h the letter A a n d first attested after

1 9 0 0 , taken from N E W S ( N e w E n g l i s h W o r d s Series), a collection

o f s o m e 5,000 w o r d s n o t in the OED or OEDS, as a n a l y s e d b y

i n the a d d e n d a o f the 1981 p r i n t i n g of Webster's Third ( 1 9 6 1 )

T h e first three s a m p l e s are the smallest, b u t w e r e a n a l y s e d b y the s a m e set o f criteria T h e sixth a n d l a r g e s t s a m p l e i n c l u d e s all the w o r d s a n a l y s e d

i n the first s a m p l e , but b e c a u s e o f the size o f the sixth s a m p l e , that duplica­tion d o e s n o t seriously affect the results T h e p e r c e n t a g e s of e t y m o l o g i c a l types i n these six s a m p l e s are as follows:

Barnhart Longman OED2 NEWS BDC Cannon

Shifts-, the N E W S c o r p u s is a b o v e a n d the t w o B a r n h a r t c o r p u s e s are

b e l o w a v e r a g e i n their n u m b e r o f shifts Shifts of m e a n i n g a n d g r a m m a t i ­

cal u s e are m o r e likely to b e r e c o r d e d i n the OED t h a n i n dictionaries o f

n e w w o r d s b e c a u s e they are less o b v i o u s a n d o f less interest to m a n y

r e a d e r s o f the latter ( S i m p s o n 1988: 1 5 1 ) Shifts o f sense a n d g r a m m a t i c a l

c a t e g o r y are u n d o u b t e d l y m o r e frequent t h a n m o s t lists o f n e w w o r d s

w o u l d s u g g e s t

Shortenings: s h o r t e n e d f o r m s are m a r k e d l y h i g h e r i n p e r c e n t a g e i n the

N E W S a n d C a n n o n c o r p u s e s , a n d l o w e r i n the OED2 It is particularly

striking that the h i g h e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f s h o r t e n i n g s is i n the n e w w o r d s col­

l e c t e d for the OED ( N E W S ) a n d the l o w e s t p e r c e n t a g e i n the OED2 itself

To s o m e extent that d i s c r e p a n c y m a y reflect the fact that clipping,

a c r o n y m s , a n d a l p h a b e t i s m s h a v e b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y fashionable i n

r e c e n t years B u t m u c h o f the d i s c r e p a n c y d o u b t l e s s results from the

OEDs p r a c t i c e o f r u n n i n g i n a c r o n y m s a n d a l p h a b e t i s m s u n d e r the initial

letter o f the alphabet; t h e y are therefore u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n a s a m p l e

b a s e d o n distribution t h r o u g h the p a g e s o f the b o o k T h e other c o r p u s e s treat a c r o n y m s a n d a l p h a b e t i s m s as m a i n entries i n n o r m a l letter-by-letter

a l p h a b e t i s e d order N e a r l y 7 p e r cent o f Cannon's s h o r t e n i n g s are w o r d s that m i g h t b e alternatively a n a l y s e d in other w a y s

Composites', c o m p o u n d s are m a r k e d l y m o r e n u m e r o u s i n The Barnhart Dictionary Companion for several r e a s o n s : i d i o m s like keep one's feet to the fire,

e n t e r e d i n it, h a v e b e e n c o u n t e d as c o m p o u n d s h e r e ; f o r m s like telework, teleworker, teleworking are listed as i n d e p e n d e n t c o m p o u n d s i n its e t y m o l o g i ­

cal lists, w h e r e a s the analysis of other c o r p u s e s w o u l d treat t h e m as related

O n the other h a n d , the OED enters e v e n p r e d i c t a b l e affixed f o r m s w i t h

g r e a t e r fidelity t h a n m o s t dictionaries of n e o l o g i s m s , a n d therefore h a s a

l a r g e r share of t h e m The Barnhart Dictionary of New English also p a y s m o r e attention to affixation t h a n a v e r a g e , w h e r e a s The Longman Register a n d The Barnhart Dictionary Companion p a y less, b u t such fluctuations m a y reflect

only the l e x i c o g r a p h e r s ' focus

Blends', b l e n d s are o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d in The Longman Register p e r h a p s

b e c a u s e it i n c l u d e s a g o o d m a n y v o g u i s h a n d n o n c e forms, w h i c h favour the p r o c e s s of blending

Loanwords: b o r r o w i n g a p p e a r s m o r e often i n the OED p e r h a p s b e c a u s e

of the l o n g e r c h r o n o l o g i c a l r a n g e of the s a m p l e t a k e n from it (more t h a n

200 y e a r s ) ; the other c o r p u s e s r e p o r t n e w w o r d s from a r e c e n t twenty-five

y e a r period T h e r e is s o m e r e a s o n to s u p p o s e that b o r r o w i n g is less

influential as a k i n d of w o r d derivation n o w than it w a s formerly T h e OED

also, h o w e v e r , prefers to cite L a t i n a n d G r e e k e t y m a w h e n the f o r m a t i o n

o f a w o r d m a y b e a c c o u n t e d for b y native m o r p h e m e s u l t i m a t e l y o f clas­sical origin, a n d that p r e f e r e n c e e x a g g e r a t e s its p e r c e n t a g e of l o a n w o r d s

