vJACKSON, ANDREWAndrew Jackson achieved prominence as a frontiersman, jurist, and military hero, and as seventh PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES.. In 1818 Jackson was involved in a militar
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G A L E E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F A M E R I C A N L A W , 3 E XIV HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
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XV
Trang 4vJACKSON, ANDREW
Andrew Jackson achieved prominence as a
frontiersman, jurist, and military hero, and as
seventh PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES His two
administrations, famous for ideologies labeled
Jacksonian Democracy, encouraged participation
in government by the people, particularly the
middle class
Jackson was born March 15, 1767, in
Waxhaw, South Carolina In 1781 Jackson
entered the military, fought in the
Revolution-ary War, and was subsequently taken prisoner
and incarcerated at Camden, South Carolina
After his release he pursued legal studies in
North Carolina and was admitted to the bar of
that state in 1787
Jackson relocated to Nashville in 1788 and
established a successful law practice Three years
later, he married Rachel Donelson When it was
subsequently discovered that Mrs Jackson was
not legally divorced from her previous husband,
Jackson remarried her in 1794 after herDIVORCE
became final His enemies, however, used the
scandal to their advantage
Jackson began his public service career in
1791 and performed the duties of prosecuting
attorney for the Southwest Territory He attended
the Tennessee constitutional convention in 1796
and entered the federal government system in
that same year
As a member of the U.S House of
Repre-sentatives, Jackson represented Tennessee for a
year before filling the vacant position of senator from Tennessee in the U.S Senate during 1797 and 1798
Jackson embarked on the judicial phase of his career in 1798, presiding as judge of the Tennessee Superior Court until 1804
During the WAR OF 1812, Jackson returned
to the military and was victorious at the Horseshoe Bend battle in 1814 He conquered the British at New Orleans at the close of the war, which resulted in national recognition as a war hero
In 1818 Jackson was involved in a military incident that almost catapulted the United States into another war with Great Britain and Spain Dispatched to the Florida border to quell Seminole Indian uprisings, Jackson misunder-stood his orders, took control of the Spanish possession of Pensacola, and killed two British subjects responsible for inciting the Indians
Spain and Great Britain were in an uproar over the incident, but Secretary of StateJOHN QUINCY ADAMSsupported Jackson The incident added to Jackson’s popularity as a rugged hero
Jackson sought the office of president of the United States in 1824 against HENRY CLAY, John Quincy Adams, and William Crawford No single candidate received a majority of electoral votes, and the House of Representatives decided the election in favor of Adams Four years later, Jackson defeated the incumbent Adams and began the first of two terms as chief executive
J
HAS BEEN IN OFFICE A FEW YEARS BELIEVES
HE HAS A LIFE ESTATE
THE PRINCIPLE OF
IS ROTATION OF OFFICE THAT WILL PERPETUATE OUR LIB-ERTY
—A NDREW J ACKSON
1
Trang 5During his first administration, Jackson relied
on a group of informal advisers known as the Kitchen Cabinet The unofficial members
includ-ed journalists and politicians, as opposinclud-ed to the formal cabinet members traditionally involved in policymaking He also initiated the spoils system, rewarding dutiful and faithful party members with government appointments, regardless of their qualifications for the positions Many of Jackson’s intimate associations did not include members from the traditional families associated with politics, and public dissatisfaction came to a head with the marriage of his Secretary of War John Eaton to the provincial Margaret O’Neill
The social politics employed by cabinet members
and their wives, particularly VICE PRESIDENT and Mrs.JOHN C.CALHOUN, caused much upheaval in the Jackson cabinet, and the eventual resignation
of Eaton
Calhoun and Jackson disagreed again in 1832 over a protective tariff, which Calhoun believed was not beneficial to the South Calhoun initiated the policy of nullification, by which a state could judge a federal regulation null and void and, therefore, refuse to comply with it if the state believed the regulation to be adverse to the tenets
of the Constitution Calhoun resigned from the office of vice president after South Carolina adopted the nullification policy against the tariff act, and Jackson requested the enactment of the Force Bill from Congress to authorize his use of MILITIA, if necessary, to enforce federal law The Force Bill proved to be solely a strong threat, because Jackson sympathized with the South and advocated the drafting of a tariff compromise Henry Clay was instrumental in the creation of this agreement, which appeased South Carolina The most significant issue during Jackson’s term was the controversy over the BANK OF THE UNITED STATES The bank became a topic in the 1832 presidential campaign and continued into the second administration of the victorious Jackson The charter of the bank expired in 1836, but Henry Clay encouraged the passage of a bill to secure its recharter in 1832 Jackson was against the powerful bank and overruled the recharter
He proceeded to transfer federal funds from the bank to selected state banks, called“pet banks,” which significantly diminished the power of the bank Secretary of Treasury Louis McLane refused to remove the funds and was dismissed; similarly, the new treasury secretary, W J Duane,
