000069537 second year studentd vocadulary leatning strategies used in an esp context a survey at nam dinh university of technology education
Back ground o f the stu d y
Learning a second language in the com m unicative paradigm involves the m anipulation o f the four macroskills: speaking, w riting, listening and reading and m aking use o f various cognitive, affective, m etacognitive, learning strategies and various types o f know ledge and/or many com petences, which lead to effective com m unication O ne crucial factor is the amount o f vocabulary one possesses as vocabulary form s the biggest part o f the meaning of any language (M cCarthy, 1988)
A s H ill (2003) noted in her recent work about the im portant o f vocabulary teaching and learning, “w hile gram m ar is important, words are the building blocks to com m unication” (p 1) T his im plies that knowledge o f the gram m atical structure plays an im portant part in language learning and equally im portant is that o f knowing the m eanings o f w ords in a text.
Vocabulary, however, is the biggest challenge for most learners It is an essential element of language use; whether in speaking or writing, learners need vocabulary to communicate and understand others Even when learners produce grammatically incorrect sentences, they can still convey their message if they use key words appropriately Conversely, some learners feel uncomfortable because they fail to employ certain words or do not know the words to express themselves Those with larger vocabularies can access information more quickly and understand media more clearly than those with limited vocabulary Vocabulary is indispensable not only for personal communication but also for academic study Many standardized tests—such as TOEFL, IELTS, and GMAT—require solid vocabulary knowledge For this reason, language learners should prioritize learning and developing their vocabulary in the language they are studying.
Vocabulary learning strategies are one component of language learning strategies, which themselves are part of general learning strategies (Nation, 2001) Language learning strategies promote greater self-direction in learners, enabling independent learners to assume responsibility for their own learning and gradually gain confidence, involvement, and proficiency (Oxford, 1990) Accordingly, students need targeted training in the vocabulary learning strategies they need most Research shows that many learners deploy more strategies to learn vocabulary than for integrated tasks such as listening and speaking, though they remain inclined to rely on basic vocabulary learning strategies (Schmitt, 1997) This finding underscores the role of strategy instruction in any foreign or second language program.
At Nam Dinh University of Technology Education (NUTE), students study English for Specific Purposes (ESP) as a compulsory subject, with 30 class hours and 60 hours of self-study, yet they face many difficulties because the ESP syllabus introduces numerous unfamiliar technical terms Learning and retaining new vocabulary, especially technical terms, has always been challenging, and many students struggle to remember meanings and recall words when needed Despite substantial effort, vocabulary learning often yields disappointing results, and low vocabulary proficiency hinders acquiring language knowledge and participating in class activities, making reading ESP texts particularly troublesome since scientific vocabulary underpins specialized texts Consequently, vocabulary is the biggest obstacle for most NUTE learners ESP vocabulary acquisition currently receives considerable attention from English teachers at the university, but despite various vocabulary learning techniques and instruction programs, student results have not improved significantly, underscoring the need to explore the vocabulary learning strategies students commonly use during the learning process.
A s different learning tasks require different strategies, it is worthw hile looking at how learners learn vocabulary and the strategies they use to discover and retain E S P word meaning.
Based on the previous research about vocabulary learning strategies (V L S) as w ell as the reality at NUTE, the researcher decided to carry out a study nam ely as
This study investigates the vocabulary learning strategies employed by second-year students in an ESP (English for Specific Purposes) context at Nam Dinh University of Technology Education, with the aim of contributing to improved vocabulary learning for these students as they engage with ESP coursework and of offering practical recommendations for teachers to enhance the teaching and learning of ESP vocabulary at Nam Dinh University of Technology Education and in similar educational settings.
Purposes and significance o f the stu d y
To address the issue, a survey was conducted to investigate the use of vocabulary learning strategies in an ESP context The study sought to identify which vocabulary learning strategies are most frequently used by second-year students at NUTE and which strategies are most useful in their actual vocabulary learning practice Furthermore, the results examined whether there are significant differences in strategy use between high achievers and low achievers, and they captured the opinions of low achievers toward vocabulary learning.
Carrying out the study, the researcher hopes its findings will be helpful not only for students but also for ELT teachers and researchers While teaching English at NUTE, I have found that the most significant barrier for my students is how to remember new terminology and retrieve it when needed, especially in ESP contexts This study seeks to identify effective strategies for vocabulary retention and retrieval in ESP instruction, offering practical implications for ELT practice and future research in English for Specific Purposes.