For e x a m p l e , the OED derives adscription in the sense 'ascription' (first attested i n 1857) from L a t i n as an a d a p t a t i o n o f adscriptionem H o w e v e r ,

there is n o t h i n g i n the available e v i d e n c e to s u g g e s t that the w o r d w a s t a k e n

directly from L a t i n , rather t h a n f o r m e d from the prefix ad- a n d the s t e m scription, b o t h o f v e r y l o n g s t a n d i n g i n E n g l i s h M a n y of the w o r d s ety­

m o l o g i z e d b y the OED as b o r r o w i n g s m a y m o r e p r o p e r l y b e native forma­

tions from m o r p h e m e s u l t i m a t e l y of foreign origin In s o m e cases, it is likely that b o t h p r o c e s s e s o p e r a t e d simultaneously, w h i c h w o u l d i n effect

m a k e b l e n d s o f the w o r d s derived from b o t h a classical e t y m o n {adscrip­ tionem) a n d E n g l i s h formatives (ad- a n d -scription)

86

W i t h o u t r e l y i n g o n specific p e r c e n t a g e s , it s e e m s clear that o v e r w h e l m ­

i n g l y the major s o u r c e for n e w w o r d s i n E n g l i s h is their c o m p o s i t i o n from

m o r p h e m e s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n the l a n g u a g e , b y c o m p o u n d i n g a n d affixation A distant, b u t still clearly, s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e is the shifting o f old

w o r d s to n e w senses a n d uses S h o r t e n i n g , b o r r o w i n g , a n d b l e n d i n g are relatively m i n o r s o u r c e s for n e o l o g i s m s T h e c r e a t i o n o f w o r d s i n d e ­

p e r c e n t a g e s are o f the s a m p l e from v o l u m e 1 o f the s e c o n d edition o f the

OED ( 1 9 8 9 ) , r e p r e s e n t i n g a slightly l o n g e r c h r o n o l o g i c a l r a n g e b u t t a k e n

from o n l y the first o n e - t w e n t i e t h o f the alphabet T h e ' R e c e n t ' p e r c e n t a g e s are a n a v e r a g e of the five c o r p u s e s u s e d a b o v e that r e c o r d e d n e w w o r d s from a b o u t a twenty-five-year p e r i o d , 1963—88:

T h e s e figures are certainly s k e w e d T h e extraordinarily h i g h p e r c e n t a g e

o f l o a n w o r d s i n the F i n k e n s t a e d t statistics for the SOED w o r d s is b e l i e d

by b o t h a s a m p l e from the OED2 a n d five r e c e n t collections, w h i c h differ

a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s c o m p a r a t i v e l y little (their p e r c e n t a g e o f l o a n w o r d s

r a n g i n g from 4.3 to 7.5) B o r r o w i n g m a y w e l l h a v e d e c l i n e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s

as a s o u r c e o f n e w w o r d s i n E n g l i s h , b u t a d e c l i n e o f the p r o p o r t i o n sug­

g e s t e d b y the d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n these figures is u n b e l i e v a b l e

A partial r e a s o n for the d i s c r e p a n c y is that the SOED data c o n c e r n s o n l y

h e a d w o r d s , w h e r e a s the OED2 a n d the r e c e n t c o r p u s e s i n c l u d e n e w senses

o f old w o r d s If the p e r c e n t a g e s are adjusted b y o m i t t i n g all shifts ( s e m a n ­tic a n d g r a m m a t i c a l ) , the n a t i v e / l o a n w o r d ratio b e c o m e s 7 5 / 2 4 for the

OED2 a n d 9 0 / 8 for the r e c e n t collections T h a t is slightly closer b u t still far from the SOEDs 2 6 / 7 0

F i n k e n s t a e d t ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 1 7 ) h i m s e l f points to a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e c a u s e o f

the p r o b l e m T h e SOED (and OED) e t y m o l o g i e s b y p r e f e r e n c e cite the

SOED OED2 Recent

91.7 6.4 1.9

N a t i v e f o r m a t i o n s

L o a n w o r d s

U n k n o w n origin

25.6 70.4 4.0

81.0 18.8 0.3

earliest classical e t y m a W h e n such e t y m o l o g i e s are r e p o r t e d as the s o u r c e s

o f the E n g l i s h vocabulary, w e h a v e an i n c o r r e c t a c c o u n t of the origins o f

E n g l i s h w o r d s since m a n y w o r d s are c o m p o s e d i n E n g l i s h o f m o r p h e m e s

from classical l a n g u a g e s E v e r y OED e t y m o l o g y h a s to b e evaluated i n

t e r m s o f w h a t w e w a n t to k n o w a b o u t the origin o f the f o r m a n d w h a t the

OED editors w e r e p r o b a b l y telling us Uncritical statistical r e p o r t s o f OED

e t y m o l o g i e s are likely to b e n o t just useless but b a d l y misleading T h e OED

