FRUIT OF THE POISONOUS TREE The fruit of the poisonous tree is a doctrine that prohibits the use of secondary evidence in trial that was culled directly from primary evidence derived fro
Trang 1case Fries chose to proceed to trial without benefit of LEGAL REPRESENTATION He was again found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging
However, after studying the case, President Adams pardoned him and the other insurgents
Soon after his pardon, Fries was promoted from captain to lieutenant colonel in the Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, militia
Justice Chase’s conduct in Fries’s second trial was harshly criticized as indirectly depriv-ing Fries of counsel The justice’s actions were used against him in 1805, in an unsuccessful
IMPEACHMENTproceeding
FURTHER READINGS Adams, Charles 1998 Those Dirty Rotten Taxes: The Tax Revolts That Built America New York: Free Press.
Elsmere, Jane Shaffer 1979 “The Trials of John Fries.”
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 103 (October).
Presser, Stephen 1978 “A Tale of Two Judges ”
Northwestern Univ Law Review 73 (March/April).
CROSS REFERENCE Whiskey Rebellion.
FRISK
A term used in criminal law to refer to the superficial running of the hands over the body of
an individual by a law enforcement agent or official
in order to determine whether such individual is holding an illegal object, such as a weapon or narcotics A frisk is distinguishable from a search, which is a more extensive examination of an individual
CROSS REFERENCE Stop and Frisk.
FRIVOLOUS
Of minimal importance; legally worthless
A FRIVOLOUS suit is one without any legal merit In some cases, such an action might be brought in BAD FAITH for the purpose of harrassing the DEFENDANT In such a case, the individual bringing the frivolous suit might be liable forDAMAGESforMALICIOUS PROSECUTION
A frivolous appeal is one that is completely lacking merit, since no reviewable question has been raised therein
FROLIC Activities performed by an employee during working hours that are not considered to be in
the course of his or her employment, because they are for the employee’s personal purposes only The doctrine ofRESPONDEAT SUPERIORmakes a principal liable for the torts of his or her agent occurring during the COURSE OF EMPLOYMENT This is based on the concept that a principal has control over his or her agent’s behavior If an agent was hired to drive from point A to point
B, and, through reckless driving, hit a
pedestri-an along the way, the principal would ordinarily
be held liable If, however, the agent was engaged in FROLIC, the principal would not be liable This might occur, for example, if an employee were hired to transport goods from point A to point B and made several detours along the way for personal reasons If the employee became involved in an accident while
on a frolic, the employer would not be liable unless it could be established that he or she was negligent in the hiring or supervision of the employee
FRONTIERO V RICHARDSON The fight to end gender DISCRIMINATION in the U.S began in the nineteenth century with the women’s SUFFRAGE movement and the enact-ment of laws that protected the property that women brought into marriages By the 1960s the focus had shifted to ending pay and benefit discrimination based on gender By the early 1970s, Congress had passed the EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT (ERA) of the U.S Constitution, which proclaimed equality between the genders
RATIFICATIONappeared close by 1973, as 38 states had ratified the ERA The court system also became an arena for the issue of gender discrimination The U.S Supreme Court began
to consider cases of gender discrimination but hesitated to place gender in the same category as race or ethnicity as a SUSPECT CLASSIFICATION
inviting the most rigorous CONSTITUTIONAL
review However, a plurality of the court endorsed gender as a suspect classification in Frontiero v Richardson, 411 U.S 677, 93 S Ct
1764, 36 L Ed.2d 583 (1973) This important case pushed the Court, and society in general, to recognize the legal disabilities that women had lived with for centuries Though not aLANDMARK
decision, Frontiero signaled the willingness of the high court to take gender issues seriously The facts of the case illustrated the disparate treatment built into U.S society concerning the role of women Sharron Frontiero was a
8 FRISK
Trang 2U.S Air Force officer who was married to
Joseph Frontiero, a full-time student at a college
near the Alabama base where Sharron was
stationed Congress had passed a law that
provided fringe benefits to members of the
armed forces in the hopes that they would
re-enlist and pursue a military career Under this
law, a member of the armed forces with
dependents was entitled to an increased housing
allowance and comprehensive dependent
medi-cal and dental care However, the law made a
distinction between male and female members
A serviceman could claim his wife as a
dependent simply by certifying that they were
married A servicewomen such as Frontiero,
however, could not claim her husband as a
dependent unless she proved that he was
dependent upon her for more than one-half of
his support Joseph Frontiero’s living expenses
totaled $354 per month, but he received $250
per month in veteran’s benefits Therefore, he
was not dependent on his wife for more than
