Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 2 - Oceania - Y docx

Their boundariesencompass the islands ofWalis, Tarawai, andMuschuinthe Bismarck Sea andcut abroadswathe in-land across the coastal Prince Alexander range before de-scending through fert

388 Yangoru Boiken

ETHNONYMS:Nugum,Wianu, Yangoru

OrientationIdenification The BoikenpeopleoftheEastSepikProv-

ince,Papua NewGuinea,occupy oneof themost extensive

and ecologically heterogeneous territories inNew Guinea

Their boundariesencompass the islands ofWalis, Tarawai,

andMuschuinthe Bismarck Sea andcut abroadswathe

in-land across the coastal Prince Alexander range before

de-scending through fertile foothills intothe rolling grassland

north of the Sepik River.Coupledwith theircomplex

migra-tionalprehistory, this ecologicalheterogeneity has conferred

an extreme linguistic andculturaldiversity on the Boiken,

and consequently only one dialect group, the Yangoru

Boiken,isdescribed here The Yangoru Boiken speakfive

dis-tinctsubdialects, each ofwhich exhibitsdistinct subcultural

variations; the data tofolloware most representative of the

north central subdialect speakers in the villagers ofSima,

Kambelyi, and Kworabri Boiken"isthenameofthecoastal

village where the first missionaries lived; 'Yangoru" is the

localnameof thearea inwhichYangoruPatrol Postwas

lo-cated Until Europeancontact, theYangoruBoiken hadno

conception of themselvesas a single unit; local polities

re-ferredto themselves onlyas nina, whichmeans'we all," or

tua, whichmeans'People."

Location The Yangoru Boiken live between 3°36' and

3045' S and 143°14'and 143°22'E,aroundYangoru

govern-ment station in the southern foothills of the Prince

Alexanderrange. Annual rainfallisabout 175 centimeters.

Demography In 1980, the Boiken numbered some

40,000people.Of these, about 13,300wereYangoruBoiken,

though onlyabout9,600were residentinYangoru;therest

wereliving elsewhereinPapua New Guinea Thistotal

repre-sents aconsiderableincrease overthe4,000to5,000 Yangoru

Boiken estimated at thebeginning ofsignificant European

contact inthe 1920s.In1980, overalldensityinYangoru

av-eraged about 51 persons per square kilometer within the

main population belt, however, itaveraged 66 persons per

squarekilometer The population growthrate is about2.5to

3percent.

inguistic Affiliation The Yangoru Boiken have been

classifiedas one ofsevendialectgroups ofthe Boiken

lan-guage,NduFamily, MiddleSepikStock,of theSepik-Ramu

Phylum The Boiken language is perhaps more accurately

characterized, however,as two or morelinguistically chained

languages,with the YangoruBoikenlocated toward the

mid-dle of the chain

History and Cultural Relations

Thousands of years ago, Boiken territory was occupied by

speakers of Torricelli Phylum languages Subsequently, a

large body ofNduspeakers from the Koiwatregionnorth of

theSepik Riverinfiltrated whatis nowsoutheast Boikenterri

tory and spreadnorthwardto theoffshore islands,

linguisti-cally assimilating theTorricelli residents as they moved In

consequence, YangoruBoikenappear tohaveadual

an-cestry, NduandTorricelli, whichmayexplain theirclosetural affinitiestotheTorricelli-speakingMountainArapesh.Firstcontact occurred around the turn of thecentury,but itwas 1930 before missionaries, labor recruiters, and patroloffi-cersbegantohaveasignificantinfluenceonYangoruBoikenculture Bythen, steel hadlargely displacedstone,andwar-farewas indecline By 1980,maleinitiation,allbutthefirststage offemaleinitiation, and mosttraditionalarts werede-funct,currencyhadlargely displaced shell wealth, and alumi-numutensils had replacedclaypots and woodenplates

cul-SettlementTheYangoruBoiken liveinvillagesofabout fifteentothirty-fivehamlets, located mainlyontheleveled crestsofdenselyforested ridges.Mostvillageshave between150 and 400 peo-ple In 1980, Simavillagecomprised twenty-eight inhabited

hamlets-eachwith anaverageof threedwelling housesand

twofood houses-and275residents,withanother 57beingabsent in towns.Each hamletishometo one or twopatriline-

agelikeunitscalled ring Eachvillagehasseveralmandawia("big places"), hamlets that clanlike congeries of relatedhringclaimasthehomesof their apicalancestors;here theybuildtheir spirithouses, conducttheirexchangeceremonies,and hold major moots Therearetwobasichousestructures:thepilehouse, whichisraiseda meter or sooff the groundonstilts and isparticularlycommon in thehigherfoothills; andtheground house,which is builtdirectlyonthe earthandismore common in the lowerfoothills.Both are thatched withcoconut-palmfronds or tilesofsagoleaflets; theyarewalledwithsago-barkshingles or sago-frond stems, and floored withlimbum palm planks or cane

EconomySubsistence and Commercial Activities The staples ofYangoru Boiken subsistence are yams and taro, cultivatedseparately underslash-and-bum horticulture, and afeast-or- faminedependenceonthesagopalm Supplements includebananas, coconuts, breadfruit, greens, sugarcane, bamboosprouts,and a widevarietyofgame, includingpigs,cassowar-ies, a range of smallerground and arborealmammals, birds,grubs, and fish During the Japanese occupation in WorldWarII,game and fish supplies were seriously depleted and,following the introduction of shotguns and nylon netting,they remain depressed In consequence, dependence on gameand fish hasdecreased, while reliance on store-bought meat,fish, and rice has increased

IndustrialArts Inthe past, villagers manufactured stoneadzes,bamboo knives,carved plates, ceramic pots and bowls,wooden eating utensils, spears, war clubs, shields, slitgongs,and certain items of shell wealth Nowadays, almost all indus-trial products are bought inshops

Trade Traditionally, the high foothill villages of Yangoruwere linked in trade to coastalBoikenvillageson the far side

of the mountains They exported smoked pork, tobacco, netbags, and clay pots and imported piglets, salt, and Turboclamshells Fashions, songs, and dances seem to have passedboth ways From the high foothills, salt, pottery, andTurbo-based shell wealth were traded to the low foothills in ex-change for net bags and shellwealth.By thelate 1960s, how.ever, these networks were largely defunct

Yangoru Boiken 389

DivisionofLabor Thereis adistinct division of laborby

sex Men huntand fish, clearand fencegardens, plantand

harvest yams and sago, process sago,cook ceremonialfoods,

and build houses In earlier days, they also conducted the

fighting, made pots andplates, and createdmostof the

art-work.Womenrearpigs;plant, weed,and harvest the taro,

ba-nanas, and greens; help with weeding and harvesting the

yams;do thedaily cookingandmostof theportering;fetch

water,forage forfirewood and bushfoods; anddomostof the

child care Both sexes manufacture ornaments, clothing,

bags, and baskets.Inmodem times, thisdivisionhasbegunto

crumble, partlyunder the influence ofWestern values and

partlybecausethefrequent absenceofyoungmen inurban

centersforceswivestodo their husbands' worLk

LandTenure Land anddomesticated trees are vested in

thebring.Themostinfluentialman inthering,its'father"