Andrew Jackson.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
1767 Born, Waxhaw, S.C.
❖
1775–83 American Revolution
1787 Admitted to North Carolina bar
1796 Attended Tennessee constitutional convention;
elected to U.S House
1836 Issued Specie Circular causing economic panic of 1837
1845 Died, at the Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn.
1788 Moved to Nashville and began law practice
◆
1797–98 Served in U.S Senate
1829–37 Served
as president
1850
1799–1804 Presided as judge on the Tennessee Superior Court
1812–14 Served with valor during the War of 1812
1818 Sent to quell Seminole Indian uprisings in Florida, almost started a third war with Britain
◆
◆
1833 Congress passed compromise tariff;
South Carolina repealed its act
1832 South Carolina passed Ordinance of Nullification against tariff act
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2 JACKSON, ANDREW
Trang 6also refused Jackson replaced him withROGER B.
TANEY, who supported Jackson’s views and
com-plied with his wishes In response to this loyalty,
Jackson subsequently nominated Taney as a U.S
Supreme Court justice in 1836
In 1836 Jackson faced another financial
crisis He issued the Specie Circular of 1836,
which declared that all payments for public
property must be made in gold or silver, as
opposed to the previous use of paper currency
This proclamation precipitated the economic
panic of 1837, which ended Jackson’s second
term and extended into the new presidential
administration ofMARTIN VAN BUREN
Jackson spent his remaining years in
retire-ment at his estate in Tennessee, “The
Hermit-age,” where he died on June 8, 1845
FURTHER READINGS
Ellis, Richard E 2003 Andrew Jackson Washington, D.C.:
CQ Press.
Magliocca, Gerard N 1999 “Veto! The Jacksonian
Revolu-tion in ConstituRevolu-tional Law ” Nebraska Law Review 78
(spring) Available online at http://papers.ssrn.com/
sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=928147; website home
page: http://papers.ssrn.com (accessed August 2, 2009).
Remini, Robert V 2010 The Life of Andrew Jackson New
York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics.
vJACKSON, HOWELL EDMUNDS
Howell Edmunds Jackson was a U.S senator,
federal judge on the U.S SixthCIRCUIT COURTof
Appeals, and U.S Supreme Court justice
Jackson toiled diligently without fanfare for
many years before garnering widespread
atten-tion for the last case he heard while sitting on
the Supreme Court, Pollock v Farmers’ Loan &
Trust Co., 158 U.S 601, 15 S Ct 912, 39 L Ed
1108 (1895)
Jackson was born April 8, 1832, in Paris,
Tennessee He graduated from West Tennessee
College in 1849, then studied for a time at the University of Virginia He read the law with a Tennessee Supreme Court judge for a year, and obtained his law degree from Cumberland University in Lebanon, Tennessee, in 1856
Thereafter, he practiced law in Jackson and Memphis Although Jackson opposed Tennessee’s secession in the Civil War, he served the Confederacy as a receiver of confiscated property
Following the Civil War he served for a short time
on the Court of Arbitration for West Tennessee, a provisional court helping the regular Tennessee Supreme Court dispose of a backlog of cases caused by the war He also made an unsuccessful bid for a seat on the state supreme court
A Whig before the war, Jackson was elected
to the Tennessee state legislature as a Democrat
Howell E Jackson PHOTOGRAPH BY LANDY CINCINNATI COLLEC-TION OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
❖
1832 Born,
Paris, Tenn.
