i THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY VENANCIA TEREZA KOTEN DA SILVA MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN HO CHI MINH CITY, VIETNAM: CHALLENGUES AND OPPORTUN
INTRODUCTION
Research rationale
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is a mounting challenge in urban areas worldwide, with global waste projected to reach 3.40 billion tonnes by 2025 (Kaza et al., 2018) This surge is closely tied to rapid urbanization, particularly in developing countries, where accelerating population growth and expanding economic activity generate more waste As cities continue to grow, the demand for effective waste management solutions becomes increasingly urgent, underscoring the need for innovative policies, infrastructure, and technologies to manage MSW and support sustainable urban development (Sharma).
N and Sharma, S., 2020) However, in many developing countries, only about 40% of the waste is collected, a stark contrast to developed countries where waste collection rates can reach up to 70% (Yadav and Samadder, 2018) This global reality even more concerning when considering that, in 2019, approximately 3.5 billion people about 45% of the world’s population lacked access to solid waste collection services, without proper waste management, much of this uncollected waste ends up in drains, resulting in blockages, unsanitary conditions and breeding ground for disease (Sohklet and Nagargoje, 2020) The insufficient funding in developing countries, evidenced by the low budget allocation for MSW management (ranging from 2% to 8% of the total municipal budget), is a key factor in the ineffective and inadequate access to waste collection, as concluded by Khatib et al
From a global perspective, Asia holds the top position in population rankings, with the highest concentration of people and generating the largest amount of waste (World Bank, 2018) Despite the growing volumes of waste, waste management systems in many parts of Asia—especially in developing countries—continue to struggle due to insufficient infrastructure and a lack of effective waste collection services in some regions.
Vietnam, one of Southeast Asia's emerging economies, faces significant challenges in managing municipal solid waste (MSW) due to rapid urbanization and inadequate infrastructure Population growth and evolving economic conditions have strained waste management systems, especially in major urban centers such as Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) In HCMC, waste generation is rising year by year, with projections indicating substantial increases as the city transitions to a modern, high-growth economy Without effective waste management strategies, the long-term social, environmental, and public health impacts of the expanding MSW problem are expected to be severe Although substantial MSW management research has been conducted in HCMC, understanding of current challenges remains limited This study evaluates current practices, challenges, and opportunities in HCMC, identifying key factors that hinder waste management to inform policymakers, stakeholders, and practitioners in designing more effective, context-specific waste management strategies for Ho Chi Minh City.
Research’s objectives
1.2.1 To evaluate the overall satisfaction levels of household waste service in
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, focusing on how demographic factors impact
1.2.2 To assess the impact of demographic factors on household willingness to separate waste at source in Ho Chi Minh City and influencing residents' preferences for selected waste management scenario options with the aim of uncovering opportunities for improving current waste management services in HCMC
1.2.3 To analyze clustering patterns of characteristics within Ho Chi Minh City districts, focusing on districts that has been impacted by fee increase in waste services cost that influence the similarity and distances clustering between districts, with the aim of identify patterns that can inform targeted waste management strategies and improve the efficiency of waste services across districts
Research questions
1.3.1 What demographic factors influence the resident’s satisfaction levels of waste service in Ho Chi Minh City?
1.3.2 How do demographic factors impact household willingness to separate waste at source in Ho Chi Minh City?
1.3.3 What factors influence residents' preferences for waste management scenario options in Ho Chi Minh City?
1.3.4 How do clustering patterns of district characteristics in Ho Chi Minh City relate to the impact of the waste service fee increase?
1.3.5 How do these clustering patterns influence the similarity and distance between districts in Ho Chi Minh City?
1.4.1 Residents in Ho Chi Minh City satisfaction with waste management services, influenced by demographic factors play a significant role in shaping satisfaction
1.4.2 Household willingness to separate waste at source in Ho Chi Minh City may not significantly influenced by demographic factors, but do influence residents' preferences for waste management scenario options
1.4.3 Clustering patterns of district characteristics in Ho Chi Minh City are related to the impact of the waste service fee increase, with districts more affected by the fee increase showing greater similarity in waste management behaviors and greater proximity in terms of socioeconomic factors
Limitation
This study on MSW Management in HCMC faces several limitations that could influence its finding and interpretation: ‘
1.5.1 Geographical Focus and Scope: The study is limited to HCMC, so its findings may not be generalizable to other cities or rural areas in Vietnam Moreover, while it focuses on infrastructure and service costs, other influential factors such as attitudes and waste education programs are not fully addressed 1.5.2 Data Representation: A small sample size across districts may lead to underrepresentation of certain areas and the results may not accurately reflect the diversity of experiences or opinions across different groups, and won’t be able to capture the unique characteristics, challenges, or satisfaction levels and willingness to separate of waste of residents in other areas with different
1.5.3 Temporal Constraints: The survey was conducted over a short timeframe of only three days, limiting its ability to capture variations in resident satisfaction or waste behavior over different days, weeks, or seasons
1.5.4 Methodological Challenges: The reliance on self-reported data may introduce biases, as respondents' perceptions could affect the accuracy of satisfaction levels Additionally, clustering analysis using SPSS may oversimplify complex relationships between socioeconomic and service-related factors.