(yaba),nominallycontrolsthedisposalofitsresources, butit

wouldbeunusualforhimtodisputethe wishes of his agnates

concerning theresourcesthey farm

Kinship

Kin Groups and Descent The principal kin groups,

known as bring, are patrilineagelike segments averaging

about ten tofourteenmembers Hringareusually linked by

stipulatedpatrilinealdescentintototemic,quasisubclanand

quasiclan groups(alsoknownasringg,andtheysustain

alli-ances toyetotherringbasedonaffinallinks,legendary

con-nections, friendship,or common politicalinterests

Recruit-ment to aringisbybirthtothe wife ofamale memberorby

useof its resources,thelatter waybeinglegitimizedby

assist-ing the group in itswealth, food, andpig exchange

obliga-tions Wives become members oftheir husbands' hringat

marriage.It is notuncommonfora man tobelongto two or

eventhreedifferent ring; accordingly,kinshiprelationsare

often multiplex

KinshipTerminology Thereare two kinship

terminolo-gies The first and more salient is employed principally in

public andformal discourse andisessentially ofthe Omaha

type.The secondisusedinprivate,informaldiscourseand,

with due regard to age and sex, extends nuclear kinterms

bi-laterally, with the exceptionthat maternalbrothers are called

"mother" andpaternal sisters 'father."

Marriage and Family

Marriage Although formal betrothalmayoccurduringa

girl's initiationatfirstmenses,nowadaysit isoften omitted

There always has been considerable freedom of choice in

marriage partners, and young people typically enter several

'trial" marriagesthat dissolve beforeconsummation Once a

wife hasborneherhusband a child,however, divorce is

ex-tremely rare Ideally,amanshould marry his father's mother's

brother'ssister's daughteror,failingthat, hismother's

moth-er's brothmoth-er's sistmoth-er'sdaughter,but such marriagesare

uncom-mon in practice Marriage is proscribed with members of

one's ownbring,mostmore-distantagnates, andclose

mater-nal and affimater-nal relatives Marriage involves bride-wealthand

initiates aflow of shellvaluablesfromwife-receivingto

wife-giving ring that isreciprocated withfood, labor,and

protec-tion.The wealth is saidto'buy"the"skins"or"bodies"ofthe

woman's children; the food,labor,and protection reflectthe

"maternal" obligations of her natal ring toward herchildren.These exchangescontinueuntilthe woman's death Marriage

isusually virilocal, though uxorilocal residence occurs quitefrequently Since the early years of this century, the endo-gamy rate withinSima village has fluctuated between 38 and

56 percent of all marriages Polygyny is less common nowthan inthe past: in 1980only 13 percent of Sima marriages

werepolygynous

Domestic Unit Thebasic domesticunitisanuclear ily, withthe common additions of the father's parents andunmarried siblings Itoccupies anywhere from one to all ofthedwelling housesin ahamlet Usually, thenuclear familyshares ahouse, but the father and older sons sometimes live

fam-in asmall dwellingseparatefrom themotherand the otherchildren

Inheritance Aseach son comes of age, his father usuallyconfersonhimanexchange partnertogether with land anddomesticated trees sufficient to support his future family.Pressure on resources issufficiently high, however, that thefather's holdings commonly are exhausted by the timeyoungersons reachmaturity.Consequently, these young menmustseek resourceselsewhere-usually from a classificatorybrother, amother'sbrother,orawife'sbrother Shellwealth,utensils, sacred relics, and ritual knowledge are inheritedpatrilineally by men and from mothers-in-law by women.Socialization Childrenareraisedprimarily by their moth-

ers From an early age, girls are taught the virtues of hardwork,nurturance, and the care and protection of the ring'schildren Boys leadarathercarefree life until their early teens,whentheir maleelders begin to recruit them to men's workandstarttoinculcate thevirtuesof energy,strength,calcula-tion, and controlled minacity esteemed in an adult male

Sociopolitical Organization

SocialOrganization. Thebasic social divisions in Yangorusociety arebysexand age Mencommand the formal politicalarena, andmiddle-aged menarethe majorpolitical players

Bythe time a manreaches his sixties, he usually has retiredfrom active political life, but his counsel still may be veryinfluential

Political Organization The basic political unit is thehiring.Themodem village, which comprises between ten andfortyhring-Simahad abouttwenty-seven-constitutes thebasicpoliticalunitof the nation-state as it impinges on Yan-goru Nowadays, village boundaries are territorial; in pre-contact days, however, they were more socially andsituationally defined Depending on theirlocation, precon-tactvillages alsobelonged to one or other ofYangoru'stwogreat warconfederacies,"Samawung,"or"DarkPig"and"Le-buging," or"Light Pig." The members of most villages are di-videdbetween two moieties, also called Samawung andLe-buging Adult males inherit an exchange partner (urli orgurli) from the opposite moiety with whom they exchangepigsand yams on a competitivebasis into their late middleage In north-central Yangoru, aphratryorganization cross-cuts village and moiety lines, organized under the totems

"Homung," or"Hawk," and"Sengi," or"Parrot." Groups ofringdescended from acommon ancestorrecognize a hwa-pomia, an elder ideally descended by primogeniture who istheirceremonial leader in pig exchanges and, in earlierdays,