I carried out in this research is an attem pt to break down this barrier.
Scope o f the study
This study investigates the vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) used by second-year students at NUTE and compares VLS use between high-scoring and low-scoring groups The findings aim to enhance English language teaching and learning in general, with a focus on ESP vocabulary instruction at NUTE.
O rganization o f the th e sis
This study is divided into five chapters.
Chapter 1: Introduction explains the background of the thesis, the research rationale for undertaking the study, and the aims, objectives, and significance of the work It clarifies the purpose of the study, presents the research questions or hypotheses, and highlights the potential contributions and relevance of the findings The scope and boundaries of the research are defined, including context, limitations, and delimitations The chapter ends with an outline of the thesis organization, summarizing how the document is structured and what readers can expect in each subsequent chapter.
Chapter 2, Literature review, deals w ith the m ost relevant concepts o f the literature review in the area.
Chapter 3, Methodology, describes the research methods and instrum ents used for the completion o f the work and the procedure for carrying out the research.
Chapter 4, R esult and Discussion, presents the findings that resulted from the research and discusses m ajor findings about vocabulary learning strategies.
Chapter 5, Implications and Conclusion, presents the study’s implications, outlines its limitations, and offers recommendations for further research It then provides the conclusion of the entire study, summarizing the main findings and their significance for theory, practice, and policy The chapter also discusses limitations such as methodology, scope, and sample size, noting how these factors influence interpretation and generalizability Based on these insights, it offers concrete recommendations for future research to address remaining questions and to validate and extend the results The chapter concludes with the references section, listing all sources cited throughout the study.
Appendices includes the vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire and semi- structured interview questions
Introduction
This chapter surveys the relevant literature and outlines the key issues related to the topics investigated in this thesis It begins with an examination of language learning strategies, including their definitions, classifications, and the research that has been conducted The next section reviews vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies, covering definitions, importance, classifications, and empirical studies The final section summarizes the chapter and establishes the theoretical foundation for the study reported in this thesis.
Language learning stra teg ies
D efinitions o f language learning stra te g ie s
Research on learning strategies in general, and language learning strategies in particular, is increasingly popular However, among linguists there is no consensus on how to define or frame learning strategies.
According to Nunan (1991, p.68), learning strategies are the mental processes that learners employ to learn and use the target language, a definition that confines strategies to cognitive activities By contrast, Richard et al (1992, p.209) offer a broader view, defining learning strategies as intentional behaviors and thoughts that learners utilize during learning to help them understand, learn, and remember new information This contrast highlights that the concept of learning strategies can encompass both internal cognitive processes and deliberate actions aimed at facilitating language acquisition.
According to Weinstein and Mayer (1986), as cited in O’Malley and Chamot (1990, p 43), learning facilitation is identified as the primary goal of instruction, with a clear emphasis on learner intentionality They state that the purpose of strategy use is to affect the learner’s motivational or affective state and to influence the way the learner selects, acquires, organizes, and integrates new knowledge.
Oxford (1990, p.8) defines learning strategies as “ specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, m ore enjoyable, m ore self directed, more effective and m ore transferable to new situation.”
Ellis defines learning strategies as the specific approaches or techniques a learner uses to acquire an L2, noting that these strategies can be behavioral or mental and are typically problem-oriented (Ellis, 1997, p 76).
Rubin, as cited by Wenden and Rubin (1987, p 19), defines learning strategies as any set of operations, steps, plans, or routines that learners use to facilitate obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using information; in other words, they are the actions learners take to learn and to regulate their own learning.
Learning strategies, as defined by O’Malley and Chamot (1990, p.1), are distinctive methods of processing information that improve comprehension, learning, and the retention of material In other words, they are the deliberate thoughts or behaviors people use to help themselves understand, learn, and remember new information.
Learning strategies are defined differently across cognitive, social, and pragmatic perspectives, which led researchers to develop a taxonomy of learning strategies rather than a single definition This taxonomy organizes the diverse approaches and is presented in the following section.
The characteristics o f learning strategies
Learning strategies are deliberate techniques and approaches that students use to enhance the acquisition and recall of both linguistic and content knowledge, making learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new contexts.