Definition
1.6.1 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Refers to waste collected by municipal authorities or licensed private contractors on a routine schedule It typically includes household waste, commercial waste, and waste generated from public spaces
1.6.2 SWOT Analysis: A framework used to evaluate the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats of a system, policy, or organization, particularly in waste management systems
1.6.3 Recycling: The process of collecting and processing materials that would otherwise be discarded as waste to turn them into new products
1.6.4 SPSS: (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) is a software application widely used for statistical analysis in social science research It provides tools for data management, statistical analysis, and graphical representation of data.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Municipal Solid Waste Management Organizational Structure
Vietnam's municipal solid waste (MSW) management is conducted by government municipalities, organized across districts and wards with a two-tier administrative structure at the city and district levels that applies to all provinces At the city level, MSW responsibilities lie with the People’s Committee and its departments—the Department of Natural Resources and Environment, the Department of Planning and Investment, the Department of Finance, and the Department of Science and Technology; at the district level, the district People’s Committee appoints the District Department of Natural Resources and Environment to oversee MSW management (Schneider et al., 2017) In China, a similar system is adopted, with MSW management primarily the responsibility of local governments, while the environmental protection agency oversees environmental monitoring and MSW-related policies, and the local environmental sanitation department handles waste collection, street sweeping, and the transportation and disposal of refuse (Li, 1999).
The Growth Rate of Municipal Solid Waste Generated
Vietnam's waste generation has surged in recent years, driven by strong economic growth and rapid expansion of the urban population Municipal solid waste (MSW) is estimated to have risen by about 10–12%, equating to roughly 60,000 tons per day nationwide, a change tied to population growth and swift urbanization (Tuan et al.).
2018) This trend of waste mostly not only affected by the economic and urban population growth but because of the different districts and municipalities generate different data sets because of the local systems also affected the amount of waste was not consonant (Tonjes and Swanson, 2000; Tonjes and Greene, 2012)
2.3 Factors Influencing the Growth Rate of Municipal Solid Waste in Vietnam
Vietnam's municipal solid waste (MSW) growth is shaped by rapid economic development, rising urban populations, and diverse local waste management systems As the economy advances, especially in urban centers, higher consumption, intensified industrial activity, and greater population density drive more waste generation (Tuan et al., 2018) However, waste patterns differ across districts and municipalities due to variations in local infrastructure, policies, and management practices Tonjes and Swanson (2000) explain that regional waste data can be inconsistent because of these varied local practices and the lack of standardized waste-management systems, with some areas achieving more efficient waste separation or better collection networks than others These local differences underscore the need to account for place-based factors when assessing the overall MSW growth in Vietnam and to develop targeted strategies that improve data standardization and waste management in both urban and rural areas.
2.4 Municipal Solid Waste Generation and its Characteristic in HCMC
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam's largest urban center, has experienced a significant rise in solid waste generation from 2010 to 2022 (see Figure 1) From 2015 to 2022, the annual growth rate of solid waste was about 6–8%, with an average generation of roughly 1.07 kg per person per day (DONRE, 2022) The current municipal solid waste (MSW) management system collects waste and transports it either directly or via transfer stations to sanitary landfills or composting facilities Recyclable materials are typically separated at the source by residents and informal collectors from households, offices, schools, and business establishments According to DONRE (2016), the city attains a 100% collection rate in urban areas and 95% in suburban regions Of the collected waste, about 68.6% is sent to sanitary landfills, 24.5% is processed at composting plants, and 5.7% is treated through incineration (Nguyen et al., 2020).
Figure 1.The quantity of MSW in HCMC over the years Source: (Source: Le, et al., 2023)
Ho Chi Minh City classifies solid waste into distinct categories to support effective management and recycling, in line with Decree No 12/2019/QD-UBND, Article 3 The main waste categories are Domestic Solid Waste (DSW), Bulky Solid Waste, Ordinary Solid Waste, Construction Solid Waste, and Street Solid Waste Domestic Solid Waste refers to waste generated from daily household activities and is further divided into recyclable waste and residual waste, excluding hazardous materials Bulky Solid Waste includes large items such as furniture (beds, wardrobes), tree stumps, and branches, and is managed under DSW Ordinary Solid Waste covers waste from production, business, and service activities that do not meet hazardous waste thresholds Construction Solid Waste includes waste from construction, renovation, and demolition, while Street Solid Waste denotes waste collected from streets, sidewalks, and public places.