2.10 Vocabulary change as a mirror of cultural change

C h a n g e i n v o c a b u l a r y also involves fluctuations i n the faddishness, voguishness, popularity, or centrality of words T h e stylishness o f words is difficult to attest objectively, b u t s o m e w o r d s are clearly a m i r r o r o f the times in w h i c h they are used T h e y are k e y w o r d s for the Zeitgeist of their age A s a m p l i n g o f such w o r d s follows ( m a n y s u g g e s t e d b y W i l l i a m s 1 9 7 6 )

T h e dates cited are the first r e c o r d e d i n the OED2 or Webster's Ninth New Collegiate; m o s t are a l m o s t certainly n o t the real first dates o f use, b u t o n l y

the first in our best historical records

Radical has h a d its e t y m o l o g i c a l sense ' p e r t a i n i n g to r o o t s ' since the late fourteenth century, b u t i n 1786 the collocation radical reform i n t r o d u c e d the

t e r m to political a n d social u s e , w h e r e it h a s r e m a i n e d ever since Radical

alone a c q u i r e d the sense ' a d v o c a t i n g radical political r e f o r m ' a n d devel­

o p e d the derivative radicalism b y 1820 T h e v e r b radicalise (1823) followed

shortly M o r e recently, a variety o f n e w collocations h a v e c o m e i n t o use:

radical feminism ( 1 9 2 3 ) , radical right ( 1 9 5 4 ) , radical left ( 1 9 6 9 ) , radical chic ( 1 9 7 0 , from the journalist T o m W o l f e ) , a n d radicalfeminist (1971)

Economics ( 1 7 9 2 ) , the d i s m a l science (as Carlyle called it) c o n c e r n e d w i t h

the p r o d u c t i o n a n d distribution of material w e a l t h , h a d a sixteenth-century

a n t e c e d e n t referring to h o u s e h o l d m a n a g e m e n t , but the m o r e recent sense

is not a h o m e l y one Related t e r m s are economist 'student of e c o n o m i c s ' (1804), political economist-(1825), economic 'pertaining to the science of e c o ­

n o m i c s ' (1835), economic man (1889, from G B Shaw's denial of the existence

of the referent), economic system (1898), economic war (1916), economism (1919), economic growth (1940), econometrics (1933), a n d econometrician (1947) T h e six­ teenth-century sense r e - e m e r g e d in the A m e r i c a n i s m home economics (1899)

88

A l t h o u g h nationalist w a s u s e d i n the early eighteenth century, the w o r d s

that cluster w i t h it are first attested later, in senses p e r t a i n i n g to devotion to

one's nation: nationalise (1800), nationalisation ( 1 8 0 1 ) , nationalism (1844), nationalistic ( 1 8 6 6 ) , a n d nationalisticallj (1913) National'a citizen or subject' is from 1887, p r e c e d e d by nationhood (1850) a n d followed b y nation-state (1918)

In 1892 E d w a r d B e l l a m y (author of the social novels hooking Backward a n d Equality) u s e d nationalism to d e n o t e a p r o p o s e d form of socialism w i t h national o w n e r s h i p of industry Nationalise w a s u s e d i n the sense 'to bring

i n d u s t r y a n d l a n d u n d e r national control' in 1869, a n d nationalisation as its nomen actionis in 1874 T h e a n t o n y m s privatise (1948) a n d privatisation (1959) did not follow until the n e x t century National socialism a p p e a r e d in 1 9 3 1

T h e w o r d social has b e e n i n u s e since the sixteenth century, b u t i n m o r e

r e c e n t t i m e s h a s proliferated i n frequency, senses, collocations, a n d deriva­

tives: social science ( 1 7 8 5 ) , socialist ( 1 8 2 7 ) , socialise ( 1 8 2 8 ) , socialism ( 1 8 3 7 ) , soci­ ology ( 1 8 4 3 ) , socialistic ( 1 8 4 8 ) , social contract ( 1 8 4 9 ) , social service ( 1 8 5 1 , a l t h o u g h

n o t as s u p p l i e d b y the g o v e r n m e n t until 1 9 3 3 ) , socialisation ( 1 8 8 4 ) , social democracy a n d social work ( 1 8 9 0 ) , social security ( 1 9 0 8 ) , social psychology ( 1 9 0 9 ) , social insurance a n d social welfare ( 1 9 1 7 ) , social disease ( 1 9 1 8 ) , social gospel ( 1 9 2 0 ) , social climber ( 1 9 2 4 ) , social-minded a n d social studies ( 1 9 2 7 ) , socialite ( 1 9 2 8 ) , socialist realism ( 1 9 3 4 ) , socialised medicine ( 1 9 3 8 ) , social Darwinism ( 1 9 3 9 ) , socio- sexual ( 1 9 4 0 ) , socialiser ( 1 9 4 7 ) , a n d socialisee ( 1 9 5 2 )