390 Yangoru Boiken

was the ceremonialmaster of their military actions In other

respects, however, the Yangoru Boiken represent a typical

Melanesian big-man political system: men achieve renown

principally by the number and size of thepigs theygive to

theirexchange partnersand by thepromptness and

generos-ity withwhich they meet financial obligations to maternal

and affinal kin These capabilities, in turn, stem from the

skillfulmanipulationof socialrelationshipsaidedby

oratori-cal,histrionic,and affectiveability Althoughwomen are

dis-enfranchisedfrom formalpolitical life,thereexistbig-women

whobuild influenceandreputation among other womenby

their eminenceinsmall-scale wealthexchangesandtheir

en-ergy andabilityinwomen'stasks-inparticular,food

produc-tion,coo"ing,and childrearing Throughotherwomenand

through their malerelatives,suchwomenalso exert some

in-fluence over thecommunity's formalpolitics

Social Control Theformalmeans ofsocialcontrolisthe

moot, in which partiestoadisputemeet totalkouttheir

dif-ferences Frequently,issuesremainunsettledthroughseveral

moots, andasignificantnumber ofdisputespeter out

unre-solved Informalmeans ofconflictresolutionincludegossip,

sorcerythreats, and evenflight

Conflict Untilthemid-1930s,warfarewasendemic,

com-mon causes being land, the abduction ofwomen, and

re-venge.Warwaswagedprimarily againstvillages in the

oppo-siteconfederacy,aseitherambushesorconfrontations across

traditionalbattlefieldslocatedonconfederacyfrontiers

Nei-thermen,women, norchildrenwerespared.Althoughfights

oftenbrokeoutwithinaconfederacy,murderwasproscribed

Byclandestinesubterfuge,nonetheless, arivalwithina

per-son's confederacy frequently could be delivered into the

hands ofenemies beyond In north-central Yangoru, the

Homung/Sengi phratry organization complicated matters,

andfrequentlyhringfrom thesamevillagewould face one

an-otheracross thebattleground; intheseconfrontations,

how-ever,weapons were usedin a mannerthat wouldinflictinjury

but avoid death

Religion and Expressive Culture

Religious Belief. The constituents of theYangoruBoiken

universe areviewed eitheras"given"or asthecreationsof the

cultureheroes;theyarebelievedtobeinfluencedbyancestral

spirits and wala spirits butmostof allby magical forces.The

principalsupernaturals are humanfiendsthat stalklone

vil-lagers at certainseasons, the spirits of the ancestors, and the

wala spirits Thelast includethegreatculture heroesof time

past,some of themnowadaysincarnated as localmountains;

the others aremale and femalespirits of thebushand stream

All wala arebelievedtobeformedbythe mysticalunion of

ancestral shades, and each hrngis associated with a male

wala of the stream, where the ancestral shades of its male

members are believed tocongregate and unite as thewala

There is some difference of opinion over whether awoman's

spirit goes to her husband'sorher brother's wala

Religious Pactitkoners. Knowledge ofmanymagical and

ritual practices is diffusedwidely throughthe-communityso

that abringusuallycancallon amemberordoserelativefor

most services Nowadays, the main practitionershired from

beyond this circle are sorcerers,includingearthandrain

ma-gicians,andthose whose magiccombats thesepowers In

tra-ditional times, the hring also would have to cast beyond doserelatives for specialists in carving and various ritual servicesassociated with male initiation

Ceremonies Themain ceremonies are associatedwith thelife cycle, spirit houses,the wala, and the pig exchange Birth,initiation, marriage, and death are, or were, observed for bothsexes, with women alsoobservingafewsimplemenstrual ta-boos to avoid polluting men.Traditionally, initiations werethe most elaborate ceremonies, celebrated around puberty,again in the late twenties, and finally in the early to mid-forties;nowadays,however,only the first stage of female initi-ation endures In western Yangoru, initiations were con-ductedin andaround elaborately decorated spirit houses (kanimbia);innorth-central Yangoru, however, ka nimbiaweredivorcedfrom initiation and constructed instead as astate-ment of political strength In bygone days, if the wife of animportant man insulted the sexuality of herhusband, shewould be disciplined by 'the wala," a group of men swinging abullroarer who would destroy her and her husband's belong-ings Nowadays,the most elaborate ceremonies are the pig ex-change festivals in which one moiety en masse confers pigs onexchange partners in the opposite moiety (In westernYan-goru, somevillages recently have adopted thelong-yam cult

ofthe Abelam and the Kaboibus or"Plains"Arapesh.) Sincecontact,theYangoruBoikenhave earnedconsiderable noto-rietyfor theirmillenarian movements

Arts Traditionalgraphicandplasticartincludedwoodeninitiation statues; the painted facades, carved crosspieces,and otherornaments ofspirithouses; shell-wealthbasketrymasks; plaitedarmlets;ornamented spinning tops; anddogs'-teeth andshellnecklacesand headpieces Items such asbull-roarers, weaponry, and cooking and dining utensils weresometimes incised withabstractdesigns,often said to be the

"face of the wala." Someproductions, such as spirit dancemasks, wereonlytemporary, constructed for aspecific cere-mony and then dismantled The main musical instrumentswere handdrums and monotone flutes Nowadays, hardly any

ofthis art isstillproduced.Songs and oratory were and stillare the majorephemeralproductions

Medicine Illness is attributed to ancestral spirits, walaspirits, human fiends,pollutionbyfemales or younger adults,infractions ofritual and taboo, protective magic on property,and in particular sorcery.Some epidemic diseases supposedlywere decreed by the culture heroes

Death and Afterlife Thedeaths of all but the very old areattributed to sorcery.Thereis considerable doubt about theafterlife, but normatively the spirit ofthe deceased spends thefirst days of itsexistence around its hamlet before departing

to its hring'swalapool.Spiritsfromthroughout Yangoruarealso said to go to MountHurun, the peak overlookingYan-goru, where they becomeWalarurun, the great culture heroassociated with the mountain Nowadays, countries such asAustralia, America, and England are also variously identified

as the place ofthe dead.Atdeath, relativesaresummonedontheslit gong, and the deceased is mourned with funeral dirgesfora day or two In the past, the corpses of eminent men weresliced andplacedin trees to decay,others were buried in orunder houses The bones, especially the jawbones, later wereretrieved foruse in garden magic and occasionally sorcery.Nowadays, the deceased are buried in graveyards adjacent to

Yap 391

themainceremonialhamlets, and theirbonesare nolonger

retrieved-though graves are still opened after about six

monthsto diagnose the perpetrators of the death

See alsoAbelam, Mountain Arapesh

Linguistic Affiiation Yapese is an Austronesian

lan-guage,butitisdistinct from thenearbyPalauan andthe

Car-olinian languages. Somelinguists regard Yapese ascloserto

Austronesian languages of Vanuatu (New Hebrides).

Bibliography

Gesch, Patrick F (1985) Initiative and Initiation: A Cargo

Cult-Type Mov~ement in the Sepik against Its Back~ground in

Traditional Village Religion St Augustin, Germany:

Anthropos-Institut.

Roscoe, Paul B (1988) 'The Far Side of Hurun: The

Man-agement of Melanesian Millenarian Movements." Anterican

Ethnologist 15:515-529.

Roscoe, Paul B (1 989) -The Pig and the Long Yam: The

Ex-pansion of a Sepik Symbol Complex.' Ethnology 28:219-23 1.

Roscoe, Paul B (1989) "The Flight from the Fen: The

Pre-historic Migrations of the Boiken of the East Sepik Province,

Papua New Guinea.' Oceania 60:139-154.

PAUL B ROSCOE

Yap

ETHNONYM: Uap

Orientation

Identification Yap is one of four states in the Federated

States of Micronesia, which were part of the U.S Trust

Terri-tory of the Pacific Islands The Yap State includes Yap proper,

Ulithi, Woleai, and other atolls east of Yap, in what was once

the Yap District of the Trust Territory The Yapese langage,

culture, and people are distinct in Yap State from the

inhabi-tants of the atolls (Carolinians) The Yapese people are only

those who are born in the Yap Islands and who speak the

Yapese language.

Locationi The islands of Yap are located approximately

720 kilometers southwest of Guam and approximately 480 Id

lometers northeast of Palau, in the Western Caroline islands.

