attorney general under Eisenhower 1969–73 Served as secretary of state under Nixon 1986 Headed presidential commission investigating space shuttle Challenger's explosion 1970 Negotiated
Trang 1McCorvey, Norma 1994 I Am Roe: My Life, Roe v Wade, and Freedom of Choice New York: HarperCollins.
Palmer, Louis J 2009 Encyclopedia of Abortion in the United States 2d ed Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.
Payment, Simone 2003 Roe v Wade: The Right to Choose.
New York: Rosen.
Perry, Michael J 2009 Constitutional Rights, Moral Controversy, and the Supreme Court New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Rubin, Eva R 1987 Abortion, Politics and the Courts: Roe v.
Wade and Its Aftermath New York: Greenwood.
Simon, James F 1995 The Center Holds: The Power Struggle Inside the Rehnquist Court New York: Simon &
Schuster.
CROSS REFERENCES Constitutional Amendment; Fetal Rights; Fetal Tissue Research; Parent and Child; Penumbra; Reproduction;
Wattleton, Alice Faye.
ROGATORY LETTERS
William Pierce Rogers served as U.S attorney general from 1957 to 1961 Rogers, who later would serve asSECRETARY OF STATEin the Nixon administration, distinguished himself as attor-ney general by vigorously enforcingCIVIL RIGHTS laws and seeking ways of ending racially segregated public schools
Rogers was born on June 23, 1913, in Norfolk, New York He graduated from Colgate University in 1934 and received his law degree from Cornell Law School in 1937 He was admitted to the New York bar in 1937 and entered private practice Rogers was assistant district attorney for New York County from
1938 until 1942, when he joined the U.S Navy, serving as a lieutenant commander during WORLD WAR II In 1946, after the war, he returned
to his district attorney position
Rogers’s career shifted from state to federal government in the late 1940s In 1947 and 1948
he was chief counsel of the Senate War Investigating Committee, becoming chief coun-sel of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations in 1949
In 1950 Rogers returned to private practice
in New York With the election of President
Washington, becoming deputy attorney general
in 1953 He assisted Attorney General HERBERT
emerging debate over civil rights In the wake of
347 U.S 483, 74 S Ct 686, 98 L Ed 873 (1954), which prohibited state-imposed racial
communities pledged to defy or evade the U.S Supreme Court decision Some school boards closed the schools and encouraged attendance at white-only private schools, while others refused
to integrate Rogers was an advocate for federal leadership to end segregation and to promote
writing and enactment of theCIVIL RIGHTS ACTof
1957, 42 U.S.C.A § 1975 et seq., the first federal civil rights legislation since the 1870s Rogers also made the final case to President Eisenhower againstCLEMENCYfor Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, who were found guilty ofCONSPIRACYto commit
Williams Pierce Rogers 1913–2001
1913 Born, Norfolk, N.Y.
◆
◆
◆
1914–18 World War I
1939–45 World War II
1961-73 Vietnam War
◆
1937 Graduated from Cornell Law School
2001 Died, Bethesda, Md.
1938–42 Served as assistant district attorney for New York County 1947–49 Served as chief counsel of the Senate War Investigating Committee
1949 Appointed chief counsel of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations
1957–61 Served as U.S attorney general under Eisenhower
1969–73 Served as secretary of state under Nixon
1986 Headed presidential commission investigating space shuttle
Challenger's explosion
1970 Negotiated truce between Egypt and Israel along the Suez Canal
1957 Played major role in writing and enacting Civil Rights Act of 1957
1954 Supreme Court outlawed "separate but
equal" education in Brown v Board of Education
1950–53 Korean War
1953 Appointed deputy U.S attorney general
LASTING PEACE
WITHOUT A JUST
SETTLEMENT OF THE
PROBLEMS OF T[HE]
PALESTINIANS
[WHICH] MUST TAKE
INTO ACCOUNT THE
DESIRES AND
ASPIRATIONS OF
[BOTH] THE REFUGEES
AND THE LEGITIMATE
CONCERNS OF THE
GOVERNMENTS IN
THE AREA
418 ROGATORY LETTERS
Trang 2In November 1957 President Dwight D.