one-half of his support Based on these
calcula-tions, the Air Force denied Sharron Fronteiro
the additional benefits
Frontiero sued the Air Force, alleging that
the difference in treatment was unconstitutional
discrimination under the Fifth Amendment’s
Due Process Clause A three-judge panel from
the U.S Court for the Middle District of
Alabama rejected this claim, with one judge
dissenting Frontiero, with the help of the
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION (ACLU) and its
ATTORNEY,RUTH BADER GINSBURG, took the case to
the U.S Supreme Court
The Court, in an 8–1 decision, overturned the
lowerRULINGand held that the salary supplement
law violated the Due Process Clause However,
the justices could not agree on the constitutional
standard of review that should be applied to
allegations of gender discrimination In a
plurali-ty opinion for four justices, Justice William
Brennan concluded that gender, like race, was a
suspect classification The suspect classification
standard holds that laws which classify people
according to race, ethnicity, or RELIGION are
inherently suspect and that they are subject to
the STRICT SCRUTINYtest ofJUDICIAL REVIEW Strict
scrutiny requires the state to provide a compelling
interest for the challenged law and to
demon-strate that the law has been narrowly tailored to
achieve its purpose If a suspect classification is
not involved, the Court will apply theRATIONAL
BASIS TEST, which requires the state to provide any type of reasonable ground for the legislation
Under strict scrutiny, the government has a difficult burden to meet, while under the rational basis test, most laws will be upheld
In 1971, the Court, in Reed v Reed, 404 U.S
71, 92 S Ct 251, 30 L Ed.2d 225, extended the application of theEQUAL PROTECTIONclause of the
FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT to gender-based dis-crimination However, the Court had used the rational basis test Nevertheless, Justice Brennan argued that Reed IMPLIED that gender was a suspect classification and that strict scrutiny should apply There were four reasons in his view for making gender a suspect class First, gender was, like race, an“immutable” accident
of birth that wasIRRELEVANT to the purpose of theFEDERALlaw Second, Brennan pointed to the long history in the U.S of discrimination based
on gender He noted that statute books had been filled with“gross, stereotyped distinctions between the sexes.” Although women had seen their lot improve in modern America, they still faced“pervasive, although at times more subtle, discrimination in our educational institutions,
in the job market and, perhaps most conspicu-ously, in the political arena.” In addition, gender, like race, was a highly visible trait Finally, Brennan acknowledged the ERA, which made clear that gender classifications were“inherently invidious.”
Based on these factors, Brennan had no trouble ruling the law unconstitutional The government could not show a compelling interest for the benefit discrimination It claimed that administrative efficiency justified the law, as most members of the armed forces were men It would have cost more to process applications required from Frontiero and the small percentage of women in uniform This was not a compelling interest for Brennan and the plurality
JusticeLEWIS POWELL, in a concurring opinion joined by Chief JusticeWARREN BURGERand Justice
HARRY BLACKMUN, agreed that the law was uncon-stitutional Powell disagreed with the plurality’s conclusion that strict scrutiny was warranted He contended that the Court should not make that conclusion while the ratification of the ERA was pending By declaring gender a suspect clarifica-tion, the judicial branch would, in effect, trump the ERA In his view, it was better to allow the states to determine whether gender should be
Trang 3regarded as a suspect class The seven-year ratification period had run for just one year, so the Court should refrain from ruling Powell concluded that the rational basis test applied in Reed worked in this case as well The government did not have a reasonable justification for unequal treatment of service members
Justice WILLIAM REHNQUIST dissented, citing the reasoning of the lower court to show that the administrative savings from not requiring men to justify dependent benefit eligibility provided a rational basis for the law
By failing to gain a majority, the court did not ESTABLISH gender as a suspect classification requiring strict scrutiny By the end of the decade, the ERA was losing support The time period for ratification was extended until 1982, but that deadline passed and the ERA died The Court, in Craig v Boren, 429 U.S 190, 97 S Ct
451, 50 L Ed.2d 397 (1976), settled on an
“intermediate scrutiny” standard for gender discrimination Therefore, classifications by gender must serve important governmental objectives and must be substantially related to the achievement of those objectives
FURTHER READINGS Cole, David 1984 “Strategies of Difference: Litigating for Women’s Rights in a Man’s World.” Law & Inequality 2 (February).
Matthews, Donna Meredith 1998 “Avoiding Gender Equality ” Women’s Rights Law Reporter 19 (winter).
Stephens, Otis H., Jr., and John M Scheb II 2002 American Constitutional Law Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
CROSS REFERENCE Women ’s Rights.