Yap proper is comprised of four contiguous high islad

in-side a fringing reef The land area is approximately 00 square

kilometers, much of which is rugged, infertile grassy hills and

forest The climate is tropical, subject to easterly trade winds,

typhoons, and a monsoon rainy season from May to October.

Dernography Yap suffered critical depopulation, caused

by European diseases and aided by cultural practices of

abor-tion Since World War the use of antibiotics has controlled

venereal diseases and the islands are currently experiencing a

population explosion The population has recovered from a

low point of 2,582 in 1946 to more than 7,000 people in the

History and Cultural Relations

IntheperiodpriortoEuropeancontact, theYapesehad

ex-tensive relationshipswith the other islandgroups in the

re-gion.Yapesesailors traveled fromYaptoPalauwhere

coura-geous menquarriedstones inthe Rock Islands tobe cartedbacktoYapand utilized for ceremonialexchanges Peoplein

theeasternvillagesinGagilhadextensiverelationshipswithCarolinean sailors from Ulithi, Fais and other atolls to the

east. These sailorscame toYap particularly during times offood shortage and typhoon crises in the atolls and Yapeseoftensailed with them back totheir home islands With the

entranceofEuropeantradersintothearea asearlyas 1526,

Yapese continued their exploration of the surrounding

is-landsinthecompanyofEuropeansailors.Itwas inthisearly periodthatEuropeandiseases spreadfrom Guam, resulting

indevastating epidemics.In1872,David O'Keefe arrivedin a

Chinese junkand immediately set up a copra and trepang

trade He transported large Yapesestones from Palauin changefor paymentin copraandtrepang.Yapwasofficiallycolonized by both Spain and Germany in 1885 Carryingtheirdisputetothepope,Germanyachievedsovereigntyover

ex-theisland,andtheSpanishwereallowedtocontinuetheirligiousworkto convert theYapese toChristianity.The Ger-

re-man eraendedin1914when theJapanesenavyseized control

ofYap Japanese developmentprojectsonYap provedtobe oflittleeconomicvalue,butasWorldWarIIneared, theycon-structedmilitarybases,includingtroop garrisonsandtwoair-fields During this period, the Yapese attended a five-yearschoolinJapanese languageandculture;themostpromisingstudentswere sent tocraft schoolsonPalau wheretheystud-iedagriculture,carpentry,nursing,mechanics and otherprac-

ticaloccupations In 1944, the United States bombedYap,andatthe end of WorldWarIIthe U.S.Navysetupan occu-

pationgovernmentthat lasted untilJune 1951.The UnitedStatesTrustTerritoryof the Pacific Islandswasformallyes-

tablishedin1951,andYapwas oneofsixdistrictsinthetrust

territory During thisera, the U.S government emphasized

education and political development among the islanders.TheYapIslandsCongressfirst convenedinMay1959andes-

tablished the foundation forYap State, whichwas formally organizedin1978 In1964,theYap HighSchoolwasopenedand American contract teachers were hired to staff it. By

1980,Yapese fullycontrolled thestateand localgovernments

andadministered their schools and churches Many Yapese

menandwomentodayaregraduatesofcollegesand

universi-ties inthe UnitedStatesand holdpositionsofleadershipin

theeconomic, educational, and political life of the islands.YapStateis nowpartof the FederatedStatesofMicronesia,whichalso includes thestatesofTruk,Pohnpei,andKosrae

SettlementsDuringtheperiodsof heaviestpopulation,theYapeserecog-

nizedover 180 separate villages. Inrecentyears91 of those

villagescontainatleastoneresidenthousehold,andtheestvillageshavefortytofiftyhouseholds withupto300 peo-

