Comparative Analysis of Tense and Aspect Given the general, cognitive linguistic tool for the analysis of tense and aspect developed in the literature, there is at present a need for com
Trang 1temporal ordering of such cases, it will be clear that, in addition to (or perhaps even instead of ) aspect, a considerable amount of world knowledge and pragmatic reasoning must be invoked.17
A number of tense/aspect domains deserve serious attention and further investi-gation.
4.1 Comparative Analysis of Tense and Aspect
Given the general, cognitive linguistic tool for the analysis of tense and aspect developed in the literature, there is at present a need for comparative analyses of tense and aspect systems in the languages of the world using these analytic tools— Dickey’s (2000) comparative analysis of aspect in the Slavic languages can be mentioned as an exemplary study in this respect So far, the primary focus in the cognitive linguistic literature has been on the general concepts underlying tense and aspect rather than on the formal manifestation of these categories and their use in particular languages (with the possible exception of English) However, it is well known that tense and aspect categories show a great deal of variation across lan-guages (see Dahl 1985, 2000; Thieroff and Ballweg 1994; Thieroff 1995; Hewson and Bubenik 1997; Stassen 1997) Thus, in order to test the validity of the proposals and,
if necessary, to refine them, more languages should be examined, including those languages that are claimed to lack the category of tense altogether (see Bohnemeyer
1998 on Yucatec Maya) A promising perspective for describing and explaining such cross-linguistic differences in the domain of tense and aspect is offered by the framework of grammaticalization (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994) But here
as well, detailed diachronic studies of language-specific developments are, for the most part, still lacking.
4.2 Interaction Tense/Aspect and Modality
It should have become clear from the preceding sections that the categories of tense and aspect interact in interesting ways Within the domain of aspectuality, a similar kind of interaction was noted for ‘‘grammatical’’ and ‘‘lexical’’ aspect However, not all possible interactions were addressed in this chapter In particular, the category of modality and its interaction with both tense and aspect deserves more attention (see Sasse 2002: 266).
Trang 24.2.1 Tense and Modality
As was discussed in section 2.2.2, the past tense can be used to express epistemic (nontemporal) distance with respect to the ground, such as in the irrealis In ad-dition, the future tense ‘‘more often than not fails to express pure futurity and is instead bound up with modality and the expression of belief and possibility’’ (Frawley 1992: 356) And in many languages, the present tense is not exclusively used
to express a temporal relationship either (e.g., Janssen 1998; Cook-Gumperz and Kyratzis 2001; Langacker 2001a; Brisard 2002; for the present perfective, see Asic 2000) The precise relationship between tense and modality is as yet an unsolved problem (Foley 1986: 158–66).
4.2.2 Aspect and Modality
The connection between tense and modality has often been noted but the inter-action between aspect and modality has largely been ignored However, there is a host of data in the literature suggesting a cross-linguistic relationship between perfective aspect and ‘‘objective’’ or ‘‘factive’’ information on the one hand, and between imperfective aspect and ‘‘subjective,’’ ‘‘perspectivized,’’ or ‘‘counterfac-tual’’ information on the other (Fleischman 1995) (see section 3.2 on aspect and perspective) Whereas the nontemporal use of tense forms has been related to the overall nontemporal meaning of tense (see section 2.2.2), there has been no satis-factory account of aspect in which the widely divergent ‘‘modal’’ interpretations of,
in particular, imperfective aspect are related to the overall meaning of aspect What
is the exact relationship between the domains of aspectuality and modality? Why
do so many languages use one and the same form to present incomplete as well as
‘‘perspectivized’’ and ‘‘counterfactual’’ situations?
4.3 Aspect/Aktionsart
In the noncognitivist literature on aspect, some effort has been made to distinguish between lexical aspect, or Aktionsart (telicity), and grammatical aspect (perfectiv-ity) As was noted in section 3.2., Cognitive Linguistics does not always make that distinction, which should come as no surprise since it is impossible to make a clear-cut, principled distinction between grammar and lexicon However, defining all aspectual categories—verb aspect, grammatical aspect, and the aspect of entire expressions—in the same terms blurs the distinction between aspect and Aktion-sart, as well as interesting interactions among them (Boogaart 2004) Therefore, it remains necessary to investigate in more detail what Croft (1998) calls the ‘‘con-ceptualization processes’’ mediating between Aktionsart and aspect.