FRUIT OF THE POISONOUS TREE The fruit of the poisonous tree is a doctrine that prohibits the use of secondary evidence in trial that was culled directly from primary evidence derived from an illegal search and seizure
TheFRUIT OF THE POISONOUS TREE doctrine is
an offspring of the EXCLUSIONARY RULE The exclusionary rule mandates that EVIDENCE
obtained as a direct result from an illegal arrest,
an unreasonable search, or a coercive interro-gation must be excluded from trial Under the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine, evidence that is derived as an indirect result from an illegal arrest, unreasonable search, or coercive interrogation may also be excluded from trial
Like the exclusionary rule, the fruit of the
poisonous tree doctrine was established primar-ily to deter law enforcement from violating rights against unreasonable searches and seizures
The name fruit of the poisonous tree is thus a metaphor: the poisonous tree is evidence obtained during an illegal arrest, search, or interrogation by law enforcement The fruit of this poisonous tree is evidence later discovered because of knowledge gained from the prior illegal search, arrest, or interrogation The poisonous tree and the poisonous fruit are both excluded from a criminal trial
Example
Assume that a police officer searches the automobile of a person stopped for a minor traffic violation This violation is the only reason the officer conducts the search; nothing indicates that the driver is impaired by drugs or alcohol, and no other circumstances would lead
a reasonable officer to believe that the car contains evidence of a crime This is an unreasonable search under the FOURTH AMEND-MENTto the U.S Constitution
Assume further that the officer finds a small amount of marijuana in the vehicle The driver
is subsequently charged with possession of a controlled substance and chooses to go to trial The marijuana evidence culled from this search
is excluded from trial under the exclusionary rule, and the criminal charges are dropped for lack of evidence
Also suppose that before the original charges are dismissed, the police officers ask a magistrate or judge for a warrant to search the home of the driver The only evidence used as a basis, or probable cause, for the warrant is the small amount of marijuana found in the vehicle search The magistrate, unaware that the marijuana was uncovered in an illegal search, approves the warrant for the home search The officers search the driver’s home and find a lawn mower stolen from a local park facility Under the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine, the lawn mower must be excluded from any trial on theft charges because the search of the house was based on evidence gathered in a previous illegal search
History and Development of the Doctrine
Silverthorne Lumber Co v United States: The Supreme Court Lays the Foundation for
10 FRUIT OF THE POISONOUS TREE
Trang 4Later Development The Supreme Court first
hinted at the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine
in Silverthorne LumberCO v United States, 251
U.S 385, 40 S Ct 182, 64 L Ed 319 (1920)
In Silverthorne, DEFENDANT Frederick W
Silver-thorne was arrested on suspicion of FEDERAL
violations in connection with his lumber
business Government agents then conducted a
warrantless, illegal search of the Silverthorne
offices Based on the evidence discovered in the
search, the prosecution requested more
docu-ments, and the court ordered Silverthorne to
produce the documents Silverthorne refused
and was jailed forCONTEMPTof court
On APPEAL, the Supreme Court reversed the
contempt judgment In its argument to the
Court, the government conceded that the search
was illegal and that the prosecution was not
entitled to keep the documents obtained in it
However, the government held that it was
entitled to copy the documents and use
knowledge gained from the documents for
future prosecution The Court rejected this
argument According to the Court, “[T]he
essence of forbidding the acquisition of
evi-dence in a certain way is that it shall not be
used at all.” Silverthorne concerned only
evi-dence gained in the first illegal search or seizure,
but the wording of the opinion paved the way
for the exclusion of evidence gained in
subse-quent searches and seizures
Nardone v United States: The Supreme Court
First Invokes the Doctrine The term fruit of
the poisonous tree was first used in Nardone v
United States, 308 U.S 338, 60 S Ct 266, 84 L
Ed 307 (1939) In Nardone, Frank C Nardone
appealed his convictions for smuggling and
concealing alcohol and forCONSPIRACYto do the
same In an earlier decision, the Supreme Court
had ruled that an interception of Nardone’s
telephone conversations by government agents
violated the Communications Act of 1934 (47
U.S.C.A § 605) The issue before the Court was
whether the trial court erred in refusing to allow
Nardone’s lawyer to question the prosecution
on whether, and in what way, it had used
information obtained in the illegal wire tapping
In reversing Nardone’s convictions, the
Court stated that once a defendant has
estab-lished that evidence was illegally seized, the trial
court “must give opportunity, however closely
confined, to the ACCUSED to prove that a
substantial portion of the case against him was
a fruit of the poisonous tree.” The Nardone opinion established that evidence obtained in violation of a statute was subject to exclusion if
it was obtained in violation of a statutory right