In w h a t is d o u b d e s s o n e o f the m a n y a c c i d e n t s of the availability o f evi­

d e n c e , the a d v e r b subconsciously (1823) is r e c o r d e d before the adjective sub­ conscious (1832—4) It w a s later i n the c e n t u r y that the n o u n s subconsciousness (1874) a n d subconscious (1886) a p p e a r e d , a l t h o u g h it is difficult to i m a g i n e

p r e s e n t - d a y thinking, m u c h less psychotherapy (1892) w i t h o u t the c o n c e p t s Unconscious h a d b e e n u s e d i n a g e n e r a l sense since the early e i g h t e e n t h

century, b u t e x t e n d e d to the p s y c h o l o g i c a l register as a n o u n i n 1 8 8 4 a n d

a n adjective i n 1912

T h e n o u n reform h a s b e e n u s e d since the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n the

g e n e r a l sense 'alteration for the better' A b o u t the t i m e o f Victoria's birth

it w a s u s e d as an adjective (1819) a n d shortly after b e g a n to collocate i n a

political sense that h a s c o n t i n u e d to the p r e s e n t time: Reform Bill ( 1 8 3 1 ) , Reform Act ( 1 8 3 2 ) , Reform Club ( 1 8 3 5 ) , reform movement a n d reform party ( 1 8 3 9 ) , reform politician a n d reformism ( 1 9 0 4 ) , reform mayor ( 1 9 6 8 ) A b o u t the

s a m e t i m e as the politicisation o f reform a n d m o t i v a t e d b y a like i m p u l s e to

better the w o r l d , a p l a c e o f c o n f i n e m e n t for y o u n g offenders c a m e to b e

k n o w n hopefully as a reformatory ( 1 8 3 4 ) , later as a still m o r e e u p h e m i s t i c

A m e r i c a n reform school (1847) a n d as a t o p o n y m i c B r i t i s h borstal ( 1 9 0 7 ) , n o w sensitively r e p l a c e d b y y o u t h custody centre or juvenile detention centre

Evolution a n d evolve i n the e t y m o l o g i c a l sense o f 'unfolding w h a t w a s

w r a p p e d u p ' are s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w o r d s , b u t b y 1 8 3 2 , a g e n e r a t i o n before D a r w i n ' s 1859 u s e , t h e y h a d a c q u i r e d the sense o f 'originating n e w

s p e c i e s ' i n o p p o s i t i o n to the d o c t r i n e o f special creation S u b s e q u e n t l y

there a p p e a r e d evolutionary ( 1 8 4 6 ) , evolutionist (1859), evolutional ( 1 8 6 2 ) , able ( 1 8 6 9 ) , evolutive ( 1 8 7 4 ) , evolutionistic a n d evolutioni^e ( 1 8 8 3 ) , evolute ( 1 8 8 4 ) , evolutionally ( 1 9 2 2 ) , a n d evolutionarily ( 1 9 4 5 )

evolv-A l t h o u g h h o l d i n g all things i n c o m m o n w a s a p r a c t i c e o f the p r i m i t i v e

Christian church, the n a m e for that activity, communism, h a s b e e n u s e d i n

E n g l i s h o n l y since 1 8 4 0 , a n d its a p p l i c a t i o n to the u n c h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e s o f

M a r x a n d L e n i n s o m e w h a t later, i n 1850 T h e r e l a t e d communistic also from

1840 a n d communistic from 1 8 5 1 T h e y e a r s o f h u n t i n g reds under the bed (1972) d u r i n g a n d after W o r l d W a r II s p a w n e d a v a r i e t y of c o m p o u n d s : com- munist-led ( 1 9 3 8 ) , communist-inspired ( 1 9 4 0 ) , communist-directed (1945 b y

o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m , especially as a G r e e n political issue, u s e o f the t e r m

is from the 1 9 7 0 s , d i s p l a c i n g conservationist (1870) i n popularity It h a s

b e c o m e a v o g u i s h t e r m a n d d e v e l o p e d a n e w c o m b i n i n g f o r m , eco-, as i n ecospecies a n d ecotype ( 1 9 2 2 ) , ecosystem (1935), ecosphere ( 1 9 5 3 ) , ecophysiology ( 1 9 6 2 ) , ecocatastrophe a n d ecofreak ( 1 9 7 0 )

Consumer in the pejorative sense o f ' o n e w h o or that w h i c h c o n s u m e s ,

w a s t e s , s q u a n d e r s , or d e s t r o y s ' (reflecting the original sense o f the v e r b ) h a s

b e e n i n E n g l i s h since the fifteenth century Its m o r e n e u t r a l sense o f ' o n e

w h o p u r c h a s e s g o o d s or p a y s for s e r v i c e s , a c u s t o m e r ' dates o n l y from

1897 (first r e c o r d e d , a p p r o p r i a t e l y e n o u g h , i n the Sears Roebuck Catalogue) Consumerism as ' p r o t e c t i o n o f the c o n s u m e r ' s i n t e r e s t s ' is from 1 9 4 4 a n d as

