In Brigitte Nerlich, Zazie Todd, Vimala Herman, and David D.. Clarke, eds., Polysemy: Flexible patterns of meaning in mind and language 267–93.. Clarke, eds., Polysemy: Flexible patterns
Trang 12 A topic that we will not be able to pursue in detail is the demarcation between different types of meaning Different types of meaning relatedness of the same form have,
in fact, been identified and labeled One such case of lexical ambiguity is ‘‘classical poly-semy’’ or ‘‘polycentric categorization’’ (see Taylor 1989, 2003), in which, for example, the English word chest can mean the ‘upper front part of the human body’, ‘a case or a box with a lid’, or a ‘treasury of a public institution’ In such cases, as noted by Dunbar (2001: 2), ‘‘the extensions do not overlap, but there is a conceptual relationship.’’ Classical po-lysemy, understood in this way, should be distinguished from what is usually known as
‘‘vagueness,’’ where a word is unmarked for a certain category, as in the English word doctor, which is vague with reference to gender The distinction between vagueness and polysemy is blurred as the same lexical forms can also profile parts of different domains in their respective semantic base For instance, the adjective fast in a fast car as opposed to fast in a fast drink or the noun window understood either as a glass pane or a wooden frame evoke different domains and profile different attributes of the things they refer to Such examples as fast or window involve profiling of parts associated with an object within one conceptual domain and are called ‘‘natural’’ (Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk 2002), ‘‘system-atic,’’ or ‘‘complementary polysemy’’ (see Pustejovsky 1991; Pustejovsky and Boguraev 1999; Pustejovsky and Bouillon 1999) Another class representing related senses involves con-ceptual categories such as bird, which embraces all varieties of birds, from prototypical category members such as sparrows or robins, through eagles and owls, to peripheral category exemplars such as penguins or ostriches
3 Nerlich, Todd, and Clarke (1998) report cases of young children who tell one another jokes such as these: Why does the teacher wear sunglasses? Because her class is so bright; or, What’s the hardest thing when learning to ride a bike? The road
4 For instance, in his important book on diachronic prototype semantics, Geeraerts (1997) proposes two major causes of semantic change, ‘‘expressivity’’ and ‘‘efficiency.’’ Efficiency is shaped by two counteracting principles: the principle of isomorphism (avoidance of polysemy and homonymy) and the principle of prototypicality, which, as Geeraerts showed in a number of case studies, secures the structural stability of concepts with the simultaneous maintenance of informational density and their flexible adaptability
5 The following topics are examples of those researched in Cognitive Linguistics: category chaining of classifiers in Japanese (Lakoff 1987; Matsumoto 1993) and Shona (Palmer and Woodman 1999); nominal categories in Dutch (Geeraerts, Grondelaers, and Bakema 1994), Dyirbal (Dixon 1968; Lakoff 1987), and English (Sweetser 1987); verbal ca-tegories in Australian and Austronesian (Wilkins and Hill 1995), French (Hewson 1997), Dutch (Verhagen 1992), Portuguese (Soares da Silva 2003), Cora (Casad 2001), and Polish (Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk 1995, 1996); cross-language perspectives (Raukko 1995; New-man 1996); Finnish conjunctions (Herlin 1998); adverbs and prepositions in English (Lindner 1981; Herskovits 1986; Lakoff 1987; Brugman 1981; Langacker 1987, 1991; Schulze 1988; Dirven 1993; Sandra and Rice 1995), French (Vandeloise 1991), Dutch (Cuyckens 1991, 1995), Polish (Kalisz 1990; Krzeszowski 1990), and Czech, Russian, and other Slavic languages (Janda 1990); adjectives and possessives in English (Taylor 1992, 1996), semantics of Mesoamerican color terms (MacLaury 1992); evidential categories in Wanka Quechua (Floyd 1999); verbs in Orizaba Nahuatl (Tuggy 2003); and various grammatical categories, such as case (Janda 1990), modality (Sweetser 1990), and passives (Verhagen 1992) Mangasser-Wahl (2000) contains a history of the concept of prototypicality and its lin-guistic use
6 His conclusion is weakened somewhat by Dunbar (2001), who claims that linguistic and logical criteria adequately capture the distinction between polysemy (ambiguity) and
Trang 2vagueness provided their use is restricted to denotational rather than referential
phenomena
7 See Laurence and Margolis (1999: 9): ‘‘A concept encodes the conditions that are single necessary and jointly sufficient for something to be in its extension.’’