Domestic waste in the city is categorized into three main types: Organic Waste, Recycling and Reusing Waste, and Other Waste Organic Waste includes leftovers from meals and fruit or vegetable peels Recycling and Reusing Waste covers materials such as plastic bags, plastic items, rubber, paper, bottles, and jars Other Waste comprises chemical containers, broken fluorescent bulbs, and expired medicines This categorization supports improved waste management practices, promotes recycling, and enables more effective disposal, contributing to a cleaner and more sustainable urban environment.
Table 1 Waste Content types in Vietnam (Source: Dat, 2024)
Table 1 shows the composition of household solid waste in Vietnam and underscores the importance of waste classification mandated by the Environmental Protection Law of 2020 Organic waste accounts for the largest share at 61.25%, predominantly food waste The law requires food waste to be segregated, stored in designated bags, and sent to appropriate processing facilities; it can be repurposed into organic fertilizer or used as animal feed, supporting sustainable reuse Recycling and reuse must also be sorted separately and delivered to organizations or individuals specializing in recycling or reuse, reducing landfill pressure and boosting resource recovery The remaining 7.15% comprises other waste, including non-organic and non-recyclable items that are contaminated or non-biodegradable, which must be stored in regulated bags and transferred to facilities designed for safe disposal.
Environmental Protection Law 2020, Article 75, requires local authorities to establish guidelines for household waste classification, with Provincial People’s Committees tasked with implementing these regulations and promoting the separate classification of hazardous waste This structured waste-management approach ensures efficient handling of different waste types, encourages recycling and reuse, and supports environmental sustainability by minimizing improper disposal practices.
Garbage collection fees in Ho Chi Minh City are set under Decision No 88/2008/QD-People’s Committee of HCMC and have been in effect since 2008, with household charges divided by location into downtown and suburban areas and differentiated by pickup point—front line or by road; for businesses, offices, and institutions, fees are higher and scale with the volume of waste generated, with additional charges for services such as garbage pickup, transportation, and treatment applied based on the weight of the waste.
Table 2.Garbage fee in Ho Chi Minh City (Source: Dat, 2024)
Location of Waste Collection Monthly Fee
Household in the city Type of Waste Collection
Type of Waste Generating Institution Monthly Fee Other Customer
Type 1: Generated waste volume 250 kg/month
Bars and restaurants (indoor sidewalk, half day)
Bars and restaurants(full day)
Hotels, Big business Markets, supermarkets, shopping malls Production facilities, healthcare, entertainment venues, construction, etc
2.4.3.2 Frequency and Mode of Collection
Waste in Ho Chi Minh City is collected daily, including weekends, with operations paused only during the Lunar New Year when the high share of organic waste can cause odor issues Waste collection is carried out by the Urban Environment Company, Public Services Companies, and the Agricultural Transports Cooperative (Le et al 2023) The city’s Department of Natural Resources and Environment notes that in 2020, districts continued to organize and reorganize the local private waste-collection workforce, mobilizing 502 private waste-collection groups/cooperatives, a figure that rose to 2,366 groups within the same year (Nguyen et al., 2020).
In Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) and other urban areas across Vietnam, domestic solid waste (DSW) is not managed by a single official municipal system; instead, a parallel and sometimes hybrid collection system exists for valuable recyclable materials, as noted by Nguyen, N (2023) In HCMC, recyclable waste is handled by operators following diverse models, ranging from formal municipal collections to informal networks and hybrid arrangements, which together shape how recyclables are sourced, sorted, and directed toward recycling streams.
2.4.3.3.1 Itinerant Recyclable Waste Collectors ( ve chai in Vietnamese)
Ve chai collectors gather or purchase damaged and discarded recyclable materials that still have value They typically travel on foot, following a specific area route each day, and rarely use any transport As they move along their route, they collect materials they encounter and then resell the gathered waste to shops that specialize in buying recyclables, also known as aggregators.
Informal waste pickers typically locate and collect recyclable materials on city streets and near their waste sources, often around waste heaps, large landfills, transfer stations, or solid waste treatment complexes They sell the collected recyclables to aggregators who, in turn, supply recycling facilities.
Aggregators serve as the primary buyers in the recycling value chain, sourcing recyclable materials from itinerant waste collectors, street waste collectors, and directly from waste-generating facilities such as supermarkets, office buildings, markets, and schools They are not limited to junk shops; in many cases, aggregators own the operation themselves After purchasing the sorted waste, they resell the material to recycling companies, either directly or through wholesalers, thereby connecting collection with processing.