Eisenhower appointed Rogers to be attorney
general Rogers continued to enforce civil rights
laws and to promote a vision of an integrated
society During his tenure, he also prosecuted
several high-level Justice Department officials
for corruption Rogers remained attorney
gen-eral until the end of the Eisenhower
adminis-tration in January 1961
During the 1960s, Rogers resumed his law
practice In 1969, President RICHARD M NIXON
appointed Rogers to be secretary of state, a
position that he held for the president’s entire
first term Rogers played a diminished role in
foreign policy, however, because Nixon and
National Security Adviser HENRY KISSINGER
as-sumed most of the responsibility for charting
relations with other nations Rogers’s most
notable accomplishment as secretary of state
was in negotiating a truce between Egypt and
Israel along the Suez Canal in 1970 He loyally
defended the administration’s VIETNAM WAR
policies but left all major policy decisions to
Kissinger
Rogers returned to private practice in 1973
In 1986 he was asked to head a presidential
commission to investigate the explosion of the
Space Shuttle Challenger The commission
issued a report that was critical of the
perfor-mance of the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
Rogers continued to practice law as a senior
partner for a number of years with the
INTERNATIONAL LAWfirm of Rogers & Wells Rogers
died January 2, 2001, in Bethesda, Maryland
FURTHER READINGS
Meador, Daniel J 1980 The President, the Attorney General,
and the Department of Justice Charlottesville, VA.:
White Burkett Miller Center of Public Affairs,
Univer-sity of Virginia.
Powell, H Jefferson 1999 The Constitution and the
Attorneys General Durham, N.C: Carolina Academy
Press.
U.S Department of Justice 1985 Attorneys General of the
United States, 1789–1985 Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
ROLL
A record of the proceedings of a court or public
office
Judgment Roll
In some states, a judgment roll is required to be
filed by the clerk of the court when a person
enters judgment It normally contains the summons, pleadings, admissions, and each judgment and order involving the merits of the case that affect the final judgment In the federal courts and most state courts, judgments are recorded in the civil or criminal docket
In old English practice, a judgment roll was
a roll of parchment containing the entries of the proceedings in an action at law including the ENTRY OF JUDGMENT It was filed in the treasury of the court
Tax Roll
A tax roll is a list of the persons and property subject to the payment of a particular tax, with the amounts due; it is compiled and verified in proper form to enable the collecting officers to enforce the tax It is often combined with a record of assessed values
ROMAN LAW Between 753 B.C and A.D 1453, the legal principles, procedures, and institutions of Roman law dominated Western, and parts of Eastern, civilization The legal systems of western Europe, with the exception of Great Britain, are based on Roman law and are called civil-law systems Even the common-law tradi-tion found in the English-speaking world has been influenced by it In the United States, the
law has influenced the law of the state of Louisiana, a former French territory that adopted a French civil-law code
Roman law began as an attempt to codify a set of legal principles for all citizens In 450B.C the Twelve Tables were erected in the Roman Forum Set forth in tablets of wood or bronze, the law was put on public display, where it could be invoked by persons seeking remedies for their problems Though the texts of the tablets have not survived, historians believe they dealt with legal procedures, TORTS, and FAMILY LAWissues
From 753 to 31 B.C., the Roman republic developed the jus civile, or CIVIL LAW This law was based on both custom and legislation and applied only to Roman citizens By the third century B.C., the Romans developed the jus gentium, rules of INTERNATIONAL LAW that were applied to interactions between Romans and foreigners Over time the jus gentium became a
ROMAN LAW 419
Trang 3massive compendium of law produced by magistrates and governors
Romans divided the law into jus scriptum, written law, and jus non scriptum, unwritten law
The unwritten law was based on custom and usage, while the written law came from legisla-tion and many types of written sources, includ-ing edicts and proclamations issued by magis-trates, resolutions of the Roman Senate, laws issued by the emperor, and legal disquisitions of prominent lawyers Roman law concerned itself with every type of legal issue, including contracts, inheritance of property, family law, business organizations, and criminal acts
Roman law steadily accumulated during the course of the empire, and over time it became contradictory and confusing In the early sixth centuryA.D., the Byzantine emperorJUSTINIAN I, appointed a commission to examine the body of law and determine what should be kept and what should be discarded From this effort came the Corpus Juris Civilis, aCODIFICATIONof Roman law that became the chief lawbook of what remained of the Roman Empire
The decline of the Roman Empire also led to the diminution of interest in Roman law in western Europe The Corpus was unknown to western scholars for centuries During the twelfth century, however, Roman law studies revived in western Europe In the late eleventh century, a manuscript containing part of the Corpus was discovered in Pisa, Italy The remainder of the compilation was soon recov-ered, and schools where Roman law could be studied were established in Bologna, Italy, and then elsewhere in Europe By the twelfth century, commentaries on the Corpus Juris Civilis appeared, and in time men trained in Roman law found posts in secular and ecclesi-astical bureaucracies throughout Europe