Wong Sun v United States: The Doctrine Is Held Applicable to Fourth Amendment Violations The fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine was first held applicable to Fourth Amendment violations in the LANDMARK case Wong Sun v United States, 371 U.S 471, 83 S Ct
407, 9 L Ed 2d 441 (1963) The Court in Wong Sun also set forth the test for determining how closely DERIVATIVE EVIDENCE must be related to illegally obtained evidence to warrant exclusion
In Wong Sun, a number of federal narcotics agents had arrested Hom Way in San Francisco
at 2:00 a.m on June 4, 1959, on suspicion of narcotics activity Although the agents had been watching Way for six weeks, they did not have a warrant for his arrest Way was searched, and the agents found heroin in his possession After his arrest, Way stated that he had bought an ounce of heroin the night before from someone known to him as“Blackie Toy,” the proprietor
of Oye’s Laundry on Leavenworth Street
Though Way had never been an informant for the police, the agents cruised Leavenworth Street At 6:00 a.m., they stopped at Oye’s Laundry The rest of the agents remained out of sight while Agent Alton Wong rang the bell
When James Wah Toy answered the door, Wong said he was there for laundry and dry cleaning
Toy answered that he did not open until 8:00 a.m
and started to close the door Wong then identified himself as a federal narcotics agent
Toy slammed the door and began to run down the hallway, through the laundry, and to his bedroom, where his wife and child were sleeping
Again without a warrant, Wong and the other agents broke open the door, followed Toy, and arrested him A search of the premises uncovered
no illegal drugs
While Toy was in handcuffs, one of the agents told him that Way had said Toy sold Way narcotics Toy denied selling narcotics, but then said he knew someone who had When asked who, Toy answered that he knew the man only
as“Johnny.” Toy told the officers that “Johnny”
lived on Eleventh Avenue, and then he described the house Toy also volunteered that
“Johnny” kept about an ounce of heroin in his bedroom and that he and“Johnny” had smoked some heroin the night before
Trang 5The agents left and located the house on Eleventh Avenue Without a search or anARREST WARRANT, they entered the home, went to the bedroom, and found Johnny Yee After a
“discussion” with the agents, Yee surrendered
a little less than one ounce of heroin
The same morning, Yee and Toy were taken
to the office of the Bureau of Narcotics While
in custody there, Yee stated that he had gotten the heroin about four days earlier from Toy and another person he knew as “Sea Dog.” The agents then asked Toy about “Sea Dog,” and Toy identified“Sea Dog” as Wong Sun Some of the agents took Toy to Sun’s neighborhood, where Toy pointed out Sun’s house The agents walked past Sun’s wife and arrested Sun, who had been sleeping in his bedroom A search of the premises turned up no illegal drugs
Toy and Yee were arraigned in federal court
on June 4, 1959, and Sun was arraigned the next day All were released without BAIL A few days later, Toy, Yee, and Sun were interrogated separately at the Narcotics Bureau by Agent William Wong Sun and Toy made written statements but refused to sign them
Sun and Toy were tried jointly on charges of transporting and concealing narcotics in viola-tion of 21 U.S.C.A § 174 Way did not testify at the trial The government offered Yee as its principal witness, but Yee recanted his state-ment to Agent William Wong and invoked his
FIFTH AMENDMENT right against SELF- INCRIMINA-TION With only four itemsIN EVIDENCE, Sun and Toy were convicted by the court in a BENCH TRIAL The Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed the convictions (Wong Sun,
288 F.2d 366 [9th Cir 1961]) Sun and Toy appealed to the U.S Supreme Court
The Supreme Court accepted the case and reversed the convictions The Court began its analysis by noting that the court of appeals had held that the arrests of both Sun and Toy were illegal The question was whether the four items
in evidence against Sun and Toy wereADMISSIBLE
despite the illegality of the arrests The four pieces of evidence were the oral statements made by Toy in his bedroom at the time of his arrest, the heroin surrendered to the agents by Yee, Toy’s unsigned statement to Agent William Wong, and Sun’s unsigned statement to Agent William Wong
The government submitted several theories
to support the proposition that the statements
made by Toy in his bedroom were properly admitted at trial The Court rejected all the arguments According to the Court, the arrest was illegal because the agents had no evidence supporting it other than the word of Way, an arrestee who had never been an informer for law enforcement The officers did not even know whether Toy was the person they were looking for Furthermore, Toy’s flight did not give the officers probable cause to arrest Toy: Agent Alton Wong had first posed as a customer, and this made Toy’s flight ambiguous and not necessarily the product of a GUILTY
mind Thus, under the exclusionary rule, the oral statements made by Toy in his bedroom should not have been allowed at trial
The Court then turned to the actual drug evidence seized from Yee The Court, in deference to Nardone, stated, “We need not hold that all evidence is‘fruit of the poisonous tree.’” Instead, the question in such a situation was “‘whether, granting establishment of the primary illegality, the evidence has been come at by exploitation of that illegality or instead by means sufficiently distinguishable to
be purged of the primary taint.’”