'a d o c t r i n e a d v o c a t i n g a c o n t i n u a l i n c r e a s e i n the c o n s u m p t i o n o f g o o d s as

the basis for a s o u n d e c o n o m y ' from 1 9 6 0 , w i t h the r e l a t e d consumerist (1965) a n d consumeristic ( 1 9 6 8 ) S o m e n o t a b l e c o l l o c a t i o n s are consumer goods ( 1 8 9 0 ) , consumer credit ( 1 9 2 7 ) , consumer price index ( 1 9 4 8 ) , a n d consumer durables

( 1 9 5 8 ) , denoting, for e x a m p l e , T V sets as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h T V dinners

(1905), genetic ( 1 9 0 8 ) , and geneticist (1913) T h e c o n t i n u e d i m p o r t a n c e o f the

t e r m is attested b y its c o l l o c a t i o n s : genetic drift ( 1 9 4 5 ) , genetic marker ( 1 9 5 0 ) , genetic code ( 1 9 6 1 ) , a n d genetic engineering ( 1 9 6 6 )

Welfare h a s b e e n u s e d since the early fourteenth c e n t u r y i n the g e n e r a l

sense 'state o f b e i n g w e l l ' S i n c e 1 9 1 8 , h o w e v e r , it h a s specialised to 'the

m a i n t e n a n c e o f the m e m b e r s o f a c o m m u n i t y i n a state o f w e l l - b e i n g , especially b y legislation a n d g o v e r n m e n t m a n a g e m e n t ' a n d s p a w n e d a g r e a t

p r o g e n y o f c o m p o u n d s a n d collocations, s o m e o f w h i c h a n t e d a t e the i n d e ­

p e n d e n t u s e o f the n o u n sense: welfare work ( 1 9 0 3 ) , welfare worker ( 1 9 0 4 ) , welfare policy ( 1 9 0 5 ) , welfare centre ( 1 9 1 7 ) , welfare department ( 1 9 2 2 ) , welfare clinic ( 1 9 3 7 ) , welfare state a n d weijarist ( 1 9 4 1 ) , welfare officer(1944), welfare fund a n d welfare check ( 1 9 4 7 ) , welfare food ( 1 9 4 8 ) , welfarism ( 1 9 4 9 ) , welfare service ( 1 9 5 2 ) , welfare capitalism (I960), welfare roll'(1970), welfare hotel a n d welfare mother ( 1 9 7 1 ) , welfare office ( 1 9 7 6 ) , welfare family a n d welfare benefit ( 1 9 7 7 )

T h r o u g h o u t the h i s t o r y o f E n g l i s h , like that o f all o t h e r l a n g u a g e s ,

d e v e l o p m e n t s i n the v o c a b u l a r y h a v e a social a n d intellectual d i m e n s i o n , as

b o r r o w i n g reflects foreign contacts, s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n reflects the rise to

p o w e r o f a r u l i n g class, c o n c e r n w i t h c o r r e c t n e s s reflects a desire to m a i n ­tain or c h a n g e social status, t e r m s o f a d d r e s s reflect social hierarchy, a n d

t e r m s a p p l i e d to a s u b o r d i n a t e class (such as w o m e n or b l a c k s ) b y the

s u p e r o r d i n a t e class (such as w h i t e m a l e s ) reflect social p o w e r (Leith 1 9 8 3 )

In addition, the w o r d s that are central to our d i s c o u r s e at a n y t i m e are

t o k e n s o f the w a y w e v i e w a n d r e s p o n d to the w o r l d Vocabulary, m o r e

t h a n a n y o t h e r a s p e c t o f l a n g u a g e , is i n e x t r i c a b l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h o u r total culture

2 1 I F U R T H E R R E A D I N G

For an overview of English lexicology and word-formation, useful sources are An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation by Valerie Adams (1973) and English Word-Formation by Laurie Bauer (1983) New words in English are surveyed in Fifty Years 'Among the New Words': A Dictionary of Neologisms, 1941-1991 by John and

Adele Algeo (1991) and in the continuing column Among the New Words'

(1941—) Questions of usage are authoritatively and sensibly covered in Webster's Dictionary of English Usage by E Ward Gilman (1989)

David Denison

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Syntactic change

T h e topic o f syntactic c h a n g e i n late M o d e r n E n g l i s h is o n l y just b e g i n n i n g

to g e t its share o f serious scholarly attention, a n d c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e

t o w e r s o f p u b l i s h e d syntactic r e s e a r c h w h i c h t h e S y n t a x chapters o f

v o l u m e s I—III i n this series h a v e b e e n l a u n c h e d from, this chapter h a s h a d

to rely rather m o r e o n its o w n bootstraps A l l r e s e a r c h s u r v e y s a r e b y definition p r o v i s i o n a l , this o n e especially so

b e e n t a r e or i m p o s s i b l e i n O E ; b y 1 7 7 6 m o s t o f t h e p r e s e n t r e p e r t o i r e

w a s a v a i l a b l e

H o w e v e r , the E n g l i s h of 1776 w a s linguistically b y n o m e a n s the

s a m e as that of the p r e s e n t day W e m u s t n o w focus o n c h a n g e during the

late M o d e r n E n g l i s h (henceforth LModE) period (I shall often u s e ' I M o d E '

as a c o n v e n i e n t s y n o n y m for the p e r i o d c o v e r e d b y this v o l u m e , 1776—present day.) T h e earlier w e look, the m o r e o b v i o u s it b e c o m e s that