As a result, the legal systems of the Catholic Church and of almost every country in Europe were influenced by Roman law Around the year
1140, the scholar Gratian prepared the Concor-dance of Discordant Canons, or Decretum The Decretum was the largest and best-organized compendium of canon (church) law up to that time Gratian used the Corpus Juris Civilis as his model, and later canonists studying the Decre-tum used the same methods that Roman lawyers applied to the Corpus Juris Civilis Many scholars became masters of both Roman and
Among the nations of western Europe, England, which had already established a viable common-law tradition and a system of royal courts by the time that Roman law became accessible, felt the impact of the revival of Roman law the least Nevertheless, ENGLISH LAW drew upon RomanADMIRALTY LAW, and the crimes of forgery andLIBELwere based on Roman models English ecclesiastical courts applied canon law, which was based on Roman law, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge taught canon and Roman law Scholars have noted the similarities between the Roman and English actions ofTRESPASS, and the equitable method of
law Much of western EuropeanCOMMERCIAL LAW, which contained Roman law, became part of English law without much change
The legal systems of most continental European nations owe their basic structures and categories to Roman law Scholars point to several reasons for this “reception” of Roman law In some areas such as southern France where remnants of Roman law had survived the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Corpus Juris Civilis helped to explain the institutions that were already in existence More important in ensuring the reception of Roman law were the political principles that it contained Law that had been produced in a centralized state under a sovereign emperor could be used to buttress the arguments of the European rulers as they struggled to assert their sovereignty over the feudal nobility
At the same time that many of these rulers were consolidating their power, they were also expanding royal administration This created new positions in government that often were filled by men with training in Roman law Such men compiled collections of unwritten customs, drafted statutes, and presided over the courts, all of which provided opportunities for the penetration of Roman law
Roman law did not displace local customs Instead, its influence was subtle and selective A compiler of unwritten German customs might arrange the collection according to Roman principles of organization A royal judge con-fronted with an issue on which customs of different regions in the kingdom disagreed might turn to Roman law, the only law in many cases that was common to the entire kingdom Similarly, Roman law could be used when local
420 ROMAN LAW
Trang 4customs offered no solutions For example, the
Roman law of contracts was particularly
influen-tial because European customary law had
devel-oped in an agrarian economy and was often
inadequate for an economy in which commerce
played an increasingly larger role
After 1600 the reception of Roman law
slowed in most countries but did not entirely
disappear In nineteenth-century Europe, the
Corpus Juris Civilis provided inspiration for
several codifications of law, notably the French
Code Napoléon of 1804, the Austrian code of
1811, the German code of 1889, and the Swiss
codes of 1889 and 1907 Through these codes,
elements of Roman law spread beyond Europe
The Code Napoléon served as a model for codes
in Louisiana, Québec, Canada, and most of the
countries of Latin America German law
influenced Hungarian, Brazilian, Japanese, and
Greek law, and Turkey borrowed from Swiss
law In addition, the law of both Scotland and
the Republic of South Africa derives from
Roman law
Commentators, while noting the differences
between common law and civil law, which is
based on Roman law, also point out that these
differences can be overemphasized
Common-law countries, like the United States, enact statutes
and even comprehensive codes, such as the
UNIFORM COMMERCIAL CODE, while civil-law countries
have laws that have been developed by the courts
and not enacted through legislation Roman law
itself contained these conflicting impulses of
codification and judicial interpretation
FURTHER READINGS
Appel, Peter A 2002 “Intervention in Roman Law: A Case
Study in the Hazards of Legal Scholarship ” Georgia
Journal of International and Comparative Law 31 (fall).
Astorino, Samuel J 2002 “Roman Law in American Law:
Twentieth Century Cases of the Supreme Court ”
Duquesne Law Review 40 (summer).
Hoeflich, M H 1997 Roman and Civil Law and the
Development of Anglo-American Jurisprudence in the
Nineteenth Century Athens: Univ of Georgia Press.
Kakan, Amir Aaron 2006 “Evolution of American Law,
From Its Roman Origin to the Present.” Orange County
Lawyer 48 (February).
CROSS REFERENCE
Napoleonic Code.
ROMER V EVANS
The amendment at issue in Romer v Evans,
known as Amendment 2, was placed on the
November 1992 ballot following a petition drive The amendment provided in part that neither the state nor any of its political subdivisions “shall enact, adopt or enforce any statute, regulation, ordinance or policy whereby homosexual, lesbian, or bisexual orientation, conduct, practices or relationships shall consti-tute or otherwise be the basis or entitle any person or class of persons to have or claim any minority status, quota preferences, protected status or claim of discrimination.”