W enden and Rubin (1987, p.7-8) claim ed that learning strategies were com posed o f the following components:
1 They are specific actions or techniques.
2 They can be observable/ behaviourable or non-observable/ mental.
4 They can contribute directly o r indirectly to learning.
5 They m ay be consciously em ployed and becam e autom atized.
Table 2.1 C om ponents o f learning strategies
One widely cited technical definition views learning strategies as the operations used by learners to gain, store, retrieve, and apply information (Oxford, 1990, p 8) However, Oxford argued that this definition does not capture the full complexity and richness of learning strategies She expanded the definition to describe learning strategies as the specific actions learners take to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations (Oxford, 1990, p 8) She also summarized the features of language learning strategies in the following table.
Features of language learning strategies
1 C ontribute to the m ain goal, com m unicative com petence.
2 A llow learners to be more self-directed.
3 Expand the role o f the teacher.
5 A re specific actions taken by the learner.
6 Involve m any aspects o f the learner, not ju st the cognitive.
7 Support learning both directly and indirectly.
Table 2.2 Features o f language learning strategies
In the literature, like the definition o f learning strategies, learning strategies are classified differently by different scholars.
A ccording to Stem (1992), there are five m ain language learning strategies These are as follows:
W enden (1991, p 18) divides learning strategies into tw o broad groups as follows:
According to her explanation, cognitive strategies are the mental steps learners use to process linguistic and sociolinguistic content, while self-management strategies help learners oversee and regulate their own learning She notes that in cognitive psychology these self-management approaches are referred to as metacognitive or regulatory strategies.
Rubin, a pioneer in the study of language-learning strategies, distinguishes strategies that contribute directly to learning from those that influence learning indirectly Rubin (1987) identifies three types of learner strategies that contribute to language learning, encompassing both direct and indirect effects.
Classifications o f language learning strategies
Learning strategies consist of two main types: cognitive learning strategies and metacognitive learning strategies Cognitive learning strategies are the direct steps or operations used in learning or problem solving that require analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials Rubin identifies six main cognitive learning strategies that directly contribute to language learning: clarification/verification, monitoring, memorization, guessing/inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, and practice The indirect strategies include creating opportunities for practice and production tricks.
In the early 1990s, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) proposed a new classification of language learning strategies They defined learning strategies as complex skills and divided language learning strategies into three main types (p 43).
The first type includes strategies fo r overview ing the processes of language use and learning, and for taking steps to efficiently plan and regulate those process
Meanwhile, cognitive strategies are those that involve manipulating information in an immediate task to acquire or retain that information Learners also acquire language through managing interpersonal relationships and regulating their emotional constraints, which are generally categorized as social or affective strategies The framework shows that each of these major categories is interdependent and equally important to the process of language acquisition.
Oxford (1990) developed the Strategies Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), a framework that differs from earlier attempts by being more comprehensive, detailed, and systematic in linking individual strategies and strategy groups with the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing The model classifies language learning strategies into two main categories—direct and indirect—each subdivided into six subgroups, offering a nuanced taxonomy of how learners approach language acquisition.
Language learning strategies in the Oxford system are categorized into two groups: memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies, and metacognitive, affective, and social strategies Metacognitive strategies help learners regulate their learning, while affective strategies address emotional needs such as confidence Social strategies foster greater interaction with the target language, enhancing communicative practice Cognitive strategies are the mental processes used to make sense of new information, memory strategies focus on storing information, and compensation strategies help learners bridge knowledge gaps to sustain communication.