This type of operators is referring to the recycling companies holding a licensed company or recycling units like microenterprises or family business which known as
“craft districts or craft villages” specializes in recycling
These waste transport operators specialize in moving recyclable waste from aggregators to recycling companies or to recycling villages Their fleets primarily consist of low-load vehicles capable of carrying up to 2.5 tons per trip, enabling flexible and cost-effective pickups across dispersed routes and strengthening the efficiency of the recycling supply chain.
METHODS
Study Area
Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), formerly known as Saigon, is the largest city in Vietnam, located in the southern region and covering about 2,095 square kilometers with a population of roughly 9.3 million residents and a daily transient influx of 1–2 million people drawn by work, tourism, business, and study The city is expected to grow beyond 12 million residents as urbanization and economic opportunities expand, underpinning rapid development as it contributes about 22% of Vietnam’s national GDP in 2022 with a target to reach 40% by 2030 Administratively, HCMC comprises 24 districts—19 urban inner districts and five suburban districts—each subdivided into wards This study examines the municipal solid waste (MSW) management system across a representative mix of districts, including Districts 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, and the suburban districts Bình Tân, Bình Thạnh, Gò Vấp, Phú Nhuận, and Thủ Đức, as shown in Figure 2, to capture the range of waste management infrastructure in high-density urban areas and their surrounding suburban regions and to provide a comprehensive snapshot of MSW practices across different socioeconomic and geographical contexts.
This survey targets household residents to assess satisfaction with household waste services in Ho Chi Minh City It also analyzes how recent increases in waste collection fees influence satisfaction levels and waste management preferences By examining these factors, the study aims to capture a broad range of perspectives on domestic waste management, recycling efforts, and waste disposal challenges in Ho Chi Minh City.
Figure 2.The Distribution Respondents in Ho Chi Minh City, source : created by author using ArcGIS
Study Design
This study adopts a research design to analyze the municipal solid waste management (MSWM) system in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), Vietnam It reviews prior studies to assess successful strategies, identify challenges, and explore opportunities demonstrated in leading countries that could be applied to HCMC and across Vietnam To enable in-depth analysis, the study incorporates a public participation component within a comprehensive MSWM framework.
Sampling Strategy
This study uses a non-probability purposive sampling approach to select 30 respondents in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), Vietnam, chosen for their direct relevance to the study themes, particularly those affected by the recent increases in waste collection fees Their perspectives illuminate public perceptions of waste management costs and their willingness to engage in recycling initiatives, ensuring the data address the city’s unique municipal solid waste management challenges While large samples are often encouraged to enhance generalizability (Memon et al., 2020), they can also introduce limitations such as inflated statistical significance and Type I errors when effect sizes are small To bolster the potential for robust multilevel analyses, Kreft (1996) advocates the 30/30 rule, which recommends a minimum of 30 groups, each containing at least 30 individuals.
Adapted to align with the HCMC study, Kreft (1996) argues that with at least 30 individuals per group, research can adequately capture variability within individuals and produce more accurate conclusions from the data For the HCMC study, the author also considers practical factors such as budget, time, resources, and other constraints that may influence sample size decisions (Bartlett et al., 2001) Geographical dispersion and limited financial resources pose challenges, making it difficult to access a wide population; traveling between locations or hiring enumerators can be costly and time-consuming, further emphasizing the need to balance practical considerations with methodological rigor Therefore, the decision to limit the sample size to 30 respondents was guided by the scope and feasibility of the study, taking into account these practical constraints while ensuring robust data collection.
Data Collection Method
This study adopts a structured quantitative survey approach informed by established research frameworks, such as those applied in Evans and Mathur (2005) and Couper
(2000) The methodology ensures systematic data collection and analysis, focusing on community perceptions and responses to municipal solid waste management practices in HCMC
Primary data were collected through semi-structured surveys of 30 respondents, focusing on domestic household-level waste management practices, public satisfaction, and awareness of waste services The surveys were conducted face-to-face, enabling direct interaction with respondents and yielding nuanced insights into their perspectives This approach also produced detailed data on how recent increases in waste collection fees have affected residents’ satisfaction and informed a scenario-based preference to improve waste services in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), as shown in Table 3.