In the fields of language acquisition and signed languages, thorough studies on tense and aspect from the cognitive linguistic perspective are still lacking (An exception is constituted by the papers on language acquisition collected by Li and Shirai 2000.)
Trang 3N O T E S
1 The term situation will be used to refer to various types of situations Although a number of linguists use the term event as the cover term (see some quotes in this chapter), the term event easily leads to the misunderstanding that the Aktionsart involved is a nonstate (see section 3.2)
2 Usually the speaker and the addressee(s) share the evaluative situation However, when reading a sentence such as I’m writing this letter on the balcony of my hotel in Debrecen (Fillmore 1997: 82), the addressee has to project his or her mind into a past situation, namely the writer’s situation of writing
3 For the notion of contextualization, see Dinsmore (1991: 193–94, 221–25), Fillmore (1981), and Gumperz (1982: 160–71), who introduces the notion in a more general com-municative sense
4 Critical overviews of the status of the Reichenbachian notion of reference in various tense analyses are presented by Hamann (1987), Harder (1996: 320–23, 398–404), Michaelis (1998: 29–34, 43–51), Brisard (1999: 375–94), and Boogaart (1999: 36–38, 57–77) Binnick (1991: 37–43) surveys related ideas of analysts predating Reichenbach’s ‘‘time of reference’’ notion An elaborated alternative to Reichenbachian analyses is presented by Declerck (e.g., 1991, 1995, 1997, 1999); for comments, see, e.g., Janssen (1995, 1996b, 1998) and Salkie and Reed (1997)
5 A tense system featuring more than two types of simple tense form is, for instance, (modern) Greek (Paprotte´ 1988; Binnick 1991); more generally, see Thieroff and Ballweg (1994), Thieroff (1995), Hewson and Bubenik (1997), Dahl (2000), and Squartini (2003)
6 Older two-tense analyses are Paardekooper (1957), Burger (1961), Joos (1964), Weinreich (1964), Huddleston (1969), Casparis (1975), and King (1983)
7 Cutrer’s (1994: 88–89) and Fauconnier’s (1997: 75–76) notations show slight dif-ferences
8 As for the temporal relation between the situations of clauses like John came and [John] told me the news in (2), Kamp and Reyle (1993: 497) allow the tense of told to refer to some time in the vicinity of the time of came This vicinity solution is a spurious element in their time-based analysis The distance between the times of the situations involved is merely delimited by a functional coherence between the situations (Boogaart 1999: 68–70)
9 See also Steele (1975), James (1982, 1991), and Tyler and Evans (2001) Past-tense forms such as the French passe´ simple in contrast to the imparfait (De Mulder and Vetters 2002), the Spanish prete´rito indefinido in contrast to the prete´rito imperfecto (Doiz-Bienzobas 2002), and the Polish perfective past-tense forms in contrast to the imperfective past-tense forms (Kochanska 2002) cannot be used to indicate nonpast situations How-ever, Polish perfective non-past-tense forms in contrast to imperfective non-past-tense forms (Kochanska 2002) can serve to indicate situations other than strictly present or future ones
10 Langacker (2001b: 268) claims: ‘‘The key to understanding ‘non-present’ uses of the present tense is to recognize the special viewing arrangements they presuppose’’; see also Langacker (2003)
11 Various languages show this type of use (Janssen 1996a)
12 Janssen (1993, 1996a, 2002)—see also Kirsner (1993) and Harder (1996: 273)— rejects the distinction ‘‘proximal/distal’’ for the analysis of this and that (as made by, e.g., Langacker 1991, 1994)
Trang 413 It should be noted that the term perfective, as used in traditional aspect studies, does not refer to the semantics of the perfect construction The perfective/imperfective distinction is manifested, for instance, in the semantic difference between He read a book (perfective past) and He was reading a book (imperfective past) The construction used in
He has read a book may be called perfect, but not perfective It should be noted that Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar uses the terms perfective and imperfective in a way that departs from traditional aspect studies (see section 3.2)
14 Not all languages solve the conceptual clash between perfective aspect and pres-ent tense in the same way In Russian, for instance, prespres-ent perfective forms are not ungrammatical, but they are interpreted as referring to the future (Binnick 1991: 138)