According to the Court, the narcotics in Wong Sun were indeed “come at” by use of Toy’s statements Toy’s statements were, in fact, the only evidence used to justify entrance to Yee’s bedroom Since the statements by Toy wereINADMISSIBLE, the narcotics in Yee’s posses-sion were also inadmissible, as fruit of the poisonous tree The Court went on to hold that Sun’s written statements about Toy should also have been excluded as HEARSAY, and the Court ultimately overturned Toy’sCONVICTION The Court did not reverse Sun’s conviction The heroin in Yee’s possession was admissible at trial, as was Sun’s own statement According to the Court,“The exclusion of narcotics as to Toy was required solely by their tainted relationship
to information unlawfully obtained from Toy, and not by any official impropriety connected with their surrender by Yee.” The Court did, however, grant Sun a new trial, because it was unable to conclude that Toy’s statements, erroneously admitted at trial as evidence against Sun, had not affected the verdict The Court advised that on REMAND and in similar cases,
“particular care ought to be taken when the crucial element of the accused’s possession is proved solely by his own admissions.”
12 FRUIT OF THE POISONOUS TREE
Trang 6There are three main exceptions to the fruit of
the poisonous tree doctrine: (1) the
indepen-dent source exception; (2) the inevitable
discovery exception; and (3) the attenuation
exception Under the independent source
ex-ception, the prosecution may use evidence that
was derived from an illegally tainted source, if
the police could also have obtained the evidence
from an untainted source For example, a
warrant to obtain a defendant’s cellular
tele-phone records was properly issued,
notwith-standing that those records had already been
examined PURSUANT to an improperly issued
SUBPOENA, since the AFFIDAVIT of probable cause
for the warrant was not based on any
informa-tion obtained through the subpoena and there
was a sufficient probability that the defendant’s
telephone records would reveal information
useful to solving the crime at issue
(Commis-sioner v McEnany, 446 Pa Super 609, 667 A.2d
1143[1995])
The inevitable discovery exception to the
fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine is a variation
on the independent source exception But it
differs in that the question is not whether the
police did in fact acquire certain evidence by
reliance upon an untainted source but instead
whether the illegally obtained evidence would
have been inevitably discovered in a lawful
manner For example, suppose federal agents
visit a suspect’s house and interview the suspect’s
wife about his whereabouts After the interview,
the police conduct an illegal search of the house
and seize some evidence After completing the
search, the police leave the defendant’s premises
only to catch the defendant outside his house
with drug-making equipment in his possession
The defendant cannot exclude the drug-making
equipment as a fruit of the illegal search of his
home because the police would have inevitably
discovered the defendant carrying the equipment
outside his home anyway
The attenuation exception to the fruit of the
poisonous tree doctrine permits the
introduc-tion of incriminating evidence against the
defendant when that evidence itself is seized
lawfully and the seizure occurs after a significant
passage of time and events from the time of an
earlier police illegality For example, evidence
obtained from a defendant who is being illegally
detained at his house may not be excluded as
fruit of the poisonous tree when the defendant
voluntarily gives the police an incriminating item almost an hour after theDETENTIONbegins, and the detention is congenial in nature and not marked by threats or violence
In Hudson v Michigan, 547 U.S 586, 126 S
Ct 2159, 165 L Ed 2d 56 (2006), the Supreme Court further clarified the attenuation excep-tion to the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine and the exclusionary rule as a whole In Hudson, the state of Michigan admitted to violating the knock-and-announce rule governing the length
of time police must wait after knocking on a suspect’s door before breaking in to preserve incriminating evidence for trial However, the state argued that the evidence seized after the illegal ENTRY should still be admissible at trial because theREMEDYof exclusion would not adequately balance the policy justification underlying the exclusionary rule, namely the
DETERRENCE of police misconduct, with the interests of society in crime prevention and punishment
In a 5–4 decision, the Court agreed The Court first identified the interests protected by the knock-and-announce rule: (1) protection of human life and limb, because an unannounced entry may provoke violence in the form of self-defense by a surprised resident; (2) protection
of property byAVOIDANCEof forcible entry; and (3) protection of the privacy and dignity of those inside the house The Court next assumed that exclusion of the evidence seized following the illegal entry would advance the interests underlying the knock-and-announce rule
But “what the knock-and-announce rule has never protected,” the Court said, “is one’s interest in preventing the government from seeing or taking evidence described in a warrant, [and] since the interests that were violated in this case have nothing to do with the seizure of the evidence, the exclusionary rule is inapplicable.”