Secondary data were extracted from official reports, peer-reviewed studies, and government publications These sources provided supplemental context for interpreting the survey results, offering insights into municipal waste policies,
Field observations at waste pickup points were conducted to understand community-level operational practices and infrastructure, while interviews with key stakeholders—DONRE representatives for governmental insights on municipal solid waste management—were carried out as well Additionally, expert opinions from a UEH environmental science lecturer and the VECA app CEO explored innovative solutions that connect informal waste pickers with residents to facilitate recycling Although these qualitative elements fall outside the study’s quantitative methodology, they provide valuable context by highlighting practical perspectives and systemic challenges in Ho Chi Minh City’s waste management system.
Table 3.Choices Based Preference of Waste Service Questionnaire
Monthly Fee (Cost) 85,000 VND 128,000 VND 171,000 VND
Garbage separation No separation separation( wet, dry, recycling) separation( wet, dry, recycling)
Twice per weeks (wet and dry, wet recycling)
Three per weeks( wet and dry, wet recycling and on the weekend day)
Not included with transportation fees
Together with collection and transportation fees
Together with collection and transportation fees
Data Analysis
The survey responses were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to identify trends and patterns in waste management perceptions in
In Ho Chi Minh City, this study adopts structured data analysis techniques outlined by Dillman, Smyth, and Christian (2014) Descriptive statistics, including frequency analysis, summarize key metrics—socioeconomic factors, satisfaction with waste collection services, and waste disposal practices—providing a clear view of public sentiment and trends in the city’s waste management landscape.
A one-way ANOVA was conducted to assess how demographic factors—age, gender, occupation status, and household income—influence satisfaction, willingness to separate waste, and the preferred MSW management option under the current scenario This analysis aims to understand how demographic characteristics shape attitudes, behaviors, and preferences related to municipal solid waste management in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) To complement the ANOVA results, boxplots visualized the distribution of responses across demographic groups, helping to identify patterns, outliers, and variability in satisfaction and preferences under different scenarios, thereby clarifying data trends and supporting the ANOVA interpretation A hierarchical cluster analysis identified similarities among districts in HCMC, using a dendrogram to reveal how districts cluster based on satisfaction with current waste services, recycling rates, and awareness of waste fees; the analysis also examined relationships among sub-clusters and the factors driving inter-district distances This approach shows how challenges like population density and infrastructure constraints influence proximity and differences among districts By applying these methods in SPSS, the study quantified the influence of these factors on district clustering, yielding insights into shared challenges and potential best practices across the city.
RESULTS
SWOT Analysis of MSW management in HCMC
These findings yield critical insights into Ho Chi Minh City's municipal solid waste management, confirming that satisfaction with waste services, the quality of waste-management infrastructure, and socioeconomic factors significantly shape residents' perceptions and behaviors The results show that higher satisfaction levels align with more responsible waste practices, while gaps in infrastructure correspond to weaker engagement with recycling and proper disposal Together, these factors point to targeted policy and program interventions—improving service satisfaction, upgrading waste-management infrastructure, and addressing socioeconomic disparities—to enhance waste management outcomes in the city.
5.1.1 Demographic and Socioeconomic distribution HCMC respondents
In Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), younger residents—especially those in the young adult bracket—are more engaged and aware of waste management issues, often because they are at life stages such as marriage or starting a household that push them to take on greater responsibility and demand higher service quality Exposure to environmental awareness campaigns across Vietnam further boosts their participation in waste management initiatives The survey also shows a higher representation of females among respondents, shedding light on social dynamics that shape waste practices Most participants fall in the middle-income range, with smaller shares in low- and high-income brackets, highlighting the need for waste fees that are fair, reflect service quality, and remain accessible to lower-income households A progressive, income-based fee structure could help ensure that all residents contribute equitably toward effective waste management services.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Discussion
These findings provide critical insights into municipal solid waste management in Ho Chi Minh City and support the initial hypothesis that satisfaction with waste services, the quality of infrastructure, and socioeconomic factors significantly influence residents’ perceptions and behaviors toward waste management in the city Specifically, higher satisfaction with waste services aligns with more proactive disposal practices and program participation, robust waste-management infrastructure enhances collection and recycling efficiency, and socioeconomic conditions—income, education, and housing context—shape engagement with waste initiatives, collectively affecting the effectiveness of Ho Chi Minh City's waste-management strategies.
5.1.1 Demographic and Socioeconomic distribution HCMC respondents
In Ho Chi Minh City's households, younger residents—especially young adults—are more engaged and aware of waste management issues, often taking on greater responsibility as they enter marriage or start a household and paying closer attention to service quality Exposure to environmental awareness campaigns is rising among Vietnamese youth, which further boosts their participation in waste management initiatives The gender distribution shows a higher representation of females, with implications for understanding the broader social dynamics of waste management practices Most participants fall in the middle-income range, with smaller shares in low- and high-income brackets, underscoring the need for waste fees that are fair and reflect service quality while remaining affordable for low-income groups A progressive, income-based fee structure could ensure equitable contributions from all residents without placing excessive burdens on more vulnerable populations.