larg-ple in residence Most ofthe inhabited villages lie in close

392 Yap

proximity to the sea, and households are dispersed over a

fairlylargeareaalongthe shoreline.Sincetheconstruction of

roads inthe late 1960sand theextensionofelectricityalong

these roads in the late 1970s,manypeoplearenowbuilding

houses on theroadsforaccessibilitytothetown and to

elec-tricity Thelargestvillagesarelocatedinthe administrative

town ofColonia.Thesevillagesincludeinhabitantsfrom all

areas of the island Rural villages are inhabited

predomi-nandy by people who are bornor marry into them

Tradi-tional Yapese villages are a marvel of stonework Yapese

houses are surrounded by stone platforms and are

con-structed on a coral stonefoundation.Stonepathways

con-necthousesinone section ofthevillagetoanother Inthe

center ofeachvillage,apublicmeetingareaandcommunity

house aremarked byextensive, wide stoneplatformsfor

seat-ing guests atpublicceremoniesand thelarge stone

founda-tionsfor thetraditionalcommunityhouse Eachvillagealso

has constructed taropatches, usuallyboundedbystonepaths

and stoneretainingwalls tocontain the water forirrigating

theseswampgardens.Ontheshoreline ofmanyvillages,men

have builtstone piers out into the water and thevery large

stoneplatformsonwhichmen'shouses have been

tradition-ally constructed The contemporary Yapesehouseisgenerally

madeofplywood andcorrugatedmetalwithaplankedor

ce-ment floor Some of themoreprosperous Yapesearebuilding

concrete-block orpoured-concrete houses todaybecause of

the extensive termitedamagetowooden structures Insandy

beach areas and in the urban center, many people build

housesonposts,raisedofftheground,closed in with bamboo

orplywood, andcovered withcorrugated iron

EconomySubsistence and Commercial Acthities. Most Yapese

today combine some wage work activities with subsistence

farming Many Yapeseareemployedbythegovernment, and

private tradingcompanies and serviceindustries provide

ad-ditionaljobs,sothatmorethanhalfofthe adult male

popula-tion-andup to20percent of theadultfemale

population-earn wages In addition to wage employment, nearly all

Yapese engage insomesubsistence foodproduction. Swamp

taro is theprimary staple cropof theYapese,andmostvillages

havelargetaroswamps that havebeenconstructedasvillage

projects inthepast.Individualfamiliesownparcelsof the

vil-lage taropatchesand also havegardenplotsinthe

surround-ing hills on which theyproduceyams, bananas,breadfruit,

and othersupplementaryfruitsandcrops A few farmers

pro-duce copra as acash crop, and ahandful of entrepreneurs

raisechickens, pigs, and other cash items for thedomestic

market

Industrial Arts The primary tools for traditional Yapese

production included the shell adz,bambooknives, and

dig-ging sticks made of mangrove Steel adzes andkniveshave

re-placed their traditionalcounterparts, andcontemporary

Ya-pese continue to use these tools in their daily subsistence

activities Sennit made from the coconut husk is usedfor

nearly every type of construction task The blades of the

adzes, the beams of the houses, the outriggers on the canoes,

the bamboo ofthe fishtraps, and thethatchof the roofsare

alltied together with this coconut sennit Skilled artisans

in-clude canoe buildersandhousebuilders.Canoebuildinghas

nearlydisappeared incontemporary Yapeseculture,but the

experts inhouse construction continue to play an importantrole inYapesevillages

Trade Two easternvillages in Yap, Gachpar and Wonyan,hold traditionaltrading rights to theatollgroups inthecen-tral Carolines, including Ulithi and Woleai For the atolldwellers, trade with Yap provided a source of lumber and foodnot available tothem in their restrictedenvironments TheYapese in these twovillages gainedsupplies of sennit, valu-able woven mats, fiberloincloths, and shellvaluables thatwereimportant for ceremonialexchanges and political pres-tige and power inYap Yapese sailors often madeextendedtripstoPalau and to Guam wherethey quarriedstonedisks,whichalso were ofvalue in theceremonialexchangesof Yap.These stones were nottechnically items of trade since theyhad novalue inPalau or in Guam where they were quarried.Yet, as aspecial-purposemoney,theywere very important inthe internalrelationships andpolitical struggles inYap.Division of Labor In the subsistence economy, Yapesewomen care for theswamp taro patches and the yam gardens.Menaidtheir wives and sisters in theclearing of fields and inheavyagricultural work, but the primary subsistence role ofmenisinfishing.Reeffish,caughtwithspearguns, nets,andfishtraps, are the predominant source of protein for Yapesefamilies Men whoengage inregularwage labor buy cannedfish andcanned meats to provide their portion of theirsub-sistence diet for thefamily

Land Tenure Rights to land, lagoon, other fishing andagricultural resources, andvillage authority are held corpor-ately bythepatrilinealestategroup The heads of estates inconsultation with their junior members exercise authorityoverthese rights onbehalfof the members Malemembershave use rights to estate resources with whichthey may sup-port a wife and children Succession to headship is basedupongeneration andseniority

Kinship

KinGroups andDescent Theconcept of tabinaw ernsYapese thinking about family,kinship,and socialorgani-zation In itsprimaryreference, tabinaw refersto thehouse-hold ornuclearfamily However, eachnuclear familyispart

gov-of an estategroup,composed ofadult menand women whoholdcommon rights to land and who share resources andlabor in reference to exploitation of this land An estategroup mayincludethree or four generations of men with theirwives andchildren Each married couple will have a separatehousehold located on estate land Yapese practice a variation

of doubledescent Everyindividualhasamatrilineal kinshipaffiliation, termedgenung,which plays a predominant role inthedefinition ofsiblingrelationships and the identification

of kin ties for mutual support and assistance In Yapesethought, one obtains one's blood relationship through one'smother In additiontothismatrilinealprinciple,Yapese tracetheir spiritual and subsistence relationships to the landthrough their fathers Each Yapese receives a name from one

of his or herpatrilineallyrelated ancestors who have occupiedthe land estate upon which he or she is bornand nurtured.Theancestral line of land andnurturecomesthrough the pa-trilineally inherited estate.Thematrilinealprincipledoes notdefinesignificant descent groups on Yap, but only anaffilia-tion ofkinto whom onerelatesto servesignificant individual

Yap 393

interests. The estategroup is formed more appropriately in

termsofrelationshiptoland thanintermsofpatrilineal

de-scent.With thesequalifications we mayspeakof double

de-scent onYap.

Kinship Terminology Traditionally Yapesehavea

Crow-type pattern ofcousin terminology. In the present younger

generation,aHawaiian-typepatternisemergingasthedomi

nantpatternofkinshipclassification, complicatedfurtherby

theintroduction ofEnglish cousin terminologyin schools

Marriage and Family

Marriage Yapese consider it improper to marry anyone

who may be kin Yapeseyoungpeople generally select their

ownmates, andmosthave one or two trialmarriages before

they establish apermanent relationship that results in

chil-dren Yapese parents prefer thattheir children marry in the

same village or among similar ranking villages. However,

todaywith the centralhigh school onthe island andyoung

people commutingby bus, manyYapesearemarryingpeople

from othervillages and other districts of the island

Gener-ally,aYapese coupleresidesinitiallywith the husband's

fam-ily and establishes permanent residence on the husband's

land in the husband's village. Divorce among the Yapese is

common and is effected by mutual agreement The young

woman returns toher household ofbirth, leavingthe children

and propertywith her husband

DomesticUnit Peoplewhoeattogetherconstitutethe

ta-binaw This householdisusuallyanuclearfamilyinwhicha

husband and wife work accordingto acomplementary

divi-sionof labor andresponsibilityfor their subsistence and

chil-dren.Anewlymarriedcouplemayjointhe husband's father's

household for a temporary period until they establish their

owngardens and build asleeping and cooking house

Inheritance Fathers distribute landtotheirsons

accord-ingtoneed andage.Theoldestson receivestherightsto

ti-tiedpartsof theestateandwillassumethe father'sleadership

role among his siblings upon his father's death and inhis

younger brothers' families upon and their deaths Younger

sons receive anappropriate portion ofthe estate tosupport

their families.Daughtersdonotinheritland,buttheymaybe

givenagiftofasmallparceltoprovidesupport incase of di

vorce.Parentsprovidesupportfor their adult unmarriedor

di-vorceddaughters.

Socialization Yapeseparents andsiblings share

responsi-bilities forcareandupbringingofchildren.Yapese emphasize

generosity and sharing, and theygive eldersiblings the

pri-maryresponsibilityfor theprotectionandcareoftheyounger

Thispatterniscarriedintoadult lifeandcharacterizes the

re-lationship betweensiblings until death

Sociopolitical Organization

Yapese saythe landischief Itistheirprimaryfocusonland

thatorganizesthe social andpoliticalaspectsofYapeselife

SocialOrganization. Theestategroupand thevillageare

the primary units organizing the social life ofYap. Within

eachvillage, familyestatesplaceindividualsinahierarchyof

relationshipswithin thecommunity.Particularestates own

ti-des that conferauthorityandprestigeupon the members of

thatestategroup.VillagesinYap arealso ranked toinclude

twomajordivisions:"Pilung," or"autonomousvillages"; and

"Pimnilngay," or 'serfvillages." Theautonomousvillages are

further rankedinthree divisions:chiefvillages,noblevillages,andcommonervillages.The serfvillagesarerankedintwodi

visions:chief'sservantsand serfs All theinhabitants bornin

aparticular village automaticallycarrytherank of thatvillage.

One maymarry peoplefrom otherranks, butone can never

changethe rank ofbirth Within eachvillage peoplearealsoranked according to relative age, sex, and tide from one's

estate.