But quite apart from the requirement of unattenuated causation, the Court continued, the exclusionary rule has never been applied except where its “deterrence benefits outweigh its substantial social costs.” The costs of applying the exclusionary rule in Hudson, the Court said, were considerable In addition to the grave adverse consequence that exclusion of relevant incriminating evidence always entails (i.e., the risk of releasing dangerous criminals into society), the Court opined, imposing such a
Trang 7massive remedy for knock-and-announce viola-tions would generate a constant flood of litigation, with defendants claiming law enforce-ment failed to observe the rule Allowing defendants to follow this path would overwhelm the criminal justice system with knock-and-announce complaints, the Court concluded, and result in a “get-out-of-jail-free card” for untold numbers of defendants The Court refused to let this happen
Legal scholars anticipated the Court to revisit the exclusionary rule, the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine, and exceptions to that doctrine as the court’s personnel continued to change in the following years
FURTHER READINGS Bloom, Robert M., and Mark S Brodin 2006 Criminal Procedure: The Constitution and The Police 5th ed New York, NY: Aspen Publishers.
Fauver, Deborah 2003 “Evidence not Suppressed Despite Failure to Give Miranda Warning.” Daily Record (St.
Louis, Mo./St Louis Countian) (October 14).
Hurley, Lawrence 2003 “Reversal Leaves Federal Case Intact, Prosecutor Says ” Daily Record (Baltimore, MD) (June 2).
McCrackin, Sidney M., 1985 “New York v Quarles: The Public Safety Exception to Miranda ” Tulane Law Review 59 (March).
CROSS REFERENCES Criminal Law; Criminal Procedure.
FRUSTRATION
In the law of contracts, the destruction of the value
of the performance that has been bargained for by the promisor as a result of a supervening event
FRUSTRATION of purpose has the effect of discharging the promisor from his or her obligation to perform, in spite of the fact that performance by the promisee is possible, since the purpose for which the contract was entered into has been destroyed For example, an individual reserves a hall for a wedding In the event that the wedding is called off, the value of the agreement would be destroyed Even though the promisee could still literally perform the obligation by reserving and providing the hall for the wedding, the purpose for which the contract was entered into was defeated Apart from a nonrefundable deposit fee, the promisor
is ordinarily discharged from any contractual duty to rent the hall
In order for frustration to be used as a
DEFENSE for nonperformance, the value of the anticipated counterperformance must have been substantially destroyed and the frustrating occurrence must have been beyond the con-templation of the parties at the time the agreement was made
FUGITIVE FROM JUSTICE
An individual who, after having committed a criminal offense, leaves the jurisdiction of the court where such crime has taken place or hides within such jurisdiction to escape prosecution
A FUGITIVE FROM JUSTICEwho flees from one state to another may be subjected toEXTRADITION
in the state to which he or she has fled
FUGITIVE SLAVE ACT OF 1850 The FUGITIVE SLAVE ACT OF 1850 mandated that states to which escaped slaves fled were obligated
to return them to their masters upon their discovery and subjected persons who helped runaway slaves to criminal sanctions The first
The Compromise of
1850 included the
Fugitive Slave Act,
which mandated that
citizens assist in the
capture of runaway
slaves Pictured here is
a handbill warning
African Americans
in Boston to avoid
law enforcement
agents empowered to
enforce the act.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
14 FRUSTRATION
Trang 8Fugitive Slave Act was enacted by Congress in
1793 but as the northern states abolishedSLAVERY,
the act was rarely enforced The southern states
bitterly resented the northern attitude toward
slavery, which was ultimately demonstrated by
the existence of the Underground Railroad, an
arrangement by which abolitionists helped
run-away slaves obtain freedom
To placate the South, the Fugitive Slave Act
of 1850 (9 Stat 462) was enacted by Congress as
part of the COMPROMISE OF 1850 It imposed a
duty on all citizens to assistFEDERALmarshals to
enforce the law or be prosecuted for their failure
to do so The act also required that when a slave
was captured, he or she was to be brought
before a federal court orCOMMISSIONER, but the
slave would not be tried by a jury nor would his
or her testimony be given much weight The
statements of the slave’s alleged owner were the
mainEVIDENCE, and the alleged owner was not
even required to appear in court
Northern reaction against the Fugitive Slave
Act was strong, and many states enacted laws
that nullified its effect, making it worthless In
cases where the law was enforced, threats or acts
of mob violence often required the dispatch of
federal troops Persons convicted of violating
the act were often heavily fined, imprisoned, or
both The refusal of northern states to enforce
the Fugitive Slave Act was alleged by South
Carolina as one reason for its secession from the
Union prior to the onset of the Civil War
The acts of 1793 and 1850 remained legally
operative until theirREPEALby Congress on June
28, 1864 (13 Stat 200)
vFULBRIGHT, JAMES WILLIAM
James William Fulbright served as a U.S