E n g l i s h s y n t a x differs from that of our o w n day, e v e n t h o u g h few

post-1776 u s a g e s will c a u s e u s m u c h difficulty S i n c e relatively few c a t e g o r i c a l losses or i n n o v a t i o n s h a v e o c c u r r e d i n the last t w o centuries, syntactic

c h a n g e h a s m o r e often b e e n statistical i n nature, w i t h a g i v e n c o n s t r u c t i o n

o c c u r r i n g t h r o u g h o u t the p e r i o d a n d either b e c o m i n g m o r e or less

c o m m o n g e n e r a l l y or i n p a r t i c u l a r registers T h e overall, rather elusive effect c a n s e e m m o r e a m a t t e r o f stylistic t h a n of syntactic c h a n g e , so it is useful to b e able to track frequencies of o c c u r r e n c e from e M o d E t h r o u g h

to the p r e s e n t day O f c o u r s e there h a v e b e e n substantive c h a n g e s too, par­ticularly i n the v e r b ; for two striking e x a m p l e s see sections 3.3.3.4 a n d 3.4.3.2 below

3.1.2 Organisation of chapter

In the m a i n i n this c h a p t e r I follow (gratefully) the p a t t e r n e s t a b l i s h e d i n

the ' S y n t a x ' chapters of CHEL I—III L i k e m y p r e d e c e s s o r s , I r e c o g n i s e

the traditional division b e t w e e n N P a n d VP T h e r e is n o section o n the v e r b

p h r a s e (henceforth V P ) as such W i t h i n the V P I r e c o g n i s e a c a t e g o r y

V e r b a l g r o u p ; to r e p e a t the definition g i v e n i n CHEE I: 1 7 9 , ' b o t h the

finite v e r b a l o n e (verb p l u s subject—verb a g r e e m e n t , tense or m o o d

m a r k e r ) , a n d v e r b a l p h r a s e s consisting o f a m a i n v e r b a n d o n e or m o r e a u x ­iliary v e r b s ' After the p r e s e n t section 3 1 , o n syntactic c h a n g e a n d the

o r g a n i s a t i o n of this chapter, the rest of the chapter is set out as follows

S e c t i o n 3.2 is o n the n o u n p h r a s e , w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n of the o b l i g a t o r y

h e a d of a n N P (noun, p r o n o u n or a d j e c t i v e / z e r o ) , a n d t h e n i n r o u g h l y linear s e q u e n c e the other, m a i n l y optional e l e m e n t s ( d e t e r m i n e r s , adjectives, attributive n o u n s , a n d p o s t m o d i f i e r s ) T h e sections o n genitival

d e t e r m i n e r s a n d attributive adjectives are the o c c a s i o n s for g e n e r a l

d i s c u s s i o n s of g e n i t i v e s a n d adjectives, respectively

S e c t i o n 3.3 is o n the v e r b a l g r o u p , the c o n t e x t for d i s c u s s i o n of tense, perfect, p r o g r e s s i v e , subjunctive, m o d a l v e r b s , v o i c e , the e x p r e s s i o n o f time, operators, a n d finally a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of structural c h a n g e i n the

v e r b a l g r o u p

S e c t i o n 3.4 deals w i t h t h e (remaining, principal) e l e m e n t s o f t h e clause: subject, object, a n d predicative, all o f w h i c h h a v e to b e d i s c u s s e d , o f course, i n relation to verbs Subject a n d object i n c l u d e m a t e r i a l o n t h e passive T h e section c o n c l u d e s w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f adverbials

S e c t i o n 3.5 is a w i d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e structure o f t h e clause,

l o o k i n g at w o r d o r d e r a n d o t h e r i s s u e s i n declaratives, n e g a t i v e s , i n t e r r o g a tives, i m p e r a t i v e s , a n d exclamatives

-S e c t i o n 3.6 is o n c o m p o s i t e s e n t e n c e s , a t e r m w h i c h covers b o t h

compound s e n t e n c e s ( c o o r d i n a t e d m a i n clauses) a n d complex o n e s

( m a i n c l a u s e p l u s s u b o r d i n a t e ( s ) ) — i n short, s e n t e n c e s i n v o l v i n g m o r e t h a n

o n e clause H e r e the traditional h e a d i n g s o f co-ordination a n d

subordination a r e e m p l o y e d After a brief l o o k at c o - o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s ,

s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s are d i s c u s s e d u n d e r t h e traditional h e a d i n g s o f finite

n o m i n a l , nonfinite n o m i n a l , relative, a n d adverbial

W h e r e n e c e s s a r y I h a v e h a d to d i s c u s s s o m e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s —

t h o s e w h i c h b e a r directly o n s y n t a x — there n o t b e i n g e n o u g h i n t h e p e r i o d

c o v e r e d b y this v o l u m e for a separate c h a p t e r o n m o r p h o l o g y T h e c h a p t e r

c o n c l u d e s w i t h s u g g e s t i o n s for further reading, a list o f textual sources,

a n d notes

3.1.3 The data

E x a m p l e s a r e d r a w n m a i n l y from i n f o r m a l E n g l i s h (as u s e d i n private letters, diaries, j o u r n a l i s m , a n d s o o n ) a n d literary b u t n o n - p o e t i c E n g l i s h , especially d i a l o g u e i n d r a m a a n d n o v e l s 2