1849 Graduated from West Tennessee College
1895 Joined dissent
in Pollock v Farmers'
Loan & Trust Co.; died,
West Meade, Tenn.
1861–65 U.S Civil War
◆
1880 Elected to Tennessee state legislature
1856 Earned law degree from Cumberland University
1893–95 Served as associate justice on U.S Supreme Court
1863 Ran unsuccessful bid for Tennessee state supreme court seat
◆
1861–65 Served Confederacy during U.S Civil War
1875–79 Held judgeship on the Court of Arbitration for Western Tennessee
❖
1886–93 Served
on the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals
1881–86 Served
in U.S.
Senate
G A L E E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F A M E R I C A N L A W , 3 R D E D I T I O N
Trang 7in 1880 The following year the legislature assembled to choose a U.S senator on a joint ballot No candidate, including the incumbent, could muster enough votes in the divided assembly After a number of deadlocked days,
a Republican legislator cast his vote for Jackson, who had not been a candidate, and Jackson was quickly elected In the Senate he gained a reputation as a tireless worker He was nonpar-tisan in his friendships, becoming close with Democrat president Grover Cleveland and Republican Senate colleagueBENJAMIN HARRISON Jackson resigned from the Senate in 1886 when President Cleveland appointed him to the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, and eventually became that court’s presiding judge In 1893 lame-duck president Harrison appointed Jackson
to fill a vacancy on the U.S Supreme Court
Harrison appointed Jackson in part because Cleveland was about to become president, and Harrison doubted that any Republican could garner confirmation by the Democratic Senate
Harrison, a former Union general, saw in Jackson, a former member of the Confederate government, not another secessionist southern Democrat but a man committed to serving his entire nation
In August 1894 Congress imposed a nation-wide two percent income tax on all annual incomes in excess of $4,000 The new law, popular in the South and West but despised in the North and East, was quickly challenged as being unconstitutional Soon, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case
Tuberculosis struck Jackson, and shortly after the October 1894 session began his deteriorating health kept him off the bench
He was absent in April 1895 when the Court held in Pollock that part of the new tax law was unconstitutional The Court was evenly
divid-ed on whether the entire law must be declardivid-ed unconstitutional, and therefore did not express
an opinion on the matter The absence of a firm decision by the justices meant that the courts could expect a flood of litigation from unwilling taxpayers The Supreme Court quickly granted a rehearing to reexamine the issue
To break the deadlock, it appeared essential that Justice Jackson either resign so that a new justice could be appointed, or agree to hear the case Jackson decided to hear the case At Chief Justice Melville W Fuller’s insistence, he obtained his doctor’s permission to travel from
Tennessee, where he had been recuperating, to Washington, D.C., to return to the bench The case was argued for three days in early May, 1895 Strong passions about the income tax law, widespread speculation about how Jackson would vote, and the drama of the obviously ailing justice made the case one of keen PUBLIC INTEREST Reporters speculated that the effort of participating in the hearing might well shorten Jackson’s life
The decision was rendered less than two weeks after oral arguments Ironically, Jackson’s vote was not crucial, because one of his colleagues changed his opinion Jackson and three other justices voted to uphold the constitutionality of the tax; five justices, including the colleague who had changed his opinion, voted to declare the entire law void Jackson, too weak to prepare a formal, written opinion, spoke from notes as he announced his dissent in the Supreme Court chamber Jackson declared that the decision was
“the most disastrous blow ever struck at the constitutional power of Congress.” An income tax was not resurrected until passage of the SIXTEENTH AMENDMENTin 1913
After the rehearing in Pollock, Jackson returned to his home in West Meade, Tennes-see He died less than three months later, on August 8, 1895
FURTHER READINGS Friedman, Leon, and Fred L Israel, eds 1995 The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions, Volumes I–V New York: Chelsea House Hudspeth, Harvey Gresham “Howell Edmunds Jackson,
1832 –1895 Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture Available online at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/ amex/reagan/peopleevents/pande08.html; website home page: http://www.pbs.org (accessed September 5, 2009) Jackson, Howell E., and Edward L Symons, Jr 1999 Regulation of Financial Institutions Eagan, MN: West CROSS REFERENCE
Pollock v Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co.