O xford’s (1990, p 17) taxonom y of language learning strategies is show n in the following table:
Class Set o f strategies Specific strategies
I M em ory strategies a Creating mental linkage
3 Placing new words into a context b Applying images and sounds
4 R epresenting sounds in memory. c Reviewing well 1 Structured reviewed d Employing action
1 U sing physical response or sensation
II C ognitive strategies a Practicing 1 Repeating
2 Form ally practicing with sounds and writing system s
3 R ecognizing and using form ulas and patterns
5 Practicing naturalistically b Receiving and sending 1 G etting the idea quickly messages 2 Using resources for receiving and sending messages
2 A nalyzing expressions c A nalyzing and reasoning
5 Transferring d Creating structure for 1 Taking notes input and output 2 Sum m arizing
3 H ighlighting a G uessing intelligently 1 U sing linguistic clues
2 U sing other clues b O vercom ing limitations in speaking and writing
1 Sw itching to the mother tongue
III Com pensation 3 U sing mime or gestures
Strategies 4 A voiding communication partially o f totally
6 A djusting or approxim ating the message
8 U sing a circum locution or synonym
G roup Set o f strategies Specific strategies
I M etacognitive strategies a Centrering your learning 1 O verview ing and lining with already know n material
3 D elaying speech b Arranging and planning your learning
1 Finding out about language learning
4 Identifying the purpose o f language task (purposeful listening / reading/speaking/w riting)
6 Seeking practice opportunities c Evaluating your learning 1 Self-m onitoring
II A ffective strategies a Lowering your anxiety
1 U sing progressive relaxation, deep breathing, o r mediation
2 U sing checklist c Taking your emotional 3.W riting a language learning diary temperature
4 Discussing your feelings with som eone else. a Asking questions
1 A sking for clarification or verification
III Social b C ooperating with others 2 C ooperating w ith proficient users o f the new language strategies c Em pathizing with others
2 B ecom ing aw are o f oth ers’ thoughts and feelings
Oxford’s strategy scheme comprises six strategy groups, subdivided into 19 strategy sets and 62 subsets, totaling 193 strategies when paired with the four language skills Given its comprehensive structure, the system exhibits substantial overlap among strategy groups, and it fails to categorize discrete aspects of language, such as vocabulary-specific strategies.
Vocabulary - Construct o f know ing a w o rd
W ord knowledge is an essential com ponent o f com m unicative com petence (Seal, 1991), and it is important for both production and com prehension in a foreign language Knowing a word involves knowing:
• A great deal about its general frequency o f use, syntactic and situational lim itations on its use.
• Its underlying form and the forms that can be derived from it,
• The network o f its sem antic features and,
• T h e v a rio u s m ea n in g s a s so c ia te d w ith th e ite m
Knowing a word involves more than its meaning: it includes its spelling, pronunciation, the collocations it forms with other words, and its appropriateness in different contexts Nation (1990) defines word knowledge as this multi‑dimensional set, encompassing meaning, form, use, and appropriacy Cook (2001, p.61) likewise highlights that effective vocabulary knowledge integrates these components to reflect how a word actually operates in real language use.
Word knowledge goes beyond the dictionary definition; as Cook notes, knowing a word involves four interrelated aspects: form, including spelling and pronunciation; grammatical properties, such as its part of speech and the structures it can or cannot appear in; lexical properties, including common collocations, word combinations, and context-appropriate usage; and general and specific meaning, covering both its overall sense and contextual nuances These dimensions explain why effective language use depends on attention to form, syntax, and usage as well as meaning, helping learners build a robust vocabulary and communicate with confidence.
Yings (2000) describes several types of context clues that readers can use to guess the meaning of unknown words These include morphology, such as derivation; reference words, like pronouns; and cohesion cues, such as word co-occurrence They also involve explicit clues such as definitions, antonyms, and synonyms, as well as hyponyms, which are sometimes provided in the same sentence Additional cues include alternatives, restatements, examples, and summaries, along with devices of comparison and contrast and punctuation Together, these context clues help readers infer meaning and enhance comprehension when encountering unfamiliar vocabulary.
Stahl (1999, p 15) thinks that there are four levels o f w ord knowledge: (1) word that one never saw (2) w ord that one has heard o f b u t does not know what it means,
(3 ) w ord that one recognizes in context and can explain that it has som ething to do with, (4) word one knows.
Nation (1990) argues that what it means to know a word depends on whether it is learned for receptive or productive skills, a view echoed by Taylor (1990) They contend that knowing a word involves more than its spelling, morphology, pronunciation, and meaning or its equivalent in the learner’s L1; learners must also understand its collocations, its appropriate register, and its polysemy—the phenomenon of a single word having multiple senses For example, “foot” can denote the body part or the base of a staircase, illustrating polysemy, and learners should also be aware of homonyms.
(different w ords w hich happen to have the same spelling and pronunciation, e.g he often lies in the sofa to lie to his wife).
The aspects o f words mentioned above can be exam ined in detail as followed:
Word form is essential in vocabulary learning: when learning a word, learners should not only know what it sounds like—its pronunciation or spoken form—but also how it looks—its spelling or written form Mastering both representations improves accurate recall, correct pronunciation, and appropriate usage in context, while supporting reading and writing skills By paying attention to word form, learners can reinforce memory, reduce spelling errors, and build confidence in using new vocabulary in everyday communication.