T e x t u a l S o u r c e s at t h e e n d o f this chapter, a n d for details o f t h e c o r p u s ,

D e n i s o n 1 9 9 4 ) I n f o r m a l private letters n o t i n t e n d e d for p u b l i c a t i o n a r e

c o r p o r a o f P r e s e n t - d a y E n g l i s h , a n d quite a few from reference w o r k s o n historical syntax For the statistical c o m p a r i s o n s referred to i n section 3.1.1

I h a v e relied m u c h less o n m y letters c o r p u s t h a n o n (a p r e l i m i n a r y a n d

i n c o m p l e t e v e r s i o n o f ) the A R C H E R c o r p u s , w h i c h a l l o w s the s a m e

g e n r e s to b e c o m p a r e d for the w h o l e p e r i o d 1 6 5 0 - 1 9 9 0 3

A R C H E R h a s also p r o v i d e d m a n y e x a m p l e s

It is a s s u m e d t h r o u g h o u t that c o m m e n t s a p p l y to the ' c o m m o n c o r e ' o f

E n g l i s h , a p a r t from s p o r a d i c references to the b e h a v i o u r o f p a r t i c u l a r dialects a n d registers, e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e c u r r e n t variation gives the clue to

c h r o n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e A l t h o u g h s o u n d r e c o r d i n g h a s b e e n p o s s i b l e for over a c e n t u r y already, the r e c o r d i n g of ordinary, e v e r y d a y s p e e c h h a s o n l y

b e c o m e c o m m o n m o r e recently, a n d I h a v e confined m y s e l f b y a n d l a r g e

to w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l s 4

A g a i n , w e a s s u m e that i n s y n t a x it is n o t t o o m u c h o f

a distortion to i g n o r e v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n s p e e c h a n d writing: m a n y a p p a r e n t differences are p r o b a b l y as m u c h to d o w i t h formality as m e d i u m , at least

in the m o d e r n p e r i o d H o w e v e r , at a n y g i v e n time the s y n t a x o f w r i t t e n a n d

s p o k e n s t a n d a r d s m a y n o t b e identical For s o m e r e c e n t w o r k o n the rela­tionship b e t w e e n s y n t a x a n d v a r i o u s d i m e n s i o n s o f style, g e n r e , register

a n d m e d i u m see B i b e r & F i n e g a n ( 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 2 ) a n d B i b e r (1988) C o n f i n i n g attention to w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l i n t r o d u c e s a n o t h e r p r o b l e m , h o w e v e r : there

c a n b e real difficulty i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n g e n u i n e c h a n g e s i n s y n t a x

a n d m e r e c h a n g e s i n c o n v e n t i o n s o f d e c o r u m i n w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e , as w e

shall see, for e x a m p l e , w i t h reference to c o n t r a c t i o n o f n e g a t i v e s {must not

vs mustn't, 3.3.8.2 a n d 3.5.3.4 b e l o w ) a n d n u m b e r c o n c o r d after there {there are lots of people outside v s there's lots of people outside, 3.4.1.1); see also E n g l i s h

G r a m m a r a n d U s a g e i n this v o l u m e

In d e a l i n g w i t h the m o s t r e c e n t p e r i o d o f E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e h i s t o r y w e

c o m e closest to the i n s i g h t s o f native speakers, b u t there is a c o m p l e m e n ­

t a r y ^ a d v a n t a g e too M o s t , p e r h a p s all, linguistic c h a n g e s start o u t as ' m i s t a k e s ' relative to the s t a n d a r d s o f the time ( t h o u g h often n o t n o t i c e d

at first) A n a b e r r a n t u s a g e therefore r e p r e s e n t s o n e o f three b r o a d possibilities: a n i n c i p i e n t c h a n g e w h i c h w i l l i n the l o n g r u n p r o v e successful, a p o s s i b l e c h a n g e w h i c h d o e s n o t g e t g e n e r a l l y a d o p t e d , or

s i m p l e error (See n o w M i l r o y 1 9 9 3 : 2 2 1 - 4 ) W i t h h i n d s i g h t w e c a n tell

w h i c h o f the three w a s i n fact the case, b u t h i n d s i g h t is l o n g - s i g h t e d a n d

u n a b l e to focus o n u s a g e too n e a r i n time For a n e x a m p l e see the

d i s c u s s i o n o f counterfactual may have i n section 3.3.5.3 below

F u r t h e r m o r e , i n c i p i e n t c h a n g e s c a n b e h a r d to spot at all, g i v e n 'the ten­

d e n c y o f listeners to filter out linguistic signals that d o n o t c o n f o r m to their

o w n i d i o l e c t s ' ( Y o u m a n s 1986: 7 1 ) (An idiolect is a p e r s o n a l dialect.)