8 Monosemy as opposed to polysemy can be perceived in terms of the ‘‘minimalist/ maximalist’’ difference and the ‘‘abstractivist/cognitivist’’ difference (for a discussion, see Nerlich and Clarke 2003)
9 About two decades ago, the productivity of polysemy mechanisms was discussed
in terms of general linguistic functions and cognitive principles (Nunberg 1978; Norrick 1981; Ross 1981) Lehrer (1990) shows the inadequacy of such a radical generative stand and proposes that even though a number of regularities can be identified, some meanings, even though motivated in Lakoff’s (1987) sense, are unpredictable by general rules alone They should instead be accounted for by more specific cognitive principles interacting with
a variety of other functions and principles
10 See also Tyler and Evans (2003: 95) for the concept of a ‘‘protoscene’’: an abstract, primary meaning component Tyler and Evans argue for a basically monosemic analysis of polysemy in Cognitive Linguistics and propose a dividing line between ‘‘what counts as a distinct sense conventionalized in semantic memory, and a contextual inference produced on-line for the purpose of local understanding’’ (106)
11 Cecil Brown (1983), an anthropologist, quotes examples of languages where ‘eye’ (the more salient element) was extended to cover ‘face’, but not vice versa This process is frequently accompanied by assigning overt marking to this extended form and the poly-semy is then dropped
12 However, Zlatev (2003) rejects a distinction between polysemy and monosemic generality: he dispenses with the polysemy analysis in the case of spatial prepositions in Indo-European languages and argues against positing a constant ‘‘basic meaning.’’ Criti-cism of a polysemy position which—in some cases—does allow for an analysis in terms of
‘‘the same psychologically primitive concept,’’ comes from such researchers as Rakova (2003), who argues for a ‘‘no polysemy’’ view of conceptual structure
13 See Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (2004: 408): The consequence of Bierwisch’s two-level model to the analysis of polysemic items is ‘‘a postulate of the existence of the identical semantic, i.e monosemous, level with alternative conceptual interpretations, limiting thus,
in fact, the range of polysemy in language Bierwisch’s model is consonant with the modularity thesis concerning the division of work between linguistic and other cognitive faculties of the mind The semantic representations Bierwisch postulates have a predicate-argument structure and are based on semantic primitives that underlie them Even though Langacker’s and Bierwisch’s models are cognitive models, they refer in fact to different realities In both models polysemic items involve relatedness of senses While, however in Langacker’s network model, the subsuming schema, to use Tuggy’s term (1993), if of a similar cognitive character as its instantiations, in the two-level model, the two are qual-itatively different—the ‘superschema’ represents a unitary linguistic meaning, while the instantiations, which carry meanings differences, are conceptual in nature.’’