senator from Arkansas from 1945 to 1974
Fulbright played an important role in shaping
U.S foreign policy as chairman of the Senate
Foreign Relations Committee His opposition to
the VIETNAM WAR and to unbridled presidential
power in foreign affairs contributed to major
shifts in the conduct of U.S foreign relations
Fulbright was born in Sumner, Missouri, on
April 9, 1905, the son of a prosperous Arkansas
businessman Fulbright was the youngest of
four children born to Jay and Roberta Waugh
Fulbright His father was a banker, farmer, and
businessman His mother wrote a column for
the family-owned Fayetteville newspaper He
entered the University of Arkansas at the age of
16, and graduated in 1925 From 1925 to 1928 Fulbright attended Oxford University, in England, as a Rhodes Scholar This educational experience deepened his intellectual interests and provided a strong background for public life He graduated from GEORGE WASHINGTON
University Law School in 1934, and then taught
at that school for two years In 1936 he accepted
a teaching position at the University of Arkansas In 1939 he was appointed president
of the University of Arkansas At age 34 he was the youngest college president in the United States His tenure was short, however, as a new governor dismissed him in 1941
Fulbright then turned his focus to politics
As a Democrat he was elected to the U.S House
of Representatives in 1942 In 1945 he was elected to the U.S Senate His previous time as a Rhodes Scholar led him to sponsor the Fulb-right Act of 1946, 22 U.S.C.A § 245 et seq., which awards scholarships to U.S citizens for study and research abroad and to citizens from other nations for study in the United States The establishment of the Fulbright Scholarship exchange program has proved to be an enduring legacy
Fulbright, although personally a moderate
on matters of race, believed in the 1950s that he needed to move to the right on race issues to protect his political future in Arkansas This led
James W Fulbright.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
POWER TENDS TO CONFUSE ITSELF WITH VIRTUE AND A GREAT NATION IS PECULIARLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO THE IDEA THAT ITS POWER
IS A SIGN OF
GOD’S FAVOR
—J AMES W.
F ULBRIGHT
Trang 9him to sign the Southern Manifesto, a 1956
DOCUMENT signed by southern senators and representatives that expressed their displeasure
at the Supreme Court’s decision in BROWN V
BOARD OF EDUCATION(Brown I), 347 U.S 483, 74
S Ct 686, 98 L Ed 873 (1954), which struck down state-sponsored racially segregated public school systems, and Brown v Board of Education (Brown II), 349 U.S 294, 75 S Ct 753, 99 L Ed
1083 (1955), in which the Court directed that schools be desegregated with “all DELIBERATE
speed.” The manifesto condemned these deci-sions as abuses of judicial power and approved
of Southern resistance, by all legal means, to the demand for desegregation Fulbright doomed his national political prospects by signing the manifesto
In the 1950s Fulbright became a close friend and colleague of Senate Majority LeaderLYNDON
B JOHNSON, a Democrat from Texas In 1959 Johnson engineered Fulbright’s elevation to chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee Following the election of JOHN F
KENNEDYas president in 1960, Johnson, nowVICE PRESIDENT, urged Kennedy to appoint Fulbright
SECRETARY OF STATE Johnson’s efforts failed, in large part because Fulbright had supported the Southern Manifesto and racial segregation
During the Kennedy administration, Fulbright opposed the United States’s indirect involvement in the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, in which Cuban exiles made a futile attempt to overthrow the premier of Cuba, Fidel Castro
When the Vietnam War escalated under President Johnson, Fulbright became a consistent critic of
presidential foreign policy Fulbright had sup-ported Johnson’s Vietnam policy in the early part
of the conflict, sponsoring the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in 1964, Pub L No 88-408, 78 Stat
384, which allowed Johnson to wage war without seeking a congressional declaration Within a year, however, Fulbright had become convinced that Johnson had misled him about events that had brought about the 1964 resolution
Fulbright used the Foreign Relations Com-mittee as a platform to criticize Vietnam policy
In January 1966, he held televised hearings on Vietnam Leading opponents of the war testified that the conflict was going badly and that the United States did not have a legitimate role to play in Vietnam Fulbright called Secretary of State Dean Rusk to appear three times during the hearings, repeatedly asking hard questions about U.S.-Asian policy These hearings and additional ones in 1967 gave credibility to the antiwar movement and damaged the Johnson administration’s credibility
Skeptical about U.S foreign policy and the attitudes of those who conduct it, Fulbright criticized policy makers in his books, Old Myths and New Realities (1964) and The Arrogance of Power (1967) His opposition continued during the Nixon administration
In 1974 Fulbright was defeated by Dale L Bumpers in the Democratic primary election
He served as a Washington lobbyist following his defeat and remained active in the Fulbright Scholarship program In 1993 President BILL CLINTON awarded to Fulbright the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest award given to a
❖
❖
1905 Born,
Sumner,
Mo.