vJACKSON, JESSE LOUIS, SR
Reverend Jesse Louis Jackson Sr is aCIVIL RIGHTS activist, clergyman, and prominent African American leader in the United States
Jackson was born October 8, 1941, in Greenville, South Carolina His mother, Helen Burns, was only 16 when Jackson was born His father, Noah Louis Robinson, acknowledged Jackson as his son, but because he was married
DECI-SION DISREGARDS
THAT AN ACT PASSED
BY A
BRANCH OF THE
GOV-ERNMENT HAS EVERY
PRESUMPTION IN ITS
NEVER BE DECLARED
INVALID BY THE
COURTS UNLESS ITS
REPUGNANCY TO THE
CONSTITUTION IS
CLEAR BEYOND ALL
—H OWELL J ACKSON
G A L E E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F A M E R I C A N L A W , 3 R D E D I T I O N
4 JACKSON, JESSE LOUIS, SR.
Trang 8to another woman and had several other
children, he was not involved in Jackson’s life
When he was three, his mother married Charles
Jackson The family eventually moved out of the
poor section of town to a new housing project,
where, for the first time, they enjoyed hot and
cold running water and an indoor bathroom
Jackson was legally adopted by his stepfather
when he was 12 He has one brother, Charles
Jackson Jr
Jackson attended the all-black Sterling High
School, in Greenville, where he was a star
football player After graduation in 1959, he
went north to the University of Illinois on a
football scholarship The following year he
transferred to North Carolina Agricultural and
Technical College (North Carolina A&T), a
mostly black school in Greensboro There he
met his wife, Jacqueline Lavinia Brown, a fellow
student who had also grown up in poverty The
couple married December 31, 1962, and have
five children: Santita, Jesse Louis Jr
(Democrat-ic representative, second congressional distr(Democrat-ict
of Illinois), Jonathan Luther, Yusef DuBois, and
Jacqueline Lavinia
While at North Carolina A&T, Jackson began
the work that would make him a widely
rec-ognized civil rights leader He led a series of
protest demonstrations and sit-ins throughout
the South and joined one of the first organized
groups in theCIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, the Congress
of Racial Equality (CORE)
After graduating from college in the fall of
1964, Jackson left the fledgling civil rights
movement and moved north again, to attend
Chicago Theological Seminary He immersed
himself in his studies, determined to learn how he
could bring about change through the ministry
Then in 1965, the civil rights movement began to gain momentum, and Jackson wanted to be a part
of it He joined theSOUTHERN CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE(SCLC) ofMARTIN LUTHER KINGJr, and expanded its Operation Breadbasket, an
econom-ic campaign that used boycotts and negotiations
to secure jobs for minorities Six months before
he was to graduate from the seminary, he left to work full-time for the SCLC Nevertheless, he was ordained a Baptist minister in 1968
Jackson saw King as his mentor and role model, and he became King’s protégé He worked closely with King and the other SCLC
Jesse Jackson.
AP IMAGES
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❖
1941 Born,
Greenville,
S.C.
1939–45
World War II
1950–53 Korean War
1961–73 Vietnam War
1964 Graduated from North Carolina
A & T
1965 Joined SCLC and its Operation Breadbasket; became Martin Luther King's protégé
1968 Ordained a Baptist minister; King assassinated
1971 Founded Operation PUSH
1969 Left SCLC after problems with Black Expo
1984 Ran for president and finished third in Democratic primaries;
gave speech at national convention
1985 Founded National Rainbow Coalition
1990 Elected
"shadow senator" for Washington, D.C.
1988 Ran for president and finished second
in primaries; moved to Washington, D.C.