14 It may be interesting to note that such processes can be modeled in the connec-tionist architecture systems of neural activation as constraint-satisfaction rather than rule systems (MacWhinney 2000: 142–43) Such systems, as MacWhinney (1989) explains, can deal with violations in word combinatorics He gives the combination another sand as an example ‘‘Typically,’’ MacWhinney says, ‘‘the word another requires a count noun and sand is a mass noun However, when the listener is confronted with this particular com-bination, it is still possible to retrieve an interpretation by treating sand as a count noun
Trang 3This can be done by thinking of bags of sand, types of sand, alternative meanings of the word sand, or even the act of applying sandpaper to something’’ (2000: 143) MacWhinney (1989) discusses these semantic extension effects in terms of the process of ‘‘pushy poly-semy.’’ These and similar cases of polysemy are accounted for by some cognitive linguists
in terms of Construction Grammar (Fillmore 1985; Goldberg 1995; Croft, this volume, chapter 18) Brugman (2001), for instance, analyzes polysemy of English light verbs in terms
of force-dynamic relations, in which the semantic-syntactic function of grammatical constructions, expressed by aspect/Aktionsart and semantic roles, contributes to the polysemic interpretation of individual verbal senses
15 It is worth noting that some linguists with a structuralist rather than a cognitive background, for instance Cowie (1982) or Lipka (1986, 1988), also argued that the dis-tinction between polysemy and homonymy is a matter of degree
16 Giora (1997) put forward the ‘‘graded salience hypothesis,’’ which says that ‘‘salient meanings should always be activated initially, even when they are incompatible with contextual information Factors contributing to degrees of salience are, e.g., conven-tionality, frequency, familiarity and prototypicality’’ (Giora and Gur 2003: 307)
R E F E R E N C E S
Aristotle 1984 The complete works of Aristotle Ed Jonathan Barnes Rev Oxford trans
2 vols Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
Bennett, David C 1975 Spatial and temporal uses of English prepositions: An essay in stratificational semantics London: Longman
Berlin, Brent, Dennis E Breedlove, and Peter H Raven 1974 Principles of Tzeltal plant classification New York: Academic Press
Berlin, Brent, and Paul Kay 1969 Basic color terms: Their universality and evolution Ber-keley: University of California Press
Bierwisch, Manfred 1983 Semantische und konzeptuelle Repra¨sentation lexikalischer Einheiten In Rudolf Ruzicka and Wolfgang Motsch, eds., Untersuchungen zur Se-mantik 61–99 Berlin: Akademie-Verlag
Blank, Andreas 2003 Polysemy in the lexicon and in discourse In Brigitte Nerlich, Zazie Todd, Vimala Herman, and David D Clarke, eds., Polysemy: Flexible patterns of meaning in mind and language 267–93 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Blank, Andreas, and Peter Koch, eds 1999 Historical semantics and cognition Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Bre´al, Michel 1897 Essai de se´mantique: Science des significations Paris: Hachette Brown, Cecil H 1983 Polysemy, overt marking, and function words Manuscript, De-partment of Anthropology, Northern Illinois University
Brown, Cecil H., and Stanley R Witkowski 1983 Polysemy, lexical change, and cultural importance Man 18: 17–89
Brugman, Claudia 1981 Story of Over MA thesis, University of California at Berkeley (Published as The story of Over: Polysemy, semantics, and the structure of the lexicon New York: Garland, 1988)
Brugman, Claudia 1990 What is the invariance hypothesis? Cognitive Linguistics 1: 257–66
Brugman, Claudia 2001 Light verbs and polysemy Language Sciences 23: 551–78
Trang 4Brugman, Claudia, and George Lakoff 1988 Cognitive topology and lexical networks In Steven L Small, Garrison W Cottrell, and Michael K Tanenhaus, eds., Lexical am-biguity resolution: Perspectives from psycholinguistics, neuropsychology, and artificial intelligence 477–508 San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann
Bybee, Joan L 2000 The phonology of the lexicon: Evidence from lexical diffusion In Michael Barlow and Suzanne Kemmer, eds., Usage-based models of language 65–85 Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications
Carnap, Rudolf 1978 The elimination of metaphysics through logical analysis of language
In Alfred J Ayer, ed., Logical positivism 60–81 Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (First published as ‘‘Uberwindung der Metaphysik durch logische Analyse der Sprache,’’ Erkenntnis 2 (1932): 219–41)
Casad, Eugene H 1992 Cognition, history, and Cora yee Cognitive Linguistics 3: 151–86 Casad, Eugene H 2001 Where do the senses of Cora va’a- come from? In Hubert Cuyckens and Britta Zawada, eds., Polysemy in cognitive linguistics 83–114 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Coulson, Seana 2001 Semantic leaps: Frame-shifting and conceptual blending in meaning construction Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Coulson, Seana 2004 Electrophysiology and pragmatic language comprehension In Ira Noveck and Dan Sperber, eds., Experimental Pragmatics 187–206 Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan
Cowie, Anthony P 1982 Polysemy and the structure of lexical fields Nottingham Linguistic Circular 11: 51–65
Croft, William 1998 Linguistic evidence and mental representations Cognitive Linguistics 9: 151–73
Cruse, D Alan 1986 Lexical semantics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Cuyckens, Hubert 1991 The semantics of spatial prepositions in Dutch: A cognitive-linguistic exercise PhD dissertation, University of Antwerp
Cuyckens, Hubert 1995 Family resemblance in the Dutch spatial prepositions door and langs Cognitive Linguistics 6: 183–207
Cuyckens, Hubert 1999 Grammaticalization in the English prepositions ‘to’ and ‘for’ In Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, ed., Cognitive perspectives on language 151–61 Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag
Deane, Paul, D 1988 Polysemy and cognition Lingua 75: 325–61
Dirven, Rene´ 1993 Dividing up physical and mental space into conceptual categories by means of English prepositions In Cornelia Zelinsky-Wibbelt, ed., The semantics of prepositions: From mental processing to natural language processing 73–97 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Dixon, Robert M W 1968 Noun classes Lingua 21: 104–25
Dowker, Ann 2003 Young children’s and adults’ use of figurative language: How im-portant are cultural and linguistic influences? In Brigitte Nerlich, Zazie Todd, Vimala Herman, and David D Clarke, eds., Polysemy: Flexible patterns of meaning in mind and language 317–32 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Dunbar, George 2001 Towards a cognitive analysis of polysemy, ambiguity, and vague-ness Cognitive Linguistics 12: 1–14
Fillmore, Charles J 1970 The grammar of hitting and breaking In Roderick A Jacobs and Peter S Rosenbaum, eds., Readings in English transformational grammar 120–33 Waltham, MA: Ginn and Company
Fillmore, Charles J 1982 Frame semantics In Linguistic Society of Korea, ed., Linguistics in the morning calm 111–37 Seoul: Hanshin
Trang 5Fillmore, Charles J 1985 Frames and the semantics of understanding Quaderni di Semantica 6: 222–54
Floyd, Rick 1999 The structure of evidential categories in Wanka Quechua Dallas, Texas: Summer Institute of Linguistics
Fodor, Jerry A 1981 Representations: Philosophical essays on the foundations of cognitive science Brighton, UK: Harvester Press
Geeraerts, Dirk 1987 On necessary and sufficient conditions Journal of Semantics 5: 275–91
Geeraerts, Dirk 1989 Prospects and problems of prototype theory Linguistics 27: 587–612
Geeraerts, Dirk 1990 The lexicographical treatment of prototypical polysemy In Savas L Tsohatzidis, ed., Meanings and prototypes Studies in linguistic categorization 195–210 London: Routledge
Geeraerts, Dirk 1993 Vagueness’s puzzles, polysemy’s vagaries Cognitive Linguistics 4: 223–72 Geeraerts, Dirk 1995 Representational formats in cognitive semantics Folia Linguistica 29: 21–41
Geeraerts, Dirk 1997 Diachronic prototype semantics: A contribution to historical lexicology Oxford: Clarendon Press
Geeraerts, Dirk, Stefan Grondelaers, and Peter Bakema 1994 The structure of lexical var-iation: Meaning, naming, and context Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Giora, Rachel 1997 Understanding figurative and literal language: The graded salience hypothesis Cognitive Linguistics 7: 183–206