15 ‘‘Tense as such is not marked in Wolof, but the time of occurrence of an event or state relative to the speech act is inferred from the type of predicator in a sentence and the presence or absence of aspectual marking’’ (Moore 2000: 313)
16 Even though the categories of perfect and perfective should be carefully distin-guished (see note 8), Garey exemplifies the category perfective aspect by means of the French perfect (passe´ compose´) He can do so because the perfect has taken over the function of the perfective past passe´ simple in French spoken discourse The diachronic development of perfect forms acquiring perfective, or general past, uses has been docu-mented for many languages (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 51–105)
17 On the importance of pragmatic reasoning for the temporal interpretation of dis-course, see Paprotte´ (1988), Lascarides and Asher (1993), Moeschler (1993), Wilson and Sperber (1993), Michaelis (1998: 29–40), Bohnemeyer (1998: 641–73), and Boogaart (1999: 110–27)
R E F E R E N C E S
Asic, Tijana 2000 Le pre´sent perfectif en serbe: Temps, mode ou puzzle? Cahiers de Linguistique Franc¸aise 22: 275–94
Bazanella, Carla 1990 ‘Modal’ uses of the Italian indicativo imperfetto in a pragmatic perspective Journal of Pragmatics 14: 439–57
Binnick, Robert I 1991 Time and the verb: A guide to tense and aspect New York: Oxford University Press
Bohnemeyer, Ju¨rgen 1998 Time relations in discourse: Evidence from a comparative approach to Yucatec Maya PhD dissertation, Katholieke Universiteit Brabant, Netherlands
Boogaart, Ronny 1999 Aspect and temporal ordering: A contrastive analysis of Dutch and English The Hague: Holland Academic Graphics
Boogaart, Ronny 2004 Aspect and Aktionsart In Geert Booij, Christian Lehmann, and Joachim Mugdan, eds., Morphology: An international handbook on inflection and word formation 2: 1165–80 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Brisard, Frank 1999 A critique of localism in and about tense theory PhD dissertation, University of Antwerp, Belgium
Brisard, Frank 2002 The English present In Frank Brisard, ed., Grounding: The epistemic footing of deixis and reference 251–97 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Burger, Andre´ 1961 Significations et valeur du suffixe verbal franc¸ais ‘-e-’ Cahiers Fer-dinand de Saussure 18: 5–15
Trang 5Bybee, Joan L., Revere D Perkins, and William Pagliuca 1994 The evolution of grammar: Tense, aspect and modality in the languages of the world Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Caenepeel, Mimo 1989 Aspect, temporal ordering and perspective in narrative fiction PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh
Calver, Edward 1946 The uses of the present tense form in English Language 22: 317–25
Carey, Kathleen 1994 Pragmatics, subjectivity and the grammaticalization of the English perfect PhD dissertation, University of California at San Diego
Casparis, Christian P 1975 Tense without time: The present tense in narration Bern, Switzerland: Francke
Comrie, Bernard 1976 Aspect Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Comrie, Bernard 1981 On Reichenbach’s approach to tense In Roberta A Hendrick, Carrie S Masek, and Mary Frances Miller, eds., Chicago Linguistic Society 7: 24–30 Comrie, Bernard 1985 Tense Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Cook-Gumperz, Jenny, and Amy Kyratzis 2001 Pretend play: Trial ground for the simple present In Martin Pu¨tz, Susanne Niemeier, and Rene´ Dirven, eds., Applied Cognitive Linguistics 1: 41–62 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Croft, William 1998 The structure of events and the structure of language In Michael Tomasello, ed., The new psychology of language: Cognitive and functional approaches to language structure 1: 67–92 Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum
Cutrer, L Michelle 1994 Time and tense in narrative and in everyday language PhD dissertation, University of California at San Diego
Dahl, O¨ sten 1985 Tense and aspect systems Oxford: Basil Blackwell
Dahl, O¨ sten, ed 2000 Tense and aspect in the languages of Europe Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Declerck, Renaat 1991 Tense in English: Its structure and use in discourse London: Routledge
Declerck, Renaat 1995 Is there a relative past tense in English? Lingua 97: 1–36
Declerck, Renaat 1997 When-clauses and temporal structure London: Routledge Declerck, Renaat 1999 Remarks on Salkie and Reed’s (1997) ‘pragmatic hypothesis’ of tense in reported speech English Language and Linguistics 3: 83–116