Political Organization. Each village in Yap is led by at

least three tided estates: village chief, chief ofyoung men;

andchief of ritual Themenwhospeakfor these tidedestates

oversee acouncil madeupofmenwho representlesser titles

inthevillage.Toholdpolitical authorityone mustbe the

eld-est living member of the family estate and be capable ofspeaking articulatelyforits interest inpublic. Decisionmak-ingonYap is characterizedby indirect communication and

consensus.Thevillagechiefarticulates for thepublicthe

de-cisionthat has been madebyconsensusof thegroup Priorto

Americanadministration, thegovernmentoftheYapIslands

was organized by the chiefs of the paramountvillages teredaroundYap.ThreeparamountvillageslocatedinGagil, Tamil,and Rullprovidedthe locus ofpowerfromwhichwere

scat-formedtwomajoralliances ofvillagesandchiefs.These

lead-ers maintained powerprimarily by controlling

commnunica-tion through legitimatechannelsconnectingvillagesand

es-tatesandby planningpunitivewarsagainstthose individualswho violated the decisions andexpectations of themajority

in an alliance Today the Yap state government has

sup-planted the traditional system of alliances and governs

throughthelegislative, administrative,andjudicialbranches.WhilecontemporaryYapeseofficialsareelectedtotheirposi-

tions, many hold traditional tides and traditional bases of

support However,inthesituationofcontemporarypolitics,education and expertise in thefunctions ofmodern govern-

ment are essential topolitical success.

Social Control Inthetraditionalvillagesetting,thecil ofeldersmaintainssocialcontrolthroughasystemofpu-

coun-nitive fines and mediation bythe chiefs between families in

conflict In thecontemporarysetting thestate courtplays a

majorroleintheadjudicationofdisputesamongYapese.The

courthaseffectively replaced village eldersas thearenaand

process for the resolution ofcontemporarydisputes.Conflict Excessive consumption of alcohol and limitedopportunities for employment following graduation fromhigh school create an atmosphere in whichyoung men on

Yaphave littletochallengetheirambitions andinterests

Vil-lage divisions and hostilities that characterized the

precon-tactperiodhavereemerged inthe 1980sas abasis forgangs

and for intervillage and interregional conflicts Gangs of

youthsineachof themajor regionsofYapstakeouttheirritory and threaten violence to those who dare enter. Inci-dentsofviolenceusuallyendin a court case inwhichthein-jured parties seekpunitive action against those responsible.

ter-Religion and Expressive CultureCatholicChristianityisthecentral andunifyingbeliefsystem

inYapesesocietytoday People attend Catholic churchesin everymajor districtontheislands,and the firstYapeseCath-

394 Yap

olicpriestwas ordainedin the mid-1980s Deacons ineach

areaorganize localchurchactivitiesandsupport Protestant

and other Christiansectshave smallcongregations scattered

through the islands

Raligiou Belief Animistic beliefs in spirits and magic

persistinYapesecultureinspiteofnearlyacenturyof

Chris-tianity Most Yapese fear ghosts and many use magic for

healthorprotection fromspiritswho maythreaten their

en-terprises.TheYapesedivided their traditional worldinto

do-mainsofspiritsand humans Femalespiritsinhabited thesea

and threatened the lives and work of fishermen Malespirits

inhabited theland, threateningthe livelihoodandproduceof

the women gardening. Some Yapese still followcustoms of

abstention and rituals ofprotectioninfishingandgardening

activities

Religous Practitioners In traditional Yapese villages,

specialist magicians addressed the uncertainties of house

building, fishing, gardening, and warfare Today most of

thesespecialtieshave beenforgotten andpeopleturn tothe

local deaconsorthepriestof the Catholic church for

assist-ance intheseuncertaintiesof life Whereasoncepriestsand

magicians mediated between humans and the spirit world,

nowthesetensionsareaddressedbythe leaders of the church

andby psychiatricdoctors in the local hospital. Folk

medi-cine has a limited following, and Yapese relyalmost

exclu-sivelyon the hospital forhealth care.

Ceremonies Priortotheirconversion toChristianity,

Ya-pese prayed to ancestors, breaking segments of

mother-of-pearlshellsasofferings.Thewelfare of allYapesewasthought

toresideinseveral sacredplacesfor whichparticularfamilies

had responsibility and from whichthey derived power The

traditionalpriestcared for the sacredplaceandorganizedthe

sacredcalendar,whichincludedrebuildingthesacredhouse,

makingannualofferingstothespiritsof theseplaces,and

di-viningthe future of warfare andpoliticsinYap. The

eating-class initiation, stillobservedbyafewcontemporaryYapese,

involved periods ofisolation, preparationofnew loincloths

and personal items, fasting, and ceremonial feasting at the

end of theisolationperiod.Individuals whoobserved this

rit-ualmovedinto ahigher-ranking eatingclassandgained

polit-ical and social influence-intheirvillages.TraditionalYapese

ceremonieshave beenall butforgotten by Yapese people.The

onlypersistingforms oftraditionalceremoniesarethesitting

dances,whichprovidea publicdrama ofstorytellingand

re-counting ofmyth People have also borrowed standing and

stick dances from otherMicronesians.Thereligiouscalendar

todayincludesChristmas,Easter,strictobservance ofSunday

as a dayofrest andworship, and large public funerals

Arts Items ofgreatvaluetotheYapeseincluded the white

coral disks knownasYapstone money,mother-of-pearlshells

thatwerecollected andexchangedinvillageceremonies, and

longnecklaces of red shells and bracelets of white shells made

famous by Bronislaw Malinowski in his description of the

kulain the Trobriand Islands Yapese also makeceremonial

betel pounders and decorate their houses with unique

pat-ternsofrope tying

Medicine Intraditional times, theYapese peopledid not

have specialized medical practitioners In every family the

memberswho hadknowledge ofmagicassociated with

con-trolling weather,warfare,orfishingalso hadknowledgewith

regardtohealth and disease Thesemagiciansgainedprestigebased upon the effectiveness of their knowledge in curingthose whowereillor inabortingorcontrolling potentialdis-

asters in nature. Today, fewYapese use herbal medicines;mostrelyon the local hospital.

Death and Afterlife The funeral isthe most important

life-cycleevent inYap.Even foranordinary family member,it

is a time to gather the most distant relations from various

partsofthe islands Everyonewhocomesbrings giftsof

ciga-rettes,food,money,orliquorinsupportofthemourning ily. Members of the familypreparethebodyandwaitfor the

fam-guestsforthreedays.The funeralconcludes withaChristian

service and the deceased isburiedin eitherachurch burialaroundor anancestralplot.Aboutonemonthafter the bur-ial,the members of thefamilyrepaytheirguestsbysponsor-

ingalargeparty.The funeral and thefollowingpartylishkinshipconnections amongdispersed relations

reestab-Seealso Kosrae, Pohnpei, Truk, Ulithi, Woleai

Bibliography

Labby,David (1976).TheDemystification of Yap:Dialecticsof

Cultureon aMicronesianIsland.Chicago: Universityof

Chi-cagoPress

Lingenfelter, Sherwood Galen (1975) Yap: PoliticalshipandCulturalChangein anIslandSociety.Honolulu: Uni-versity PressofHawaii

Leader-Lingenfelter, Sherwood Galen (1977) 'EmnicStructure andDecision-Making in Yap." Ethnology 16:331-352

Lingenfelter, Sherwood Galen (1979) 'Yap EatingClasses:

AStudyofStructure and Communities." TheJournalofthePolynesian Society 88:415-432.