Romer v Evans, 517 U.S 620, 116 S Ct
1620, 134 L Ed 2d 855 (1996), is a landmark and controversial decision, in which the U.S
Supreme Court declared unconstitutional an amendment to the Colorado state constitution that prohibited state and local governments from enacting any law, regulation, or policy that would, in effect, protect theCIVIL RIGHTSof gays, lesbians, and bisexuals
The amendment was immediately chal-lenged in state court by eight individuals and the cities of Denver, Boulder, and Aspen, which had gay rights ordinances in effect The plaintiffs sued Governor Roy Romer, Attorney General Gale Norton, and the State of Color-ado The plaintiffs argued that the amendment violated their FIRST AMENDMENT right to free expression and their FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT right to EQUAL PROTECTION of the laws They obtained a permanentINJUNCTIONin state court that prevented the amendment from going into effect
In 1994 the Colorado Supreme Court affirmed the trial court (Evans v Romer, 882 P.2d 1335) The court applied the STRICT
This standard, which is the most exacting under the Equal Protection Clause, is reserved for laws
or amendments that discriminate on a suspect basis (race, alien status, national ancestry, and ethnic origin) Laws will be upheld under strict scrutiny if they are supported by a compelling
achieve that interest in the least restrictive manner possible
Reviewing a series of U.S Supreme Court decisions involving voter registration, legislative
of certain groups to have legislation implemen-ted through the normal political processes, the court found a common thread The Equal Protection Clause guarantees the FUNDAMENTAL
ROMER V EVANS 421
Trang 5RIGHT to participate equally in the political process Therefore, any attempt to infringe on that right“must be subject to strict scrutiny and can be held constitutionally valid only if supported by a compelling state interest.” Where the effect of a law is to exclude a class
of voters, strict scrutiny must be applied
The Colorado Supreme Court found that the ultimate result of Amendment 2 was to prohibit any legislation concerning sexual orientation unless the state constitution was first amended to permit such measures Unlike all other citizens, who could seek legislative redress, gays and lesbians would have to first amend the state constitution by a majority vote
Thus, the amendment singled out one form of
persons from using normal political processes
to overturn the discrimination This discrimi-nation, coupled with the state’s failure to offer any compelling state interests that would justify the enactment of Amendment 2, led the court
to invalidate the amendment
On appeal to the U.S Supreme Court, Colorado argued that the amendment put gays and lesbians in the same position as all other persons and merely denied homosexuals special rights JusticeANTHONY KENNEDY, in his majority opinion, rejected this interpretation as implau-sible Relying on the Colorado Supreme Court’s reading of the amendment, Kennedy quoted a passage that noted that Amendment 2 would have forced the “repeal of existing statutes, regulations, ordinances, and policies of state and local entities that barred discrimination based on sexual orientation.” The enforcement
of the amendment would lead to sweeping and comprehensive changes that, in Kennedy’s view, put homosexuals“in a solitary class with respect
to transactions and relations in both the private and governmental spheres.”
These modifications would produce far-reaching changes in the legal status of gays and lesbians and the structure and operation of modern anti-discrimination laws Kennedy pointed out that the Boulder and Denver anti-discrimination ordinances prohibited discrimi-nation on account of sexual orientation in places of public accommodation, which include hotels, restaurants, hospitals, dental clinics, theaters, banks, common carriers, travel and insurance agencies, and shops and stores that provide goods and services In addition,
Amendment 2 would remove anti-discrimina-tion protecanti-discrimina-tions for all transacanti-discrimina-tions involving housing, the sale of REAL ESTATE, insurance, health and welfare services, private education, and employment
Based on this analysis of the potential reach
of Amendment 2, Kennedy concluded that the amendment went well beyond merely depriving gays and lesbians of special rights The amend-ment imposed a “special disability upon those persons alone.” The only way homosexuals could obtain CIVIL RIGHTS protection under Colorado law would be to convince enough citizens to vote to amend the state constitution The kinds of protections that Amendment 2 would take away were those“against exclusion from an almost limitless number of transactions and endeavors that constitute civic life in a free society.”
The key question for the Court was whether the amendment violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause, which promises that no person shall be denied the equal protection of the laws In equal protection cases, the Court will uphold a legislative classification if it neither burdens a fundamental right nor targets a particular protected class, and
if it bears a rational relation to some legitimate end In Romer this type of inquiry broke down because the amendment was both too narrow and too broad It imposed “a broad and undifferentiated disability on a single named group,” and the “sheer breadth is so discontin-uous with the reasons offered for it that the amendment seems inexplicable by anything but animus toward the class it affects; it lacks a rational relationship to legitimate state interests.”