De Mulder, Walter, and Carl Vetters 2002 The French imparfait, determiners and grounding In Frank Brisard, ed., Grounding: The epistemic footing of deixis and ref-erence 113–49 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Dickey, Stephen M 2000 Parameters of Slavic aspect: A cognitive approach Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications
Dinsmore, John 1991 Partitioned representations Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Doiz Bienzobas, Aintzane 2002 The preterit and the imperfect as grounding predications
In Frank Brisard, ed., Grounding The epistemic footing of deixis and reference 299–347 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Dowty, David R 1979 Word meaning and Montague Grammar Dordrecht, Netherlands: Reidel
Ehrlich, Susan 1987 Point of view: A linguistic analysis of literary style London: Routledge Fauconnier, Gilles 1985 Mental spaces: Aspects of meaning construction in natural lan-guage Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (2nd ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
Fauconnier, Gilles 1997 Mappings in thought and language Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Trang 6Fillmore, Charles J 1981 Pragmatics and the description of discourse In Peter Cole, ed., Radical pragmatics 143–66 New York: Academic Press
Fillmore, Charles J 1997 Lectures on deixis Stanford: CSLI Publications (First published as Santa Cruz Lectures on Deixis Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club, 1975) Fleischman, Suzanne 1985 Discourse function of tense-aspect oppositions in narrative: Toward a theory of grounding Linguistics 23: 851–82
Fleischman, Suzanne 1989 Temporal distance: A basic linguistic metaphor Studies in Language 13: 1–50
Fleischman, Suzanne 1995 Imperfective and irrealis In Joan L Bybee and Suzanne Fleischman, eds., Modality in grammar and discourse 519–51 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Foley, William A 1986 The Papuan languages of New Guinea Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Frawley, William 1992 Linguistic semantics Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Garey, Howard B 1957 Verbal aspect in French Language 33: 91–110
Gumperz, John J 1982 Discourse strategies Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Hamann, Cornelia 1987 The awesome seeds of reference time In Alfred Schopf, ed., Essays
on tensing in English, vol 1, Reference time, tense and adverbs 27–69 Tu¨bingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag
Harder, Peter 1996 Functional semantics: A theory of meaning, structure and tense in English Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Hayase, Naoko 1997 The role of Figure, Ground, and coercion in aspectual interpreta-tion In Marjolijn Verspoor, Kee Dong Lee, and Eve Sweetser, eds., Lexical and syntactical constructions and the construction of meaning 33–50 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Heny, Frank 1982 Tense, aspect and time adverbials Part 2 Linguistics and Philosophy 5: 109–54
Hewson, John, and Vit Bubenik, eds 1997 Tense and aspect in Indo-European Languages: Theory, typology, diachrony Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Hinrichs, Erhard 1986 Temporal anaphora in discourses of English Linguistics and Phi-losophy 9: 63–82
Hopper, Paul J 1979 Some observations on the typology of focus and aspect in narrative language Studies in Language 3: 37–64
Hopper, Paul J 1982 Aspect between discourse and grammar: An introductory essay for the volume In Paul Hopper, ed., Tense-aspect between semantics and pragmatics 3–18 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Huddleston, Rodney 1969 Some observations on tense and deixis in English Language 45: 777–806
James, Deborah 1982 Past tense and the hypothetical: A cross-linguistic study Studies in Language 6: 375–403
James, Deborah 1991 Preterit forms in Moose Cree as markers of tense, aspect, and modality International Journal of American Linguistics 57: 281–97
Janssen, Theo A J M 1987 Acht, zes of twee tempora? [Eight, six, or two tenses?] Forum der Letteren 28: 89–93
Janssen, Theo A.J.M 1989 Tempus: interpretatie en betekenis [Tense: interpretation and meaning] De nieuwe taalgids 82: 305–329
Janssen, Theo A J M 1991 Preterit as definite description In Jadranka Gvozdanovic´ and Theo A J M Janssen, eds., The function of tense in texts 157–81 Amsterdam: North-Holland