1914–18 World War I
1939–45 Workd War II
1950–53 Korean War
1961–73 Vietnam War
1925–28 Attended Oxford University as a Rhodes scholar
1939–41 Served as president of University of Arkansas
1942–45 Represented Arkansas in U.S House of Representatives
1946 Sponsored the Fulbright Act of 1946, which funded the Fulbright scholarship program
1956 Signed the Southern Manifesto
1959 Appointed chair of Senate Foreign Relations Committee
1945–74 Represented Arkansas in U.S Senate
1966–67 Became vocal critic
of Johnson's Vietnam policy
◆
1967 The Arrogance of Power published
1974 Defeated in Democratic primary by Dale Bumpers 1975–93 Worked as lobbyist for law firm
of Hogan and Hartson
1995 Died, Washington, D.C.
◆
16 FULBRIGHT, JAMES WILLIAM
Trang 10civilian by theFEDERALgovernment, in honor of
Fulbright’s dedication to public service
Fulb-right died of a stroke in Washington, D.C., on
February 9, 1995
FURTHER READINGS
Halberstam, David 1993 The Best and the Brightest New
York: Ballantine.
O ’Neill, William L 2005 Coming Apart: An Informal History
of America in the 1960s Chicago: Dee.
Woods, Randall Bennett 2006 J William Fulbright: A
Biography Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Univ.
CROSS REFERENCES
Cuban Missile Crisis; Vietnam War.
FULL FAITH AND CREDIT CLAUSE
The Full Faith and Credit Clause—Article IV,
Section 1, of the U.S Constitution—provides
that the various states must recognizeLEGISLATIVE
ACTS, public records, and judicial decisions of
the other states within the United States It
states that“Full Faith and Credit shall be given
in each State to the public Acts, Records, and
judicial Proceedings of every other State.” The
statute that implements the clause, 28 U.S.C.A
§ 1738, further specifies that“a state’s
preclu-sion rules should control matters originally
litigated in that state.” TheFULL FAITH AND CREDIT
CLAUSE ensures that judicial decisions rendered
by the courts in one state are recognized and
honored in every other state It also prevents
parties from moving to another state to escape
enforcement of a judgment or to relitigate a
controversy already decided elsewhere, a
prac-tice known as forum shopping
In drafting the Full Faith and Credit Clause,
the Framers of the Constitution were motivated
by a desire to unify their new country while
preserving the autonomy of the states To that
end, they sought to guarantee that judgments
rendered by the courts of one state would not be
ignored by the courts of other states The
Supreme Court reiterated the Framers’ INTENT
when it held that the Full Faith and Credit
Clause precluded any further litigation of a
question previously decided by an Illinois court
in Milwaukee County v M E White Co., 296
U.S 268, 56 S Ct 229, 80 L Ed 220 (1935)
The Court held that by including the clause
in the Constitution, the Framers intended to
make the states“integral parts of a single nation
throughout which a remedy upon a just
obligation might be demanded as of right,
irrespective of the state of its origin.”
The Full Faith and Credit Clause is invoked primarily to enforce judgments When a valid judgment is rendered by a court that has
JURISDICTION over the parties, and the parties receive proper notice of the action and a reasonable opportunity to be heard, the Full Faith and Credit Clause requires that the judgment receive the same effect in other states
as in the state where it is entered A party who obtains a judgment in one state may petition the court in another state to enforce the judgment
When this is done, the parties do not relitigate the issues, and the court in the second state is obliged to fully recognize and honor the judgment of the first court in determining the enforceability of the judgment and the proce-dure for its execution
The Full Faith and Credit Clause has also been invoked to recognize the validity of a
MARRIAGE Traditionally, every state honored
a marriage legally contracted in any other state
However, in 1993, the Hawaii Supreme Court held that Hawaii’s statute restricting legal marriage to parties of the opposite sex estab-lishes a sex-based classification, which is subject
to STRICT SCRUTINY if challenged on EQUAL PROTECTION grounds (Baehr v Lewin, 852 P.2d
44, 74 Haw 530) Although the court did not recognize a CONSTITUTIONAL right to same-sex marriage, it raised the possibility that a successful equal protection challenge to the state’s marriage laws could eventually lead
to state-sanctioned same-sex marriages In response to the Baehr case, Congress in 1996 passed theDEFENSEof Marriage Act (110 Stat § 2419), which defines marriage as a union of a man and a woman for FEDERAL purposes and expressly grants states the right to refuse to recognize a same-sex marriage performed in another state
During the 1980s and 1990s, the Full Faith and Credit Clause was applied to new matters
CHILD CUSTODY determinations had historically fallen under the jurisdiction of state courts, and before the 1970s, other states did not accord them full faith and credit enforcement As a result, a divorced parent who was unhappy with one state’s custody decision could sometimes obtain a more favorable RULING from another state This was an incentive for a dissatisfied parent to kidnap a child and move to another state in order to petition for custody In response to this situation, the Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction Act (UCCJA) was adopted