Justice Kennedy viewed the disqualification
of gays and lesbians from the right to obtain specific protection from the law as unprece-dented and a denial of equal protection“in the most literal sense.” Reflecting on the constitu-tional tradition, he concluded that the idea of
protection were based on “the principle that government and each of its parts remain open on impartial terms to all who seek its assistance.”
The Court drew from Amendment 2 “the inevitable inference that the disadvantage im-posed is born of animosity toward the class
of persons affected.” The desire to harm a
422 ROMER V EVANS
Trang 6politically unpopular group can never be a
legitimate government interest Colorado’s
pri-mary justification for the amendment was
respect for other citizens’ FREEDOM OF
ASSOCIA-TION, especially landlords or employers who
have personal or religious objections to
homo-sexuality Kennedy concluded that the
amend-ment’s breadth was too far removed from this
justification Amendment 2 was a“status-based
enactment divorced from any factual context
from which we [the Court] could discern a
relationship to legitimate interests.” In light of
the serious deficiencies in the amendment’s
scope and the failure of the state to articulate a
legitimate STATE INTEREST, the Court ruled that
Amendment 2 violated the Equal Protection
Clause
Justice ANTONIN SCALIA, in a dissenting
opinion joined by Chief Justice WILLIAM
charac-terized Amendment 2 as “rather a modest
attempt by seemingly tolerant Coloradans to
preserve traditional sexual mores against the
efforts of a politically powerful minority to
revise those mores through use of the laws.” He
criticized the majority for “imposing upon all
Americans the resolution favored by the elite
class from which the Members of this
institu-tion are selected.” Noting that the U.S
Constitution does not deal with sexual
orienta-tion, Scalia concluded that states should be
permitted to resolve these kinds of issues
through “normal democratic means, including
the democratic adoption of provisions in state
constitutions.”
Kennedy also wrote the majority opinion in
Lawrence v Texas, 539 U.S 558, 123 S Ct 2472,
156 L Ed 2d 508 (2003), where the Court
struck down a TexasSODOMYlaw that applied to
homosexual conduct The Court in Lawrence overruled the Court’s decision in BOWERS V
Ed 2d 140 (1986), which had upheld a Georgia sodomy statute Commentators have suggested that Kennedy’s opinion in Romer laid the groundwork for his subsequent opinion in Lawrence
FURTHER READINGS Bransford, Stephen 1994 Gay Politics vs Colorado and America: The Inside Story of Amendment 2 Cascade, Colo.: Sardis.
Carpenter, Dale 2001 “A Conservative Defense of Romer v.
Evans.” Indiana Law Journal 76 (spring).
Duncan, William C 2001 “The Legacy of Romer v Evans—
So Far ” Widener Journal of Public Law 10 (January).
Gingrich, Candace, and Chris Bull 1996 Accidental Activist:
A Personal and Political Memoir New York: Simon &
Schuster.
Nava, Michael 1995 Created Equal: Why Gay Rights Matter
to America New York: St Martin’s.
Perry, Michael J 2009 Constitutional Rights, Moral Controversy, and the Supreme Court New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Tafel, Richard L 1999 Party Crasher: A Gay Republican Challenges Politics as Usual New York: Simon &
Schuster.
CROSS REFERENCES Discrimination; Due Process of Law; Equal Rights; Equal Protection; Gay and Lesbian Rights; Prejudice.
Eleanor Roosevelt, wife of U.S President
role of first lady and influenced the course and content of twentieth-century U.S politics
During FDR’s nearly four terms in office (1933–1945), Roosevelt was an acknowledged political adviser with her own progressive agenda
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt 1884–1962
1884 Born,
New York City
1905 Married distant cousin Franklin Delano Roosevelt
◆
1913 FDR appointed assistant secretary of the Navy
1914–18 World War I
1928–32 FDR served
as governor
of New York
1937 This is My Story published
1941–42 Served as assistant director of the
Office of Civilian Defense
1939–45 World War II
1933–45 FDR served as president
❖
1945–52 and 1961–62 Served as U.S.