+ G ram m ar: a word may have unpredictable change of form and m eaning in different contexts or some idiosyncratic way o f connecting with other w ords in sentences Therefore, when learners learn a new w ord, they should know this inform ation at the same tim e they learn the basic form of a word For exam ple, when a noun such as foot, it should noticed that its plural form is feet.
Collocation is the way words are regularly used together in a language, reflecting natural pairings and restrictions on word choices in context Understanding collocation helps you use language more accurately and fluently, avoiding awkward word combinations For example, you say “throw a ball” but “toss a coin.” Paying attention to collocation can improve your vocabulary and overall communication.
+ W ord m eanings include denotation, connotation, appropriateness and meaning relationship.
Denotation is the aspect of word meaning that points to the real objects or concepts that a term names For example, tiger denotes a carnivorous animal, and rose denotes a red flower that is commonly associated with love These examples illustrate how denotation captures the literal reference of words in language, distinguishing it from connotations or symbolic meanings.
The connotation includes stylistic, affective, evaluative, intensifying values, pragm atic, com m unicative values Connotation o f a w ord may or may not be indicated in a dictionary definition.
Appropriateness is a nuanced aspect of meaning that signals whether a particular word fits a given context For language learners, understanding whether a term is very common or relatively rare, whether it is taboo in polite conversation, whether it tends to be used in writing rather than in speech, or whether it suits formal rather than informal discourse, or belongs to a specific dialect, helps guide effective word choice.
Associations or meaning relationships show how the meaning of one word relates to the meanings of others The main types include synonyms, which have similar meanings; antonyms, which express opposite meanings; hyponyms, which are more specific terms within a broader category; co-hyponyms, which are different terms that share the same hypernym; and superordinate terms, also called hypernyms, which denote higher-level categories that encompass related terms Understanding these semantic connections helps build richer vocabularies, improve nuance in writing, and support SEO by clarifying word relationships and strengthening topic coherence.
Vocabulary learning strateg ies
Vocabulary learning strategies - The definitions
There are many definitions of language learning strategies, and there is no official definition for vocabulary learning strategies, perhaps because vocabulary strategies are generally viewed as part of broader language learning strategies In this study, the working definition of vocabulary learning strategies is adapted from Rubin (1987), as cited in Schmitt (1997, p 203): learning strategies are the processes by which information is obtained, stored, retrieved, and used Therefore, vocabulary learning strategies are any strategies that affect this broadly defined information-processing sequence.
It is believed that the characteristics o f learning strategies introduced by Rubin and O xford as mentioned above are also true to vocabulary learning strategies.
Importance o f vocabulary learning strategies
Across all vocabulary learning strategies, the central benefit is that learners gain greater control over their own learning, taking more responsibility for their studies (Nation, 2001; Scharle & Szabó, 2000) Consequently, these strategies foster learner autonomy, independence, and self-direction (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989, p 291) Equipped with a range of vocabulary learning strategies, students can decide exactly how to approach unknown words A solid knowledge of these strategies and the ability to apply them in suitable situations can substantially simplify the process of learning new vocabulary; for example, independence in selecting which words to study often leads to better recall than when the words are chosen by someone else (Ranalli, 2003, p 9).
Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) are important, according to Oxford and Scarcella (1994, p 236), because they help learners become more independent of their teachers and function as versatile tools usable both inside the classroom and beyond; Leeke and Shaw also discuss this view.
Vocabulary remains a central focus of language learning in higher education, so learners benefit from adopting effective strategies in this area (2000, p.272) Gu and Johnson (1996, p.646) further argue that vocabulary learning strategies contribute to vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading, increasing retention of new vocabulary and making these items more readily available for active use.
Nation (2001) contends that a large vocabulary can be built through vocabulary learning strategies, and these strategies benefit learners across different language levels Since learning strategies are readily teachable (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989, p 291), the time teachers devote to introducing various vocabulary-learning approaches and practice is not wasted Cameron (2001) suggests that children may not implement vocabulary learning strategies independently and therefore require explicit training to use them effectively.
Linguists have long recognized the importance of vocabulary acquisition Gaim and Redman (1986) argue that students should be more responsible for their learning and pay greater attention to individual needs, because after the elementary level it becomes increasingly difficult for teachers to select vocabulary that is equally useful to all learners, making teaching time potentially wasted Schmitt (2000) highlights the need to help learners acquire strategies to learn words on their own, while Oxford and Scarcella (1994) advocate systematic vocabulary instruction to enable learners to master specific strategies for acquiring words even outside the classroom.