1995 Helped lead the Million Man March
2002 Resigned
as president
of Rainbow/ PUSH
1997 Represented U.S.
as envoy to Kenya elections
1999 Negotiated release of three U.S POWs held in Kosovo
G A L E E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F A M E R I C A N L A W , 3 R D E D I T I O N
JACKSON, JESSE LOUIS, SR 5
Trang 9leaders and was with King when King was assassinated on April 4, 1968
In 1969 Jackson organized the first Black Expo, a promotional festival for the companies involved in Operation Breadbasket The expo was intended to be an annual fundraiser for the SCLC, but Jackson had quietly incorporated the event independently SCLC officials were enraged, and Jackson finally left the organization
In the early 1970s Jackson formed Operation People United to Serve Humanity (Operation PUSH), with the goal of economic empower-ment for the “disadvantaged and people of color.” He negotiated with such large corpora-tions as the Coca-Cola Company, Heublein, and Ford Motor Company to increase minority employment and minority-owned dealerships and franchises He also began holding rallies at high schools to raise the self-image of African American students He stressed the importance
of education, personal responsibility, and hard work to achieve one’s goals Jackson’s work with teenagers attracted the attention of President JIMMY CARTER, whose administration rewarded Jackson with grants and contracts to continue his outreach He named his school ministry PUSH for Excellence, or PUSH-Excel
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, Jackson emerged as a preeminent African American leader
in the United States He decided to make a bid for the presidency He mounted an ambitious voter registration drive throughout the South, and barnstormed through Western Europe enlisting support among U.S service personnel In an effort to enhance his image and prove that his expertise extended beyond domestic matters, Jackson traveled to trouble spots such as the Middle East, Latin America, and Cuba to meet with leaders there In 1983 he negotiated the release of Lieutenant Robert O Goodman Jr., a U.S citizen whose jet had been shot down over Syrian-held territory in Lebanon
Critics dismissed these activities as oppor-tunistic grandstanding Particularly troubling to some was Jackson’s perceived anti-Semitic bias
During a private conversation in 1984, Jackson referred to Jews as Hymies and to New York as Hymietown He later apologized A short time later, Louis Farrakhan, head of the controversial NATION OF ISLAM and a Jackson supporter, threatened the reporter who had written about Jackson’s remarks Jackson later distanced himself from Farrakhan and his organization
because of their perceived militant anti-white and anti-Semitic stance
Jackson placed third in the 1984 presidential primaries, behind former VICE PRESIDENTWalter
F Mondale and Colorado senator Gary W Hart His delegate votes did not give him the clout he needed to compel the Democrats to accept his controversial platform proposals Jackson gracefully conceded the nomination to Mondale and gave a rousing speech at the Democratic National Convention in San Fran-cisco, which was in part a response to his critics:
If in my low moments, in word, deed, or attitude, through some error of temper, taste,
or tone, I have caused anyone discomfort, created pain, or revived someone’s fears, that was not my truest self.… I am not a perfect servant I am a public servant doing my best against the odds As I develop and serve, be patient God is not finished with me yet
After the convention, Jackson resumed his duties as head of Operation PUSH He also continued to be active in progressive causes, leading what he called a counterinaugural march and prayer vigil in January 1985, and participating in a reenactment of the civil rights march from Selma, Alabama, to Montgomery, Alabama, in March 1985 That same year, Jackson formed the National Rainbow Coali-tion, his vision of a modern populist movement comprising African Americans, working fami-lies, liberal urbanites, Hispanics, women’s rights groups, college faculty and students, environ-mentalists, farmers, and labor unions—a cul-tural as well as racial alliance searching for alternatives within theDEMOCRATIC PARTY Jackson made another run for president in
1988 and finished second behind Michael Dukakis in the primaries However, much to his disappointment, he was not chosen as the vice presidential nominee
After the 1988 election, Jackson moved from Chicago to Washington, D.C., and was elected one of the city’s “shadow senators.” In this unpaid, nonvoting position, which was created
by the Washington City Council, Jackson represents the district’s interests on Capitol Hill His main responsibility is to lobby Congress for statehood for the nation’s capital
In the 1990s and into the 2000s Jackson continued to be the leading spokesman for civil rights issues on both the domestic and interna-tional fronts He called on the African American
ALL WOVEN AND HELD
TOGETHER BY A
—J ESSE J ACKSON
G A L E E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F A M E R I C A N L A W , 3 R D E D I T I O N