delegate to the United Nations
1950–53 Korean War
1958 On My Own published
1961 Autobiography published
1962 Died, New York City
1961–73 Vietnam War
◆
1935 Began writing "My Day" newspaper column
ROOSEVELT, ANNA ELEANOR 423
Trang 7Roosevelt was a committed reformer Born into wealth and privilege, she lent early and conspicuous support to child welfare laws, equal pay and employment legislation, CIVIL RIGHTS,
FDR’s NEW DEAL and modern Democratic liberalism Although Roosevelt was admired by many, her high political profile was harshly criticized by people who believed she was too opinionated and influential
After FDR’s death in 1945, Roosevelt contin-ued to support social and benevolent causes throughout the United States and the world
Although no longer first lady, she secured her reputation as a tireless activist and humanitarian
Roosevelt was born on October 11, 1884, in New York City Her parents, Elliott and Anna Hall Roosevelt, were socially and politically prominent Her father was the younger brother
of U.S PresidentTHEODORE ROOSEVELT Roosevelt’s childhood was lonely; she had
an emotionally detached mother and a loving but alcoholic father Both parents died by the time Eleanor was ten years old A serious, timid child, Roosevelt was sent by her grandmother in
1899 to Allenswood, a private girls’ school near London There she overcame her shyness and became an active, well-liked student When Roosevelt returned to New York, she entered high society At the same time, she taught at
a settlement house in a New York slum
Roosevelt married FDR, her distant cousin,
on March 17, 1905 Her domineering mother-in-law, Sara Roosevelt, disapproved of Roosevelt and put an immediate strain on the marriage The couple had six children, five of whom survived to adulthood
Roosevelt was not fulfilled by running a large household and attending social functions When FDR was elected to the New York State Senate in 1910, she turned her attention to politics In time, she discovered her talent for political organization and strategy
FDR became the assistant secretary of the Navy in 1913 After the United States entered
tremendous energy, organizing Red Cross efforts and working in military canteens
In 1918 Roosevelt discovered that FDR was having an affair with her social secretary Lucy Page Mercer The marriage survived but became
a union based primarily on politics, not love Roosevelt was determined to carve out her own niche in public service and national affairs She became active in the League of Women Voters (although she had opposed female suffrage at one time) and the Women’s TRADE
active role in Democratic politics In 1926, Roosevelt opened a furniture company in Hyde Park, New York, to provide jobs for unem-ployed workers In 1927, Roosevelt and some colleagues founded the Todhunter School, where she was vice principal and taught government and history
FDR was the unsuccessful Democratic candidate for vice president in the 1920 U.S presidential election In 1921 he contracted poliomyelitis, which left him permanently disabled Because FDR could no longer walk independently, Roosevelt became his surrogate, filling in for him at meetings, state inspections, and public appearances Her political skills and confidence grew in her role as FDR’s emissary FDR was elected governor of New York in
1928 Four years later he became the 32nd president of the United States, defeating INCUM-BENT Republican President HERBERT HOOVER FDR’s mandate was to pull the country out of the Great Depression His economic recovery plan, popularly known as the New Deal, included sweeping, government-sponsored pro-grams that were supported by Roosevelt
Eleanor Roosevelt.
COURTESY OF WORLD
COUNCIL OF CHURCHES.
IT IS NOT FAIR TO ASK
OF OTHERS WHAT
YOU ARE NOT
WILLING TO DO
YOURSELF
424 ROOSEVELT, ANNA ELEANOR
Trang 8From the outset Roosevelt was a different
kind of first lady Visible and outspoken, she
wrote her own newspaper column, entitled“My
Day,” from 1935 to 1962 She held regular press
conferences with female reporters, and insisted
on hard news coverage, not society-page trivia
Roosevelt lectured extensively throughout the
United States, donating her fees to charity Most
importantly, she was FDR’s legs and eyes,
describing to him the actual, on-site progress
of his social and economic programs
Roosevelt wielded considerable influence
over the development of the New Deal She
openly supported legislation to create the
National Youth Administration, a program that
provided jobs for young people Roosevelt
worked hard for measures to improve the lives
of children, women, unemployed workers,
minority groups, and poor people She also
encouraged the appointment of women to key
positions within FDR’s administration, such as
the appointment ofFRANCES PERKINSto secretary
of labor
Roosevelt demonstrated the courage of her
convictions In 1939 she publicly resigned her
membership to the elite Daughters of the
American Revolution (DAR) The DAR had
denied permission to African American singer
Marian Anderson to perform in Constitution
Hall Outraged at the group’s racism, Roosevelt
helped organize an alternate concert for Anderson
at the Lincoln Memorial
Roosevelt served in an official public
capacity for a short time From 1941 to 1942
she was assistant director of the Office of
Civilian Defense (OCD) When some of her
appointments were criticized, however,
Roose-velt stepped down from the position
The United States’ involvement in WORLD
fact finder and a morale booster, she visited U.S
armed forces throughout the world After the
war, Roosevelt supported the resettlement of
European Jews in newly established Israel
Eleanor Roosevelt was also a strong supporter
of Freedom House (established in 1941 in
New York), a United States-based
inter-national nongovernmental organization that
conducts research and advocacy on democracy,
political freedom andHUMAN RIGHTS, and served
as honorary chairman in the organization’s
early years
FDR died of a cerebral hemorrhage on April
12, 1945 After his death Roosevelt remained in the public eye She was one of the first U.S
delegates to the UNITED NATIONS, appointed by President HARRY S TRUMAN in December 1945
She served as chair of the Commission on
Declaration of Human Rights The Declaration was adopted on December 10, 1948, largely through Roosevelt’s efforts
Roosevelt also remained active in Democratic politics and organized Americans for Democratic Action, a liberal unit within the party She backedADLAI STEVENSONin his unsuccessful quest for the U.S presidency in 1952 and 1956 and was
a player in the 1952, 1958, and 1960 Democratic conventions In 1952, with RepublicanDWIGHT D
from the U.N Democratic President JOHN F
along with making her chair of the newly created Presidential Commission on the Status of Women
Roosevelt published several books, includ-ing This Is My Story (1937), This I Remember (1949), On My Own (1958), and You Learn By Living (1960)
Roosevelt died in New York City on November 7, 1962
FURTHER READINGS Black, Allida M 1996 Casting Her Own Shadow: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Shaping of Postwar Liberalism New York: Columbia Univ Press.