5.1.2 Geographical Location and Current Waste Services Distribution of HCMC respondents
Higher responses from residents in specific districts reflect recent waste fee increases that likely raised awareness and engagement with waste management issues These districts have also seen policy changes, including fee adjustments, making residents more responsive to the study’s aim of capturing insights from communities directly affected by waste service costs The findings reveal a notable knowledge gap, with many residents lacking detail about the components of their waste management charges, which can undermine transparency and trust in the system Without clarity on how fees are allocated—administrative costs, collection, and transportation—residents may question the fairness of the fee structure A substantial share of respondents reported higher waste collection fees over the past year, indicating that many households have experienced increased costs.
Ho Chi Minh City has been directly impacted by rising costs, while a smaller group of districts reported no waste management fee increases, possibly due to local policies or subsidies This discrepancy highlights the need for improved communication and transparency from waste management authorities about fee changes, and for enhanced outreach across all districts so residents are fully informed about the reasons and details behind any adjustments.
5.1.3 Demographic Factors Influencing Residents' Satisfaction Levels with Waste Services in Ho Chi Minh City
Resident satisfaction with waste management services in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) is shaped by demographic factors, with age identified as the only significant factor impacting satisfaction levels Findings suggest service delivery improvements should reflect the diverse needs and expectations of different age groups, as variations in household satisfaction are largely driven by age However, for overall satisfaction with the service, no significant differences emerge across gender, occupation status, or household income levels This pattern echoes prior research: Batu, Admasu, and Tolosa (2016) show that while income affects households' willingness to pay for enhanced waste management services, it does not strongly influence satisfaction with the service itself; Zhou, Qi, Riaz, and Ali (2022) report that satisfaction is more heavily influenced by demographic factors such as age, gender, and occupation status than by household income The study thus indicates a demographic influence on HCMC waste management satisfaction, while acknowledging limitations such as sample size and possible district variation that could affect results with a larger sample.
5.1.4 The Impact of Demographic Factors on Household Willingness to Separate Waste and Residents' Preferences for Waste Management Scenarios in Ho Chi Minh City
In Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), demographic factors such as age, gender, income, and occupation do not significantly influence households' willingness to separate waste The study finds no strong association between respondents' demographics and their willingness to engage in waste segregation, suggesting that other drivers may matter more However, results hint that with a larger sample size, age and gender could show a measurable effect on separation behavior Aligning with current challenges, many households lack appropriate waste-separation bins and other waste-management infrastructure, which may impede source-separation practices and contribute to lower willingness to sort waste at the household level.
As of 2023, effective waste segregation hinges on providing residents with easy access to sorting facilities Policymakers in Ho Chi Minh City should prioritize investing in waste sorting infrastructure to improve waste management and environmental outcomes.
Demographic factors, especially age, influence residents' preferences for waste management services Preferences differ across age groups, reflecting priorities related to cost and service quality: younger individuals favor basic, low-cost options with less frequent collection and minimal waste separation, prioritizing affordability over advanced features; adults show a greater willingness to pay for services that balance cost with enhanced quality, preferring features such as waste separation and more frequent collections due to greater environmental awareness; and older adults exhibit the strongest preference for comprehensive waste management, willing to pay more for advanced features like detailed waste separation, more frequent pickups, and inclusive transportation fees These findings align with Shaw (2017), which reported that younger individuals prioritize affordability while older adults favor high-quality services, underscoring the need for age-tailored waste management strategies.
5.1.5 Clustering Patterns of District Characteristics and the Impact of Waste Service Fee Increases in Ho Chi Minh City
Hierarchical clustering of Ho Chi Minh City's districts reinforces the idea that clustering patterns are shaped by waste service cost factors, with several districts consistently forming distinct sub-clusters across multiple hierarchical levels, indicating unique characteristics These differences appear to be driven by higher service costs, socioeconomic disparities, and infrastructure constraints, which together create greater variability in waste management experiences and costs across districts than in others.
Across Ho Chi Minh City, districts cluster at lower rescaled distances, signaling that they share more similar socioeconomic profiles and waste management conditions This pattern suggests that areas with comparable socioeconomic factors and service costs form more homogeneous clusters, while districts facing distinct challenges, such as cost increases or infrastructure issues, exhibit greater dissimilarity in waste management experiences The clustering patterns highlight the strong influence of local waste fee increases on residents’ waste management experiences, supporting the view that these characteristics drive spatial clustering in the city, with variations in waste management outcomes largely shaped by the local waste fee service.