Giora, Rachel, and Inbal Gur 2003 Irony in conversation: Salience, role, and context effects
In Brigitte Nerlich, Zazie Todd, Vimala Herman, and David D Clarke, eds., Polysemy: Flexible patterns of meaning in mind and language 297–315 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Goldberg, Adele 1992 The inherent semantics of argument structure: The case of the English ditransitive construction Cognitive Linguistics 3: 37–74
Goldberg, Adele E 1995 Constructions: A construction grammar approach to argument structure Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Heider, Eleanor (Eleanor Rosch) 1971 ‘‘Focal’’ color areas and the development of color names Developmental Psychology 4: 447–55
Heider, Eleanor (Eleanor Rosch) 1972 Universals in color naming and memory Journal of Experimental Psychology 93: 10–20
Herlin, Ilona 1998 Suomen kun [The Finnish conjunction kun] Suomalaisen Kirjalli-suuden Seuran Toimituksia 712 Helsinki: Suomalaisen KirjalliKirjalli-suuden Seura [Finnish Literature Society]
Herskovits, Annette 1986 Language and spatial cognition: An interdisciplinary study of the prepositions in English Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Hewson, John 1997 The cognitive system of the French verb Amsterdam: John Benjamins Hunn, Eugene S 1977 Tzeltal folk zoology: The classification of discontinuities in nature New York: Academic Press
Janda, Laura A 1990 The radial network of a grammatical category—its genesis and dynamic structure Cognitive Linguistics 1: 269–88
Janssen, Theo A J M 2003 Monosemy versus polysemy In Hubert Cuyckens, Rene´ Dirven, and John R Taylor, eds., Cognitive approaches to lexical semantics 93–122 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Kalisz, Roman 1990 The pragmatics, semantics and syntax of the English sentences with
‘that’ complements and the Polish sentences with ‘z´e’ complements: A contrastive study Gdan´sk: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdan´skiego
Trang 6Katz, Jerrold J., and Jerry A Fodor 1963 The structure of a semantic theory Language 39: 170–210
Kleiber, Georges 1990 La se´mantique du prototype: Cate´gories et sens lexical Paris: Presses Universitaires de France
Krzeszowski, Tomasz P 1990 Prototypes and equivalence Papers and Studies in Con-trastive Linguistics 21: 5–20
Lakoff, George 1987 Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Lakoff, George 1990 The invariance hypothesis: Is abstract reason based on image-schemas? Cognitive Linguistics 1: 39–74
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson 1980 Metaphors we live by Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Lakoff, George, and Zolta´n Ko¨vecses 1987 The cognitive model of anger inherent in American English In Dorothy Holland and Naomi Quinn, eds., Cultural models in language and thought 195–221 Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Langacker, Ronald W 1987 Foundations of cognitive grammar Vol 1, Theoretical prereq-uisites Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
Langacker, Ronald W 1991 Foundations of cognitive grammar Vol 2, Descriptive appli-cation Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
Lapata, Maria 2000 The acquisition and modeling of lexical knowledge: A corpus-based investigation of systematic polysemy PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh Laurence, Stephen, and Eric Margolis 1999 Concepts and cognitive science In Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence, eds., Concepts: Core readings 3–81 Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Lehrer, Adrienne 1990 Polysemy, conventionality, and the structure of the lexicon Cognitive Linguistics 1: 207–46
Lehrer, Adrienne 2003 Polysemy in derivational affixes In Brigitte Nerlich, Zazie Todd, Vimala Herman, and David D Clarke, eds., Polysemy: Flexible patterns of meaning
in mind and language 217–32 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, Barbara 1992 Cognitive and interactional conditioning of se-mantic change In Gunter Kellermann and Michael D Morrissey, eds., Diachrony within synchrony: Language history and cognition 228–50 Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, Barbara 1995 Worldview and verbal senses In Braj B Kachru and Henry Kahane, eds., Cultures, ideologies, and the dictionary: Studies in honor of Ladislav Zgusta 223–35 Tu¨bingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag
Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, Barbara 1996 Depth of negation: A cognitive semantic study Ło´dz´: Ło´dz´ University Press
Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, Barbara 1997 Lexical meanings in language corpora In Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and Patrick James Melia, eds., PALC ’97: Practical applications in language corpora 236–56 Ło´dz´: Ło´dz´ University Press
Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, Barbara 2002 Polysemy: Research methodology and mech-anisms In Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk and Kamila Turewicz, eds., Cognitive linguistics today 81–96 Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag
Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, Barbara 2004 Review of The Lexicon-encyclopedia interface, edited by Bert Peeters Cognitive Linguistics 15: 406–19
Lindner, Susan 1981 A lexico-semantic analysis of English verb-particle constructions with OUT and UP PhD dissertation, University of California at San Diego (Published as
A lexico-semantic analysis of English verb-particle constructions LAUT Paper, no 101 Trier, Germany: Linguistic Agency of the University of Trier, 1983)
Trang 7Lipka, Leonard 1986 Homonymie, Polysemie, oder Ableitung im heutigen Englisch Zeitschrift f€uur Anglistik und Amerikanistik 34: 28–38
Lipka, Leonard 1988 A rose is a rose is a rose: On simple and dual categorization in natural languages In Werner Hu¨llen and Rainer Schulze, eds., Understanding the lexicon: Meaning, sense and world knowledge in lexical semantics 355–66 Tu¨bingen: Max Nie-meyer Verlag
Locke, John [1697] 1960 An essay concerning human understanding Abr and ed A S Pringle-Pattison Oxford: Clarendon Press
MacLaury, Robert E 1992 From brightness to hue: An explanatory model of color category evolution Current Anthropology 33: 137–86
MacWhinney, Brian 1989 Competition and lexical categorization In Roberta Corrigan, Fred Eckman, and Michael Noonan, eds., Linguistic categorization 195–241 Am-sterdam: John Benjamins
MacWhinney, Brian 2000 Connectionism and language learning In Michael Barlow and Suzanne Kemmer, eds., Usage-based models of language 121–49 Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications
Mangasser-Wahl, Martina 2000 Von der Prototypentheorie zur empirischen Semantik Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag
Margolis, Eric, and Stephen Laurence, eds 1999 Concepts: Core readings Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Matsumoto, Yo 1993 Japanese numeral classifiers: A study of semantic categories and lexical organization Linguistics 31: 667–713
Mervis, Carolyn B., and Eleanor Rosch 1981 Categorization of natural objects Annual Review of Psychology 32: 89–115
Needham, Rodney 1972 Belief, language, and experience Oxford: Basil Blackwell Nerlich, Brigitte, and David D Clarke 1997 Polysemy: Patterns in meaning and patterns in history Historiographia Linguistica 24: 359–85
Nerlich, Brigitte, and David D Clarke 2003 Polysemy and flexibility: Introduction and overview In Brigitte Nerlich, Zazie Todd, Vimala Herman, and David D Clarke, eds., Polysemy: Flexible patterns of meaning in mind and language 3–30 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Nerlich, Brigitte, Zazie Todd, and David D Clarke 1998 The function of polysemous jokes and riddles in lexical development Cahiers de psychologie: Current psychology of cog-nition 17: 343–66
Nerlich, Brigitte, Zazie Todd, and David D.Clarke 2003 Emerging patterns and evolving polysemies: the acquisition of get between four and ten years In Brigitte Nerlich, Zazie Todd, Vimala Herman, and David D Clarke, eds., Polysemy: Flexible patterns of meaning in mind and language 333–57 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Nerlich, Brigitte, Zazie Todd, Vimala Herman, and David D Clarke eds 2003
Polysemy: Flexible patterns of meaning in mind and language Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Newman, John 1996 Give: A cognitive linguistic study Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Nikiforidou, Kiki 1991 The meanings of the genitive: A case study in semantic structure and semantic change Cognitive Linguistics 2: 149–205