Miler,Wilhelm (1917) 'Yap.'InErgenbnissederSildsee

Ex-pedition, 1908-1910, edited by GeorgThilenius II graphie; B Mikronesien Hamburg: Friedenchsen

Ethno-SHERWOOD GALEN LINGENFELTER

Aborigi-centered at 141*45' Eand 15'20' S alongthe Gulfof

Car-pentaria coast of theCape York Peninsula in Queensland.Theterritoryencompassesabout1,300squarekilometers and

runs along thecoastfrom the mouth of theColeman River

south through the three mouths of the Mitchell River First

contactwith Europeans wasevidently with Dutchexplorers

Yungar 395

in 1623.Thesecondandmoresignificantcontact waswitha

partyof cattle herdersin 1864, anencounter nowknownas

the"Battleof MitchellRiver."Acculturationinto

European-Australian society began after 1900with settlement of the

lower Cape York Peninsula andthe establishmentofan

An-glican mission stationjust south ofYir Yoront territory in

1915.The YirYorontwere,however,shielded from

encroach-ment on their land when theAustralian government

estab-lishedthereservealong the coast.Although someYirYoront

moved southandsettled at the mission, and various products

of Europeanmanufacturewereusedby allYirYoront, much

of the traditional culture survived intothe 1940s

The Yir Yoront speak a "Yir-" language related to the

"Wik-" and "Koko-"Aboriginal languages of Australia The

Yir Yorontsubsisted byhunting,fishing,and gathering

shell-fish andplant foods.Menhunted andfished,ofteningroups,

while women gathered and maintained the camp The Yir

Yoront also maintained trade relations with groups to the

north and south Spears made from stingray spineswerethe

major export,whilestonefrom tribestothe south forstone ax

headswasthe major import.Trading oftentookplace atthe

annual intertribal ceremonies, with male trading partners

oftenhaving thestatus offictive brothers.Yir Yoronttrade,

however, was less elaborated and of less economic

impor-tance than that of many other Queensland Ab~riginal

groups.The introduction of Europeangoods such as tools,

cloth,and tobacco and the establishment of thereservehave

altered the traditionalhunting andgatheringeconomy

Traditional Yir Yoront society wasdividedinto

patrilin-eal,totemicclans andtwoexogamousmoieties.Adistinction

was also made, apart from kinship organization, between

.coastalpeople"and 'inlandpeople."The nuclear familywas

thebasic residential and economic unit Traditionally, social

relations werebasedonsuperordinate andsubordinate

sta-tus, with mendominant over womenand older people

domi-nant overyounger people Leadershiprested with the clan

leaders While individuals displayingsuperior knowledge or

skillmight enjoy personal prestige, therewas noformalstatus

system The day-to-dayworld of theYirYoront wasseen by

them as a reflection of the world of their ancestors, with all

newdevelopments accounted for bymythsand totems.With

the recent acceleration ofacculturation intoWhite

Austra-lian society, many traditionalbeliefsand practiceshave

disap-peared and have been replaced byinvolvement inthecash

economy and more permanentsettlementnearcattle ranches

and small towns

Yungar

The name givento anumber ofclosely related and affiliatedAboriginal groups wholived in the deserts of western Aus-tralia Known groups included the Koreng, Minang, Pibel-man,Pindjarup, Wardardi, and Wheelman All of the Yungargroups are eithertotally ornearly extinct

BibliographyHassell, Ethel, and D S Davidson (1936) "Notes on theEthnology of the Wheelman Tribe of South-westem Aus-tralia." Anthropos 31:679-711

BibliographySharp, Lauriston(1934) 'Ritual Life andEconomics of the

Yir-YorontofCape YorkPeninsula." Oceania5:19-42

Sharp, Lauriston (1968). "SteelAxesforStoneAge

Austral-ians." In Man in Adaptation: The Cultural Present, edited by

Yehudi A Cohen,82-93.Chicago: Aldine

.Glossary 397

Glossary

aborigine See autochthones

affine A relative by marriage.

agamy Absence of a marriage rule; neither endogamy nor

exogamy.

age grade A social category composed of persons who fall

within a culturally defined age range.

sonatic descent See patrilineal descent

ambilineal descent The practice of tracing kinship

affilia-tion through either the male or the female line.

ancestor spirits Ghosts of deceased relatives who are

be-lieved to have supernatural powers that can influence the

lives of the living.

animism A belief in spiritual beings.

arild (ali'i, aliki, ari'i) A hereditary chief in Polynesia.

atoll An island consisting of a coral reef surrounding a

lagoon.

Anstronesian languages A large group of languages

(for-merly called 'Malayo-Polynesian") including about 450 in

Oceania They are found mostly on the coasts in Melanesia

and New Guinea, but otherwise throughout Polynesia and

Micronesia.

autochthones The indigenous inhabitants of a region.

Often used to refer to the native inhabitants encountered by

European explorers or settlers.

avunculocal residence The practice of a newly married

couple residing in the community or household of the

hus-band's mother's brother.

bark cloth See tapa

bkhe-de-mer A sea slug found in shallow tropical waters.

It was gathered in large quantities in the nineteenth century

by Europeans (and earlier by Chinese and Japanese traders)

for export to Asia for usein soups.

betel nut A nicotinelilke stimulant used in western

Mela-nesia and Micronesia as well as in Asia A "betel quid" is

formed of the nut of the Areca catechu palm and the leaf,

bean, or stem of the Piper betle vine, then chewed with slaked

lime from shells or coral and expectorated.

big man A political leader whose influence is based on

per-sonal prestige or qualities rather than formal authority Such

influence often is achieved through factional politics or the

manipulation of exchange relationships.

bilateral descent The practice of tracing kinship affiliation

more or less equally through both the male and the female

line.

blackbirding A form of labor recruiting, often involving

coercion or deception From the 1 840s to the end of the

nine-teenth century thousands of male Pacific islanders were taken

to Australia or South America as laborers to be returned

home (though many were not) after a period of years in

breadfruit A fruiting tree (Artocarpus altilis) that is

usu-allyseasonal and cultivatedmainlyinMicronesiaand

Polyne-sia, but also in someparts of Melanesia The fruit'sstarchy pulpiseithercookedorfermentedinpitsas astapleorimpor-

tantstandby food

bride-price,bride-wealth The practiceofagroom orhis

kingivingsubstantialpropertyorwealthtothebride's kin fore,at the time of, or aftermarriage

be-bride-service Thepracticeofagroomperformingworkfor

his wife's kin for a set period oftime either before or aftermarriage

buliroarer A sacred oval-shaped object, usually wooden,thatisswungon acordtomakeabuzzingsoundrepresentingthe voices of ancestors or other spirits tn Australia, New