5.2 Implications of the Study Results
This study examines the implications for municipal solid waste management in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) by integrating stakeholder perspectives with quantitative findings It highlights key trends, challenges, and opportunities to improve waste management practices, emphasizing a collaborative approach among local authorities, waste management companies, and residents The quantitative data provide a clear view of current waste generation, recycling rates, and disposal methods, while stakeholder insights reveal the effectiveness of existing systems Together, these findings offer actionable recommendations to enhance MSW management strategies and achieve more sustainable waste outcomes in Ho Chi Minh City.
In Ho Chi Minh City, district-level disparities in waste management fees have led to inconsistent service quality and resident dissatisfaction These fee variations create a perceived unfairness when charges differ and when the basis for assessment and fund use is unclear To address this, policymakers and waste management authorities should collaborate to establish a more equitable and transparent fee collection system Conducting surveys and gathering feedback from residents directly impacted by these disparities provides valuable insights into the issues at hand By improving communication and ensuring a clear, consistent fee structure across districts, authorities can build trust, boost resident satisfaction, and deliver better waste management services.
According to the Department of Natural Resources and Environment (DONRE), the “separation at source” program is scheduled for 2025 to boost household recycling by promoting waste segregation at the source For success, policymakers must ensure vital infrastructure, including designated bins for waste separation; without adequate support, resident participation may decline, hindering the program’s effectiveness Implementing the initiative will require investment in infrastructure and public education to drive broad participation and achieve the program’s recycling goals.
Conclusion
This study offers a comprehensive analysis of municipal solid waste (MSW) management in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), identifying key challenges and opportunities for improvement in urban waste systems Despite limitations in data availability, budget constraints, and the scope of survey audiences, the research yields valuable insights into the factors shaping waste management practices and public satisfaction in HCMC.
Ho Chi Minh City faces waste management challenges due to insufficient infrastructure, limited transparency, and dissatisfaction with fee structures, even as private and informal sectors contribute significantly Informal recyclers remain a vital component of the city's system, helping to manage waste flows amid gaps in formal oversight The upcoming 2025 source separation mandate presents a meaningful opportunity to modernize practices, boost accountability, and improve overall efficiency of waste collection and processing Realizing these opportunities will depend on aligning public policy with the strengths of private and informal actors and investing in infrastructure and governance to advance waste management in HCMC.
HCMC faces key waste-management challenges, including inadequate waste-segregation infrastructure, dissatisfaction with fee transparency, and unreliable service delivery Rapid urbanization and economic growth further strain the city’s waste management systems Addressing these issues will require targeted investments in infrastructure, clearer fee structures, and reforms to boost service reliability and efficiency, alongside efforts to raise public awareness about waste segregation and recycling Sustainable progress depends on reforms that strengthen waste-segregation practices and overall waste-service performance in Ho Chi Minh City.
Although the study has limitations, it offers meaningful insights that underscore the importance of adaptive policies, strategic infrastructure investments, and emerging opportunities to advance waste management in Ho Chi Minh City By leveraging these elements, HCMC can substantially improve its waste management system and serve as a model for other developing cities facing similar environmental and socioeconomic challenges.
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Effective management of domestic solid waste in Vietnam rests on three connected steps: classification at source, secure storage, and efficient transfer Households and small businesses sort waste into recyclables, organics, and residual or hazardous waste, supported by color-coded bins, public education, and a national standard for waste categorization to improve recycling rates Proper storage involves durable, sealed containers, protected by lids, frequent collection, odor and pest control, and safe temporary storage at community hubs to prevent leakage and illegal dumping The transfer phase relies on regular collection routes, compliant waste-collection vehicles, and well-operated transfer stations or facilities that minimize emissions, handling risks, and delays while maximizing material recovery The policy environment in Vietnam increasingly blends local discretion with national guidelines—emphasizing standardized classifications, data systems for monitoring and accountability, infrastructure investment, and partnerships with the private sector and informal sector to bridge gaps Addressing urban growth and resource constraints requires clear classifications, robust data, and transparent governance to reduce environmental impact and support sustainable urban development.
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APPENDICES Appendix A: Field Observation Figures in HCMC
Figure A.1a: Survey Participants in HCMC
A group of young adults from central Ho Chi Minh City participated in an online survey, representing the city’s younger demographic actively providing feedback on waste management services The online format allowed a wide range of respondents to participate remotely, expanding reach and inclusivity for urban waste management insights.
Figure A.1b: Waste Picker from Formal Sector Separating Recyclables in Front of an Apartment in District 1
In Ho Chi Minh City, a waste picker from the formal sector sorts recyclables from general waste—such as water boxes—by hand, placing them into a black plastic bag because many districts still rely on black bags rather than proper separation bins After sorting, she loads the materials into a green cart, which is then transported to a pickup center for collection by a truck the next morning, enabling daily waste management Collections at residential pickup points occur in the morning, while waste is gathered at the pickup centers in the evening, ensuring daily collections across the city.