Trang 7Janssen, Theo A J M 1993 Tenses and demonstratives: Conspecific categories In Richard Geiger and Brygida Rudzka-Ostyn, eds., Conceptualizations and mental processing in language 741–83 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Janssen, Theo A J M 1994 Preterit and perfect in Dutch In Co Vet and Carl Vetters, eds., Tense and aspect in discourse 115–46 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Janssen, Theo A J M 1995 The preterit enabled by the pluperfect In Pier Marco Berti-netto, Valentina Bianchi, O¨ sten Dahl, and Mario Squartini, eds., Temporal reference, aspect and actionality, vol 2, Typological perspectives 239–54 Torino, Italy: Rosenberg and Sellier
Janssen, Theo A J M 1996a Deictic and anaphoric referencing of tenses In Walter De Mulder, Liliane Tasmowski-De Ryck, and Carl Vetters, eds., Anaphores temporelles et (in-)coherence 79–107 Amsterdam: Rodopi
Janssen, Theo A J M 1996b Tense in reported speech and its frame of reference In Theo
A J M Janssen and Wim van der Wurff, eds., Reported speech: Forms and functions of the verb 237–59 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Janssen, Theo A J M 1998 The referentiality of tenses Belgian Journal of Linguistics 12: 209–26
Janssen, Theo A J M 2002 Deictic principles of pronominals, demonstratives and tenses
In Frank Brisard, ed., Grounding The epistemic footing of deixis and reference 151–93 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Joos, Martin 1964 The English verb: Form and meaning Madison: University of Wisconsin Press
Kamp, Hans, and Uwe Reyle 1993 From discourse to logic: Introduction to modeltheoretic semantics of natural language, formal logic and discourse representation theory Dor-drecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers
King, Larry D 1983 The semantics of tense, orientation, and aspect in English Lingua 59: 101–54
Kirsner, Robert S 1993 From meaning to message in two theories: Cognitive and Saus-surean views of the modern Dutch demonstratives In Richard Geiger and Brygida Rudzka-Ostyn, eds., Conceptualizations and mental processing in language 83–114 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Kochanska, Agata 2000 Verbal aspect and construal In Ad Foolen and Frederike van der Leek, eds., Constructions in cognitive linguistics 141–66 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Kochanska, Agata 2002 A cognitive grammar analysis of Polish non-past perfectives and imperfectives: How virtual events differ from actual ones In Frank Brisard, ed., Grounding: The epistemic footing of deixis and reference 349–90 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Langacker, Ronald W 1978 The form and meaning of the English auxiliary Language 54: 853–82
Langacker, Ronald W 1987 Foundations of cognitive grammar Vol 1, Theoretical prereq-uisites Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
Langacker, Ronald W 1991 Foundations of cognitive grammar Vol 2 Descriptive appli-cation Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
Langacker, Ronald W 1994 Remarks on the English grounding systems In Ronny Boo-gaart and Jan Noordegraaf, eds., Nauwe Betrekkingen 137–44 Mu¨nster, Germany: Nodus Publikationen (Repr in Frank Brisard, ed., Grounding: The epistemic footing of deixis and reference 29–38 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002)
Langacker, Ronald W 1999 Grammar and conceptualization Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Trang 8Langacker, Ronald W 2001a Cognitive linguistics, language pedagogy, and the English present tense In Martin Pu¨tz, Susanne Niemeier, and Rene´ Dirven, eds., Applied cognitive linguistics, vol 1, Theory and language acquisition 3–39 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Langacker, Ronald W 2001b The English present tense English Language and Linguistics 5: 251–72
Langacker, Ronald W 2003 Extreme subjectification: English tense and modals In Hubert Cuyckens, Thomas Berg, Rene´ Dirven, and Klaus-Uwe Panther, eds., Motivation in language: Studies in honor of Gu¨nter Radden 3–26 Amsterdam: John Benjamins Lascarides, Alex, and Nicolas Asher 1993 Temporal interpretation, discourse relations and commonsense entailment Linguistics and Philosophy 16: 437–93
Leech, Geoffrey N 1987 Meaning and the English verb 2nd ed London: Longman
Li, Ping, and Yasuhiro Shirai, eds 2000 The acquisition of lexical and grammatical aspect Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Michaelis, Laura A 1998 Aspectual grammar and past time reference London: Routledge Midgette, Sally 1995 The Navajo progressive in discourse New York: Peter Lang Verlag Moens, Marc, and Marc Steedman 1988 Temporal ontology and temporal reference Computational Linguistics 14: 15–28