Classifications o f vocabulary learning stra teg ies
Language researchers have made various attempts to classify the vocabulary learning strategies employed by foreign- and second-language learners Examples of such classifications include the taxonomies proposed by Gu and Johnson (1996) and Schmitt, which have guided research into how learners approach vocabulary acquisition and practice.
(1997) and Nation (2001) w hich are briefly discussed below:
In a more recent attempt, Nation (2001) proposed a taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies The taxonomy divides strategies into three broad categories—planning, sources, and processing—each encompassing a range of techniques such as creating context, identifying collocations, and producing sentences that include the new word.
Besides, the m nem onic strategies (m em ory strategies) and using the word in different context through four skills are also defined as generating strategies.
G u and Johnson (1996) list second language (L2) vocabulary learning strategies as follows:
Metacognitive strategies consist of selective attention and self-initiation strategies Learners who employ selective attention strategies focus on the words and cues most important to learn and essential for adequate comprehension of a passage Learners using self-initiation strategies apply a variety of means to clarify the meaning of vocabulary items, thereby enhancing overall understanding and reading fluency.
Cognitive strategies in Gu and Johnson's taxonomy include guessing strategies, the skillful use of dictionaries, and effective note-taking techniques Learners who employ guessing strategies draw on their background knowledge and rely on linguistic clues—such as the grammatical structures of sentences—to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words.
Memory strategies are typically grouped into rehearsal and encoding Rehearsal strategies include word lists and repetition, which help information endure in memory through repetition Encoding strategies encompass association, imagery, and multiple encoding modalities—visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual—each of which deepens understanding and improves recall Additional encoding approaches involve analyzing word structure by examining prefixes, stems, and suffixes to enhance decoding and memory for terms Together, these strategies provide a comprehensive framework for boosting memory performance by organizing information and engaging multiple cognitive pathways.
Activation strategies are techniques that enable learners to actually use newly learned vocabulary in diverse contexts For example, learners can compose sentences with the words they have just learned to reinforce meaning and usage These strategies can be summarized in a table below, outlining each method and its practical application for classroom practice or self-study.
Identifying essential words for comprehension
Using a variety of means to make the m eaning o f words clear
A ctivating background know ledge, using linguistic items
Association (im agery, visual, auditory, etc.)
* Using new words in different contexts
Among the more established models, Schmitt’s 1997 taxonomy emerges as the most effective framework for classifying a broad range of L2 vocabulary learning strategies It addresses the gaps in Oxford’s system for categorizing vocabulary-specific strategies by revising and extending earlier work Schmitt’s taxonomy focuses on vocabulary learning and aims to minimize overlap among strategy categories, providing a clearer, more usable map for researchers and educators working in second-language vocabulary acquisition.
Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies divides them into Discovery Strategies and Consolidation Strategies Discovery Strategies, the methods learners use to uncover a new word’s meaning, fall into four main types: guessing or lexical inferencing, analysis of word features, dictionary use, and asking others for help When encountering a word for the first time, learners should rely on their prior knowledge of the target language, contextual clues, or reference materials to infer the meaning or seek information from someone who knows Learners must obtain both the word form and its meaning and then consolidate these in memory before they can actively use the word Consequently, Discovery Strategies are the crucial building blocks of successful vocabulary learning.
After learners acquire initial information about a new word, it is worthwhile to make an effort to remember it Consolidation strategies help commit the newly learned vocabulary to long-term memory Key techniques include word association, grouping related terms, semantic processing strategies, the keyword method, and repetition-based approaches, all designed to strengthen memory retention and ease retrieval of vocabulary.
This simple distinction yields a more comprehensive system of vocabulary-learning strategies, with Discovery Strategies subdivided into Determination and Social Strategies, whereas Consolidation Strategies originate from Social approaches.
M em ory, Cognitive, or M etacognitive Strategy groups A detailed description o f the five vocabulary learning strategy groups w ill be review ed as follows.
Learners can use word-meaning determination strategies such as analyzing parts of speech, examining affixes and roots, checking lexical cognates, and guessing from textual context to deduce the meaning of an unfamiliar word However, Clarke and Nation suggest that these strategies are most effective when learners combine them, verify their inferences against the surrounding text, and practice applying them across a variety of authentic materials to strengthen vocabulary growth.