Guinea,and Melanesia revelation ofthebullroarerwasoften

an important part ofmaleinitiation ceremonies

cargo cult A millenarian or nativistic movement, foundmostly inMelanesia andNew Guineaduringthe first half ofthe twentieth century in the context of colonialism andWorldWarII The cultsusuallyfocusedontheprophesiedar-

rivalof tradegoods ("cargo') heraldinga new eraof materialplenty and nativecontrol

cassava A starchy root crop (Manihot esculenta), alsocalledmanioc ortapioca,thatwasintroducedtoOceaniafol-

lowing the arrival ofEuropeans.

cassowary A large, flightless bird with three species demic to New Guinea and NewBritain The bird is locally prizedfor itsflesh, plumes, and bones

en-caste Anendogamous hereditarygroup,usuallywitha

dis-tinct hereditary occupation, who has avirtually immutableposition in a hierarchy Although thecaste system is most

elaboratedthroughoutSouthAsia, casteshave also been

re-ported in Tibet, Japan, Burundi, and the American South.churinga (t#uringa, tiurunga) A term from the Arandalanguage applied generally by variousAustralianAboriginaldesert groups to stone orwooden sacred objects (including

bullroarers) symbolizingculture heroes or ancestral figures.

clan,sib A groupofunilineally affiliated kin who usuallyresideinthesamecommunityand sharecommonproperty

classificatorykinterms Kinshipterms, suchasaunt,thatdesignate several categories of distinct relatives, such as

mother'ssister and father's sister.

cognates Words that belong to different languages buthave similar sounds and meanings

collaterals Aperson'srelativesnotrelatedtohimorheras

ascendants or descendants; one's uncle, aunt, cousin,

brother, sister, nephew, niece

consaguine A relative byblood (birth).

continental islands Islands formed from the portions ofthe Continental Australasiatic Platform that are currentlyabove sealevel

copra The dried flesh of thecoconut usedas the basis of

oils, soaps, cosmetics, and dried coconut. Beginning inthe

1860s coprabecame the chief commercialexport inmostcific islands

Pa-398 Glossary

coralislands Islands, including atolls, formedof the

exo-skeleton createdby th~e excretion of lime fromsea waterby

tiny marineanimals

Cordyline An ornamental or ritually important shrub

(Cordyline terminals) planted widely in Oceania; in some

places the tuber is sometimes eaten.

cousin, cross Children of one's parent's siblings of the

opposite sex-one's father's sisters' and mother's brothers'

children

cousin, parallel Children of one's parent's siblings of

the samesex-one's father's brothers' and mother's sisters'

children

creole Ageneral, inconsistentlyusedtermusually applied

to aspoken languageordialect thatisbasedongrammatical

andlexical featurescombinedfromtwo or morenatural

lan-guages It is a first language, distinct from apidgin.

cross cousin See cousin, cross

cult The beliefs, ideas, and activities associated with the

worshipofasupernaturalforceoritsrepresentations,suchas

an ancestorcult or abearcult

culturehero Amythical bird, animal,orpersonwhois

be-lieved tobethe group's protector

cuscus A type of marsupial found in New Guinea and

highly prizedforits meatand fur

demo A groupbased onthe merging oflocality, descent,

and in-marriage

descriptivekInterms Kinshiptermsthatareusedto

dis-tinguish different categories of relatives such as mother or

father.

Dreaming, The (Dreamtrne, The) A sacredtime in the

AustralianAboriginal mythologicalpastwhen culture heroes

andtotemic ancestorscreated manyofthe physicalfeatures

ofthe land and established traditional customs.

Ego In kinship studies ego is a maleorfemale whom the

anthropologist arbitrarily designatesasthe referencepointfor

a particular kinship diagram or discussion of kinship

terminology.

endogamy Marriagewithinaspecificgrouporsocial

cate-goryofwhich theperson isamember,suchasone'scaste or

community

exogamy Marriageoutside aspecificgrouporsocial

cate-goryof which theperson is amember, suchasone's clanor

community

extensive cultivation A form of horticulture in which

plotsof landarecleared andplantedforafewyearsand then

lefttofallow foranumber ofyearswhileotherplotsareused

Alsocalledswidden, shifting,orslash-and-bumncultivation

fictive kin Individuals referred to or addressed with kin

termsand treatedaskin,although theyareneitheraffinesnor

consanguines

horticulture Plant cultivation carriedoutby relatively

sim-plemeans,usuallywithoutpermanentfields,artificial

fertiliz-ers, or plowing.

initiation,orpuberty,rites Ceremoniesand related

activ-itiesthatmark thetransitionfrom childhoodtoadulthoodor

from secularstatus tobeing acut-member

kava Afermentedbeverage traditionallyconsumedritually

or ceremonially (though sometimes merely for its euphoric

andsoporific effects)inMelanesia,NewGuinea,andsia.The drinkismadefrom the dried andgroundrootof thekava plant (Piper methysticum) mixedin water.

Polyne-kInterms,bifurcate-collateral A systemofkinshipnologyinwhich all collateralsinthe parentalgenerationare

termi-referred tobydifferent kin terms.

kinterms, bifurcate-merging A systemofkinship

termi-nologyinwhich members of thetwodescentgroups inthe

pa-rentalgeneration arereferredtobydifferent kin terms.

kin terms, Crow A system of kinship terminology in

which matrilateralcross cousins aredistinguishedfrom eachotherand fromparallelcousinsandsiblings, butpatrilateral

cross cousins arereferredtobythesame termsusedfor father

or father's sister.

kinterms, Dravidian Seekin terms, Iroquoiskin terms, Eskimo A system of kinship terminology in

whichcousins aredistinguishedfrom brothers and sisters, but

nodistinction is made betweencross andparallel cousins

kinterms,generational A systemofkinship terminology

inwhich all kin of thesame sexintheparentalgenerationare

referred tobythe same term.

krinterms,Hawaiian A system ofkinship terminology in

which all malecousinsarereferredtobythesame termusedforbrother, and all femalecousinsarereferredtobythesame

term used forsister

krinterms, Iroquois A system of kinship terminology in

whichparallelcousins arereferredtobythesame termsusedfor brothers andsistersbutcross cousins areidentifiedbydif-ferentterms.

ktinterms,lineal A systemofkinship terminologyinwhichdirectdescendantsorascendantsaredistinguishedfromcol-lateral kin

kin terms, Omaha A system ofkinship terminology in

which female matrilateralcrosscousinsarereferredtobythe

same term used for one's mother, and female patrilateral

cross cousins arereferredtobythesame termusedforone's

sister'sdaughter.

kinterms, Sudanese A system ofkinship terminology in

which therearedistincttermsfor eachcategoryofcousinandsibling, and foraunts, uncles, nieces, and nephews.kindred The bilateralkingroupofnearkinsmen whomay

beexpectedtobepresentandparticipantonimportantmonialoccasions,usuallyintheabsence ofunilinealdescent.kinship Family relationship,whethertracedthroughmari-

cere-talties orthroughblood and descent

kula.ring A systemof ceremonialexchangeintheMassim

areaand southeasterntipofNewGuineacharacterizedbythecirculationof shell necklaces and shellarmbandsinopposite

directions,hence the"ring"ofislands linkedbythesystem