Norrick, Neal R 1981 Semiotic principles in semantic theory Amsterdam: John Benjamins Nunberg, Geoffrey 1987 The pragmatics of reference Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club
Osherson, Daniel N., and Edward E Smith 1981 On the adequacy of prototype theory as
a theory of concepts Cognition 9: 35–58
Trang 8Palmer, Gary, and Claudia Woodman 1999 Ontological classifiers as polycentric cate-gories, as seen in Shona class 3 nouns In Martin Puetz and Marjolijn Verspoor, eds., Explorations in linguistic relativity 225–49 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Perlmutter, David M 1970 The two verbs begin In Roderick A Jacobs and Peter S Rosenbaum, eds., Readings in English transformational grammar 107–19 Waltham, MA: Ginn
Plato 1981 Euthryphro In Five Dialogues 5–22 Trans G M A Grube Indianapolis, IN: Hackett
Postal, Paul M 1969 Underlying and superficial linguistic structure In David A Reibel and Sanford A Schane, eds., Modern studies in English: Readings in transformational grammar 19–37 Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
Pustejovsky, James 1991 The generative lexicon Computational Linguistics 17: 409–41 Pustejovsky, James, and Branimir Boguraev 1999 Introduction: Lexical semantics in context In James Pustejovsky and Branimir Boguraev, eds., Lexical semantics: The problem of polysemy 1–14 Oxford: Clarendon Press
Pustejovsky, James, and Pierrette Bouillon 1999 Aspectual coercion and logical polysemy
In James Pustejovsky and Branimir Boguraev, eds., Lexical semantics: The problem of polysemy 133–62 Oxford: Clarendon Press
Quine, Willard Van Orman 1953 Two dogmas of empiricism In Willard Van Orman Quine, From a logical point of view 20–46 Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Quine, Willard Van Orman 1960 Word and object Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Rakova, Marina 2003 The extent of the literal: Metaphor, polysemy and theories of concepts Houndmills, UK: Macmillan
Raukko, Jarno 1995 What do we get for get in Finnish? The New Courant 3: 179–80 Ravid, Dorit, and David Hanauer 1998 A prototype theory of rhyme: Evidence from Hebrew Cognitive Linguistics 9: 79–106
Ravin, Yael, and Claudia Leacock 2000 Polysemy: An overview In Yael Ravin and Claudia Leacock, eds., Polysemy: Theoretical and computational approaches 1–29 Oxford: Oxford University Press
Rayson, Paul 1995 The ACAMRIT semantic tagging system http://www.comp.lancs.ac uk/ucrel/acamrit/acamrit.html
Rosch, Eleanor 1973 Natural categories Cognitive Psychology 4: 328–50
Rosch, Eleanor, and Carolyn B Mervis 1975 Family resemblances Cognitive Psychology 7: 573–605
Ross, John D 1981 Portraying analogy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Rudzka-Ostyn, Brygida 1985 Metaphoric processes in word-formation: The case of pre-fixed words In Wolf Paprotte´ and Rene´ Dirven, eds., The ubiquity of metaphor 209–41 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Rudzka-Ostyn, Brygida 1989 Prototypes, schemas, and cross-category correspondences: The case of ask Linguistics 27: 613–62
Ruhl, Charles 1989 On monosemy: A study in linguistic semantics Albany: State University
of New York Press
Sandra, Dominiek 1998 What linguists can and can’t tell you about the human mind:
A reply to Croft Cognitive Linguistics 9: 361–78
Sandra, Dominiek, and Sally Rice 1995 Network analyses of prepositional meaning: Mir-roring whose mind—the linguist’s or the language user’s? Cognitive Linguistics 6: 89–130 Schmid, Hans-Jo¨rg 1993 Cottage und Co., idea, start vs begin: Die Kategorisierung als Grundprinzip einer differenzierten Bedeutungsbeschreibung Tu¨bingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag
Trang 9Schulze, Rainer 1988 A short story of down In Werner Hu¨llen and Rainer Schulze, eds., Understanding the lexicon: Meaning, sense and world knowledge in lexical semantics 394–410 Tu¨bingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag
Schulze, Rainer 1993 The meaning of (a)round: A study of an English preposition In Richard A Geiger and Brygida Rudzka-Ostyn, eds., Conceptualizations and mental processing in language 399–431 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Soares da Silva, Augusto 2003 Image schemas and coherence of the verb category: The case