Figure A.1c: Waste Collection Truck in HCMC Image
In Ho Chi Minh City, the standard waste collection truck collects mixed waste because it is not designed for separation It operates daily, including weekends, with a break only during the Lunar New Year holiday.
Phụ lục B trình bày Quản lý chất thải rắn đô thị và thực hiện một nghiên cứu so sánh giữa Sydney, Úc và Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, Việt Nam, kèm theo Bảng câu hỏi khảo sát (Ho Chi Minh City) dùng để thu thập dữ liệu tại TP Hồ Chí Minh nhằm phân tích hiện trạng, thách thức và hiệu quả của các hệ thống quản lý chất thải, so sánh các phương pháp xử lý và tái chế, từ đó rút ra các khuyến nghị cải thiện hoạt động quản lý chất thải rắn đô thị ở hai thành phố.
A Dữ liệu của người trả lời
• Tốt nghiệp trung học phổ thông hoặc tương đương
• Một số trường cao đẳng, không có bằng cấp
• Việc làm (bao gồm cả tự kinh doanh)
7 Mức thu nhập hộ gia đình:
• Thu nhập thấp (below 5 million VND/month)/( Dưới 5 triệu
• Thu nhập trung bình(from 5 million to 30 million VND/ month)/ (Từ 5 triệu đến 30 triệu VNĐ/tháng)
• Thu nhập cao (above 30 million VND/month)/(Trên 30 triệu
• Căn hộ (Căn hộ cao cấp, Căn hộ trung cấp, Căn hộ giá rẻ)
• Nhà ở (Nhà biệt lập, Nhà chung cư)
B Thu gom rác thải hiện tại
9 Hiện tại bạn đang thanh toán phí thu gom rác thải bằng cách nào?
• Tôi chưa bao giờ trả bất kỳ khoản phí thu gom rác thải nào
10 Chi phí trung bình cho việc thu gom rác thải sinh hoạt hiện tại của bạn:
11 (Cơ cấu phí thu gom và vận chuyển) Bạn có biết phí thu gom và vận chuyển rác thải của bạn được chia như thế nào không?
12 Nếu câu trả lời của bạn là “có”, vui lòng chọn các danh mục được bao gồm (nếu lựa chọn của bạn là khác, vui lòng chỉ rõ) bạn có thể bỏ qua câu hỏi này đến câu hỏi số 13, nếu câu trả lời của bạn là
13 (Nhận thức về việc tăng phí) Bạn có gặp phải tình trạng tăng phí thu gom rác thải trong năm qua không?
14 Nếu câu trả lời của bạn là “có”, số tiền tăng thêm gần đúng mà bạn có thể bỏ qua câu hỏi này đến câu số 15 là bao nhiêu, nếu câu trả lời của bạn là “không”)
15 Nơi cư trú hoặc vị trí hiện tại của bạn có thùng rác riêng biệt cho các loại rác thải khác nhau (ví dụ: rác tái chế, rác thải ướt, rác thải khô) không?
16 (Mức độ hài lòng với dịch vụ hiện tại) Bạn hài lòng như thế nào với dịch vụ thu gom và vận chuyển rác thải hiện tại?
Bảng dưới đây phác thảo các thuộc tính khác nhau trên ba cấp độ tùy chọn dịch vụ, được xây dựng dựa trên các thách thức và các dịch vụ thu gom rác thải hiện tại tại Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh Việc trình bày bảng này ở phần đầu giúp người đọc hình dung nhanh cấu trúc và so sánh các mức độ dịch vụ, đồng thời làm rõ các thuộc tính liên quan đến hiệu quả vận hành, chi phí và lựa chọn phù hợp với bối cảnh thực tế của hệ thống thu gom rác TP.HCM.
Hiểu các lựa chọn: Bảng giúp người trả lời so sánh rõ ràng các tùy chọn dịch vụ khác nhau trước khi trả lời phần tiếp theo, phác thảo các thuộc tính và cấp độ khác nhau cho thấy cách nghiên cứu xem xét các lựa chọn của người trả lời dựa trên việc thu gom rác thải hiện tại tại Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh
Phản hồi có thông tin: Bảng cũng sẽ giúp đảm bảo người trả lời về câu trả lời của họ về lợi ích của các lựa chọn của họ khi bảng xây dựng để giúp cải thiện phí thu gom rác thải hiện tại cùng với hệ thống tái chế, vận chuyển và dịch vụ xử lý trong thành phố