3.2 The noun phrase

T h e n o u n p h r a s e ( N P ) is the syntactic unit w h i c h typically functions as subject or object o f a clause or object o f a p r e p o s i t i o n A p r o n o u n or

p r o p e r n o u n u s u a l l y constitutes a c o m p l e t e n o u n p h r a s e i n itself — he, them, James, Amsterdam — w i t h o c c a s i o n a l e x c e p t i o n s like poor old her,you over there, the fat James who went to school with me H o w e v e r , N P s w i t h a c o m m o n n o u n

as h e a d5

r o u t i n e l y a l l o w or d e m a n d m o r e c o m p l e x modification:

(1) D e t e r m i n e r ( s ) + Modifier(s) + H e a d + Postmodifier(s)

V a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s c a n fill the functional slots o f ( 1 ) , as i n :6

(2) both the other faded green football shirts in the drawer

Determiners Adjectives Attrib noun (head) Noun Prep, phrase

T h i s overall structure h o l d s g o o d for the w h o l e o f o u r I M o d E p e r i o d , w i t h significant c h a n g e confined to the internal structure o f the D e t e r m i n e r position, a n d to g r e a t e r freedom for f o r m e r p o s t m o d i f i e r s to b e u s e d i n premodification A r g u a b l y there is y e t a n o t h e r slot to the left o f the

D e t e r m i n e r s : focusing a d v e r b s like also a n d even, t h o u g h their m e m b e r s h i p

o f N P is less certain a n d their p o s i t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r rather freer ( H u d d l e s t o n 1984: 2 3 2 - 3 ) ; t h e y are treated u n d e r A d v e r b i a l s i n sections 3.4.4 a n d 3.5.1.3 below H e r e w e shall l o o k first at the o b l i g a t o r y h e a d o f the NP, t h e n at the v a r i o u s o p t i o n a l modifier slots

3.2.1 The noun as head

3.2.1.1 C o u n t v e r s u s n o n c o u n t n o u n s

S o m e n o u n s , s e m a n t i c a l l y often those w h i c h refer to an undifferentiated

m a s s , typically l a c k n u m b e r m a r k i n g : bread, furniture T h e y are called n o n

-c o u n t n o u n s ( C o m p a r e the -c o u n t n o u n s loaf, -chair) T h e i n t e r n a l m a k e u p

o f the D e t e r m i n e r slot is affected b y the c h o i c e o f h e a d n o u n For

e x a m p l e , singular c o u n t n o u n s like chair require a D e t e r m i n e r to f o r m a

g r a m m a t i c a l NP, w h e r e a s n o n c o u n t n o u n s like furniture d o not:

It s e e m s v e r y likely that there is a s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e from

n o n c o u n t to c o u n t for s o m e n o u n s , b u t full e v i d e n c e is n o t y e t avail­

able L e t u s take o n e e x a m p l e , the n o u n acquaintance u s e d w i t h reference

6

T a b l e 3 1 A c q u a i n t a n c e in nineteenth-century quotations in the O E D

Usage Occurrences

abstract noun 163

<?/NP's acquaintance 2 5

collective noun with explicit SG concord 2

with explicit PL concord 4 with no indication of number 18 subtotal 24 count noun morphologically SG, with SG reference 37

morphologically PL 47 subtotal 84 total 296

to p e r s o n s or a n a l o g o u s c o n c r e t e referents R e a d e r s o f n i n e t e e n t h

-c e n t u r y literature will b e familiar w i t h a n o w - o b s o l e t e , n o n -c o u n t u s e o f the

n o u n :

(4) S h e d r e a d e d a d d r e s s i n g any of herformerfemale acquaintance

(1848 Gaskell, Mary Barton xiv 164)

In this sense acquaintance w a s a collective n o u n , m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y singular,

w h i c h m i g h t h a v e singular or plural c o n c o r d In c o n c r e t e u s e i n P D E it is

a c o u n t n o u n :7

(5) H i s acquaintances t h o u g h t h i m enviable to h a v e so c h a r m i n g a

wife (1871-2 George Eliot, Middlemarch finale.835)

T h e OED h a s v e r y few e x a m p l e s o f p l u r a l acquaintances s.v, a n d t h e y are

early: the e n t r y s u p p o r t s the i m p r e s s i o n that (4) w a s n o r m a l n i n e t e e n t h

-c e n t u r y u s a g e a n d that (5) w a s not T h e -closest I -c a n g e t to an o v e r v i e w

o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y u s a g e is to treat the OEDs n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

q u o t a t i o n s as a c o r p u s 8

T h o s e w h i c h i n c l u d e acquaintance(s) p a i n t a differ­

ent picture, as s h o w n i n table 3 1 T h e ratio 8 4 : 2 4 s u g g e s t s that the

c o u n t n o u n w a s far m o r e frequent t h a n the collective n o u n , a n d that the