of the Portuguese verb deixar In Hubert Cuyckens, Rene´ Dirven, and John R Taylor, eds., Cognitive approaches to lexical semantics 281–322 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Sweetser, Eve 1987 The definition of lie: An examination of the folk models underlying a semantic prototype In Dorothy Holland and Naomi Quinn, eds., Cultural models in language and thought 43–66 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Sweetser, Eve 1990 From etymology to pragmatics: Metaphorical and cultural aspects of semantic structure Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Taylor, John R 1989 Linguistic categorization: Prototypes in linguistic theory Oxford: Clarendon Press (2nd ed., 1995; 3rd ed., 2003)
Taylor, John R 1992 Old problems: Adjectives in cognitive grammar Cognitive Linguistics 3: 1–36
Taylor, John R 1996 Possessives in English: An exploration in cognitive grammar Oxford: Oxford University Press
Taylor, John R 2003 Cognitive models of polysemy In Brigitte Nerlich, Zazie Todd, Vimala Herman, and David D Clarke, eds., Polysemy: Flexible patterns of meaning in mind and language 31–48 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Taylor, John R., and Robert E MacLaury, eds 1995 Language and the cognitive construal of the world Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Tomasello, Michael 1992 First verbs: A case study of early grammatical development Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs 1982 From propositional to textual and expressive meanings: Some semantic-pragmatic aspects of grammaticalization In Winfred P Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel, eds., Perspectives on historical linguistics 245–71 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
Tuggy, David 1987 Scarecrow nouns, generalizations, and Cognitive Grammar In Scott DeLancey and Russell S Tomlin, eds., Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Pacific Linguistics Conference 307–20 Eugene: Department of Linguistics, University of Oregon
Tuggy, David 1993 Ambiguity, polysemy, and vagueness Cognitive Linguistics 4: 273–90 Tuggy, David 1999 Linguistic evidence for polysemy in the mind: A response to William Croft and Dominiek Sandra Cognitive Linguistics 10: 343–68
Tuggy, David 2003 The Nawatl verb kıˆsa: A case study in polysemy In Hubert Cuyckens, Rene´ Dirven, and John R Taylor, eds., Cognitive approaches to lexical semantics 323–62 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Turner, Mark 1990 Aspects of the invariance hypothesis Cognitive Linguistics 1: 247–55 Tyler, Andrea, and Vyvyan Evans 2003 Reconsidering prepositional polysemy networks: The case of over In Brigitte Nerlich, Zazie Todd, Vimala Herman, and David D Clarke, eds., Polysemy: Flexible patterns of meaning in mind and language 95–159 Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Ullmann, Stephen 1951 The principles of semantics Oxford: Basil Blackwell
Vandeloise, Claude 1991 Spatial prepositions: A case study from French Chicago: University
of Chicago Press
Trang 10Van Petten, Cyma, and Marta Kutas 1987 Ambiguous words in context: An event-related potential analysis of the time course of meaning activation Journal of Memory and Language 26: 188–208
Van Petten, Cyma, and Marta Kutas 1991 Electrophysiological evidence for the flexibility
of lexical processing In Greg B Simpson, ed., Understanding word and sentence 129–74 Oxford: North-Holland
Verhagen, Arie 1992 Praxis of linguistics: Passives in Dutch Cognitive Linguistics 3: 301–42 Wierzbicka, Anna 1985 Conceptual analysis and lexicography Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma Wilkins, David P., and Deborah Hill 1995 When ‘‘go’’ means ‘‘come’’: Questioning the basicness of basic motion verbs Cognitive Linguistics 6: 119–57
Wittgenstein, Ludwig 1953 Philosophical investigations Trans G E m Anscombe Oxford: Basil Blackwell
Zadeh, Lofti 1965 Fuzzy sets Information and Control 8: 338–53
Zlatev, Jordan 2003 Polysemy or generality? Mu In Hubert Cuyckens, Rene´ Dirven, and John R Taylor, eds., Cognitive approaches to lexical semantics 447–94 Berlin: Mouton
de Gruyter
Zwicky, Arnold, and Jerry Sadock 1975 Ambiguity tests and how to fail them In John Kimball, ed., Syntax and Semantics 4: 1–36 New York: Academic Press