Glendon, Mary Ann 2001 A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights New York: Random House.
Hoff-Wilson, Joan, and Marjorie Lightman 1984 Without Precedent: The Life and Career of Eleanor Roosevelt.
Bloomington: Indiana Univ Press.
Purcell, Sarah J., and L Edward Purcell 2002 The Life and Work of Eleanor Roosevelt Indianapolis, Ind.: Alpha.
Roosevelt, Eleanor 1961 The Autobiography of Eleanor Roosevelt New York: Harper & Brothers.
Youngs, J William T 2000 Eleanor Roosevelt: A Personal and Public Life New York: Longman.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 to
1945 During his unprecedented four terms in office, Roosevelt established himself as a tower-ing national leader, leadtower-ing the United States out of the Great Depression through the active involvement of the federal government in the
ROOSEVELT, FRANKLIN DELANO 425
Trang 9national economy The federal government grew dramatically in size and power as Congress enacted Roosevelt’s NEW DEAL program As president, Roosevelt was responsible for the creation of SOCIAL SECURITY, federal LABOR LAWS, rural electrification programs, and myriad projects that assisted farmers, business, and labor He signed the GI BILL into law, which made home ownership and college education accessible to so many people that it became known as the “magic carpet to the middle class.” DuringWORLD WAR II, Roosevelt’s leader-ship was vital to rallying the spirits of the citizenry and mobilizing a wartime economy
Nevertheless, Roosevelt was a controversial figure Many economic conservatives believed
his programs owed more to stateSOCIALISMthan
to free enterprise
Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in Hyde Park, New York, the only son of James and Sara Delano Roosevelt The young Roosevelt was taught to be a gentleman and to exercise Christian stewardship through public service
He graduated from Harvard University in 1904 and in 1905 wedELEANOR ROOSEVELT, the niece of his fifth cousin, President THEODORE ROOSEVELT Roosevelt attended Columbia University Law School but left without receiving a degree when
he passed the New York bar exam in 1907
In 1910 Roosevelt was elected to the New York Senate as a member of the DEMOCRATIC
accept an appointment from President
For the next seven years, Roosevelt proved an effective administrator and an advocate of reform in the U.S Navy
Roosevelt was nominated for vice president
on the 1920 Democratic party ticket He waged
a vigorous campaign in support of the presi-dential nominee, James M Cox, but the Republican ticket headed byWARREN G.HARDING soundly defeated Cox and Roosevelt After the election Roosevelt joined a Maryland bonding company and began investing in various business schemes
Roosevelt’s life changed in August 1921, when he was stricken with poliomyelitis while vacationing at Campobello Island, New Bruns-wick Initially, Roosevelt was completely para-lyzed, but over several years of intense therapy,
he made gradual improvement His legs,
Franklin Delano
Roosevelt.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt 1882–1945
1882 Born,
Hyde Park,
New York
1904 Graduated from Harvard University
1910 Elected to New York Senate 1913–20 Served as assistant secretary of the Navy
1914–18 World War I
◆◆
1920 Ran for vice president on Democratic ticket
1921 Contracted polio
1928–32 Served as governor of New York
1933–45 Served
as U.S.
president
❖
1945 Attended Yalta Conference; died, Warm Springs, Ga.
1939–45 World War II
◆
◆ ◆
◆
1941 Congress passed Lend-Lease Act of 1941; U.S entered war after Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor
on Dec 7.