6 JACKSON, JESSE LOUIS, SR.
Trang 10community to take action against the violence
that was claiming so many of its young people
He advocated for such issues as universal health
care and equal administration of justice in all U.S
cities And in 1996, in an effort to maximize
efforts, the Rainbow Coalition and Operation
PUSH merged to form Rainbow/PUSH
Coali-tion, which remains devoted to educaCoali-tion,
PUBLIC POLICY changes, and social and economic
empowerment
In 1997 PresidentBILL CLINTONand Secretary
of State MADELEINE ALBRIGHT named Jackson as
Special Envoy for the President and Secretary of
State for the Promotion of Democracy in Africa
He has met with many of the leaders of African
nations in support of this directive He also has
served as an international diplomat on a number
of other occasions, and in 1999, negotiated the
release of U.S soldiers held in Kosovo In 2000,
President Clinton awarded Jackson the highest
civilian honor, the Presidential Medal of
Free-dom, for his national and international civil
rights efforts That same year, Jackson received
his master of divinity degree from the Chicago
Theological Seminary on June 3 He had been
only three courses short of earning his degree
when he left the school to work with a minister
more than three decades ago
Jackson disappointed many of his followers
when it came to light in 2001 that he had had an
extramarital affair that resulted in the birth of a
daughter, who was 20 months old at the time of
his announcement.“I fully accept responsibility,
and I am truly sorry for my actions,” he said in a
written statement
In July 2002 Jackson, without specifying a
timetable for his intention of stepping down,
announced that his successor as president of the
Rainbow/PUSH Coalition would be the Rev
James Meeks Jackson said that he wanted to
have a successor in place so that the
organiza-tion would not be traumatized by his
retire-ment But this announcement did not mean
that Jackson was slowing down Over the next
two years he worked to defeat the recall of
California Governor Gray Davis, to support the
election of Democratic presidential candidate
John Kerry, to defeat a ballot measure that
would have banned the California government
from collecting data about people’s race in most
circumstances, to support striking Yale
Univer-sity service and clerical workers, and to stop a
Texas redistricting plan that would have been
favorable to Republicans He was even arrested for his part in the protests at Yale
Jackson is often involved in issues dealing with civil rights and political activism In March
2005 Jackson met with Florida Governor Jeb Bush and the state’s Senate President, Tom Lee,
to discuss the case of brain-damaged Terri Schiavo He was in favor of her parent’s wishes
In June 2007 he and other demonstrators were arrested for blocking the entrance to a gun shop
in Riverdale, Illinois
A tireless activist, Jackson maintains a whirl-wind schedule, traveling to schools and univer-sities for speaking engagements, appearing on news programs, and writing a weekly syndicated column that provides political analysis He has received numerous awards and commendations throughout his career, including the NAACP’s Spingarn Medal He also has been the recipient
of more than 40 honorary degrees
FURTHER READINGS Frady, Marshall 1996 Jesse: The Life and Pilgrimage of Jesse Jackson New York: Random House.
Hertzke, Allen D 1993 Echoes of Discontent: Jesse Jackson, Pat Robertson, and the Resurgence of Populism.
Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.
vJACKSON, ROBERT HOUGHWOUT Robert Houghwout Jackson served as general counsel for the Federal Bureau of Internal Revenue, attorney general of the United States, and justice of the U.S Supreme Court During his service on the Court from 1941 to 1954 Jackson delivered unconventional opinions that did not always coincide with those of the president who had appointed him,FRANKLIN D.ROOSEVELT Jackson was nonetheless chosen to be chief counsel at theNUREMBERG TRIALSfollowingWORLD WAR II Jackson’s straightforward style as a lawyer and a justice stemmed from his rural upbring-ing The first Jacksons immigrated to the United States from England in 1819 They settled in Spring Creek, Pennsylvania, where Jackson was born on February 13, 1892 His father, William Eldred Jackson, provided for the family through farming and lumbering
In September 1911 Jackson entered Albany Law School, passing the bar in 1913 He then began a lengthy career with the establishment
of a law practice at Jamestown, New York, and formed a friendship with fellow New Yorker Roosevelt
OV-ERNMENT TO KEEP THE CITIZEN FROM
IT IS THE FUNCTION
OF THE CITIZEN TO
OVERN-MENT FROM FALLING
—R OBERT J ACKSON
G A L E E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F A M E R I C A N L A W , 3 R D E D I T I O N