Moeschler, Jacques 1993 Aspects pragmatiques de la re´fe´rence temporelle: Inde´termina-tion, ordre temporel et infe´rence Langages 112: 39–54
Moore, Kevin E 2000 Spatial experience and temporal metaphors in Wolof: Point of view, conceptual mapping, and linguistic practice PhD dissertation, University of Cali-fornia at Berkeley
Paardekooper, Piet C 1957 De ‘tijd’ als spraakkunstgroep in het ABN [‘Time’ seen as a linguistic element in standard Dutch] De Nieuwe Taalgids 50: 38–45
Paprotte´, Wolf 1988 A discourse perspective on tense and aspect in standard modern Greek and English In Brygida Rudzka-Ostyn, ed., Topics in cognitive linguistics 447–505 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Reichenbach, Hans 1947 Elements of symbolic logic New York: Free Press
Reinhart, Tanya 1984 Principles of Gestalt perception in the temporal organization of narrative texts Linguistics 22: 779–809
Salkie, Raphael, and Susan Reed 1997 Time reference in reported speech English Language and Linguistics 1: 319–48
Sasse, Hans-Ju¨rgen 2002 Recent activity in the theory of aspect: Accomplishments, achievements, or just non-progressive state? Linguistic Typology 6: 199–271
Smith, Carlota 1991 The parameter of aspect Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer
Squartini, Mario 2003 Sequence of tenses in Old Italian (Comrie vs Declerck) Folia Linguistica 37: 319–45
Stassen, Leon 1997 Intransitive predication Oxford: Clarendon
Steele, Susan 1975 Past and irrealis: Just what does it all mean? International Journal of American Linguistics 41: 200–217
Sweetser, Eve, and Gilles Fauconnier 1996 Cognitive links and domains: Basic aspects of mental space theory In Gilles Fauconnier and Eve Sweetser, eds., Spaces worlds and grammar 1–28 Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Taylor, John R 1989 Linguistic Categorization Prototypes in Linguistic Theory Oxford: Clarendon Press
Talmy, Leonard 1978 Figure and ground in complex sentences In Joseph Greenberg, ed., Universals of human language, vol 4, Syntax 625–49 Stanford, CA: Stanford Uni-versity Press
Trang 9Thieroff, Rolf, ed 1995 Tense systems in European languages II Tu¨bingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag
Thieroff, Rolf, and Joachim Ballweg, eds 1994 Tense systems in European languages Tu¨bingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag
Tyler, Andrea, and Vyvyan Evans 2001 The relation between experience, conceptual structure and meaning: Non-temporal uses of tense and language teaching In Martin Pu¨tz, Susanne Niemeier, and Rene´ Dirven, eds., Applied cognitive linguistics, vol 1, Theory and language acquisition 63–105 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Vendler, Zeno 1967 Linguistics in philosophy Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press Verkuyl, Henk J 1993 A theory of aspectuality: The interaction between temporal and atemporal structure Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Wada, Naoaki 2001 Interpreting English tenses: A compositional approach Tokyo: Kaitakusha
Weinrich, Harald 1964 Tempus, besprochene und erz€ahlte Welt Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Wilson, Deirde, and Dan Sperber 1993 Pragmatique et temps Langages 112: 8–25
Trang 10G R A M M A T I C A L
V O I C E I N
C O G N I T I V E
G R A M M A R
r i c a r d o m a l d o n a d o
V o i c e N o t i o n s
Voice or diathesis, as first termed by Dionysius, is the grammatical category by which the arguments of the verb receive different prominence status in the sen-tence through a variety of semantic-syntactic and even pragmatic coding patterns.
In verbs involving at least two arguments, the arrangement is always asymmetrical, with one argument being more prominent than the other For all languages, there seems to be a canonical unmarked voice pattern, most commonly the active, where the Agent is more prominent than the Patient (but see section 7 on Middle voice) Active voice contrasts with a variety of marked voice patterns: passive, antipassive, inverse, and middle Each voice pattern designates alternative views of an event as Agent and Patient receive different degrees of prominence A wider view of voice, that is, diathesis proper, will include causative and applicative constructions, since they also involve adjusting subject and object prominence Yet these constructions involve a wide variety of force-dynamic phenomena as well as different degrees of event complexity, which require an independent paper.