1935 Supreme Court struck down NIRA in Schecter Poultry v United States;
Social Security Act and National Labor Relations Acts (NLRA) passed
1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act and National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) passed; Civilian Conservation Corps created
1937 Attempted to "pack" the Supreme Court; Court
upheld NLRA in NLRB v Jones and Laughlin Steel Corp.
426 ROOSEVELT, FRANKLIN DELANO
Trang 10however, suffered permanent paralysis For the
rest of his life, he used a wheelchair and could
walk only a few steps with the help of leg braces
Eleanor Roosevelt believed her husband’s
recovery depended on his reentry into New
York politics She attended meetings, made
speeches, and reported back to him on the
political events of the day By 1924 Roosevelt
was at the Democratic National Convention
nominating Governor Alfred E Smith of New
York for president Smith, who lost the
presidential elections in 1924 and 1928, showed
Roosevelt the ways of New York state politics
and pushed him to run for governor in 1928
A reluctant Roosevelt won by a narrow margin
but was soon governing as if he had won by a
landslide
With theSTOCK MARKETcrash of October 25,
1929, the United States was thrown into a
national economic depression of unprecedented
severity As governor, Roosevelt set up the first
state public relief agency and tried to find ways
to spark an economic recovery His landslide
reelection in 1930 made him the logical
candidate to face the Republican president
Roosevelt was nominated for president on
the third ballot of the 1932 Democratic
National Convention During the campaign
Roosevelt called for the federal government to
take action to revive the economy and end the
suffering of the thirteen million unemployed
people, which at the time represented
approxi-mately 40 percent of the population and still
reigns as the all-time high Hoover advocated a
more limited role for the federal government in
the national economy Roosevelt easily defeated
Hoover and brought with him large Democratic
majorities in both houses of Congress
Roosevelt took office on March 4, 1933, at a
time when the economy appeared hopeless In
his inaugural address he reassured the nation
that “the only thing we have to fear is fear
itself.” He proposed a New Deal for the people
of the United States and promised to use the
power of the EXECUTIVE BRANCH to address the
economic crisis
During his first hundred days in office,
Roosevelt sent Congress many pieces of
legislation that sought to boost economic
activity and restore the circulation of money
through federally funded work programs The
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) provided
unemployment relief and an opportunity for national service to young workers, while promoting conservation through reforestation and flood control work Federal funds were given to state relief agencies for direct relief, and the Reconstruction Finance Company was given the authority to make loans to small and large businesses
The centerpieces of Roosevelt’s New Deal legislation were the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) of 1933 (7 U.S.C.A § 601 et seq.) and
1933 (48 Stat 195) The AAA sought to raise farm prices by giving farmers federal subsidies if they reduced their agricultural production
The NIRA was a comprehensive attempt to manage all phases of U.S business It estab-lished the NATIONAL RECOVERY ADMINISTRATION (NRA) to administer codes of fair practice within each industry Under these codes, labor and management negotiated minimum wages, maximum hours, and fair-trade practices for each industry The Roosevelt administration sought to use these codes to stabilize produc-tion, raise prices, and protect labor and consumers By early 1934 there were 557 basic codes and 208 supplementary ones In 1935, however, the Supreme Court struck down the NIRA in A.L.A Schechter Poultry Corp v United States, 295 U.S 495, 55 S Ct 837, 79 L Ed 1570
In 1935 Roosevelt and the Congress passed
et seq.), a fundamental piece of social welfare legislation that providedUNEMPLOYMENT
sixty-five More groundbreaking legislation came with the passage of theWAGNER ACT, also known as the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) of 1935 (29 U.S.C.A § 151 et seq.), which recognized for the first time the right of workers to organize unions and engage in
Roosevelt handily defeated Republican Alfred M Landon, the governor of Kansas, in the 1936 presidential election In his second term, however, Roosevelt met more resistance
to his legislative initiatives Between 1935 and
1937, the Supreme Court struck down as unconstitutional eight New Deal programs that attempted to regulate the national economy
Most of the conservative justices who voted against the New Deal statutes were over the age
of seventy Roosevelt responded by proposing
THE TEST OF OUR PROGRESS IS NOT WHETHER WE ADD MORE TO THE ABUNDANCE OF THOSE WHO HAVE MUCH;IT IS WHETHER
WE PROVIDE ENOUGH FOR THOSE WHO HAVE TOO LITTLE
ROOSEVELT, FRANKLIN DELANO 427