Be aware that analysis of word parts can lead to misinterpretation, so this strategy is best used to confirm guesses rather than make them Checking for cognates is often feasible, especially with loanwords from other languages, since such words frequently retain similarities in form and meaning Although cognates can be a reliable resource for guessing and remembering new vocabulary, their effectiveness depends largely on the learner’s perceived distance between the two languages (Ringbom, 1986) Other promising approaches include finding a word’s meaning in reference materials such as a dictionary and using word lists and flashcards, which are common tools among language learners.
Social strategies use interaction with others to improve language learning Learners may ask someone who knows to help discover a new meaning, and teachers and peers are often in this position For example, teachers may provide the L1 translation, a synonym, a paraphrase or a definition in a sentence, or use any combination of these approaches There are pros and cons of giving the L1 translation, and these must be weighed A clear advantage of L1 translation is that it is usually effective: learners can easily understand the translations and transfer the knowledge they have of the L1 word—its collocations and associations—onto the L2 equivalent.
H ow ever, the drawback o f this practice is that m any translation pairs are not exact equivalents, so that the translation m ay not b e accurately transferred.
Looking at vocabulary learning from another perspective, learners need to acquire and apply effective consolidation strategies to remember a word after the first encounter According to Ebbinghaus (1913), as cited in Fan, memory consolidation and spaced repetition are key to turning initial exposure into durable retention, so learners should schedule timely reviews and practice at increasing intervals to reinforce new vocabulary.
As early work from 2003 laid the foundation for modern understanding of human memory, it showed that knowledge decays rapidly immediately after learning, but a forgetting plateau emerges about an hour later, at which point the rate of forgetting slows (see Figure 2.1) The findings also indicate that rehearsal helps counter memory loss, making it important to review newly learned material over time.
Research on vocabulary learning strategies
Many experimental studies have examined the effectiveness of different vocabulary learning strategies for ESL learners in improving their vocabulary The following section summarizes two large-scale studies conducted by researchers, outlining which approaches produce the strongest gains in lexical knowledge and how learner variables may influence outcomes Taken together, these studies provide evidence-based guidance for selecting and implementing effective vocabulary instruction in ESL contexts.
This section reviews key studies on vocabulary learning strategies, starting with Gu and Johnson (1996) and Schmidt (1997) who examine how Asian students approach vocabulary acquisition It then considers Fan (2003), whose work with local tertiary students identifies the different dimensions of vocabulary learning strategies A case study by Law (2003) among Form Four students in a CMI secondary school sheds light on current vocabulary teaching and learning in the Hong Kong secondary school context The review concludes with Trinh Tuyet Mai (2008), whose research on vocabulary learning strategies used by students at Lang Son College of Education adds a regional perspective.
Gu and Johnson (1996) sought to identify the vocabulary learning strategies used by Chinese university learners of English and to examine the relationship between those strategies and their learning outcomes They surveyed 850 sophomore non-English majors at Beijing Normal University to collect data on students’ approaches to vocabulary learning and how these approaches related to their success in English.
C hina to com plete a vocabulary learning questionnaire in order to elicit students’ beliefs about vocabulary learning and their self-reported vocabulary learning strategies.
Researchers correlated questionnaire responses with scores on a vocabulary size test and the CET-Band 2, finding that participants tended to believe vocabulary should be memorized while also requiring careful study and practical use They found that contextual guessing, proficient dictionary use, note-taking, attention to word formation, contextual encoding, and activation of newly learned words were positively related to both test scores, whereas visual repetition of new words emerged as the strongest negative predictor of vocabulary size and general proficiency (Gu & Johnson, 1996: pp 643–644) Schmitt’s 1997 research is noted in this line of inquiry.
Schmitt (1997) conducted a large-scale study examining the relationship between the use of vocabulary learning strategies and learners’ perceived usefulness of those strategies The research surveyed a sample of 600 Japanese students to identify which vocabulary learning strategies they actually used and to assess how helpful they believed these strategies to be, yielding insight into which approaches learners find most effective in practice.
The results showed that six strategies were m ost com m only used: “using a bilingual dictionary", “using a w ritten repetition” ,” using a verbal repetition” , “saying a new word aloud”, “studying a w ord’s spelling", and “taking notes in class” O f those reported strategies, they considered dictionary and repetition strategies were m ore useful than others In contrast, they used few er imagery and sem antic grouping strategies than other strategies and regarded them as the least useful.
Schm itt”s (1997) study has three im plications for vocabulary learning and teaching First, it is evident that more advanced learners tended to use more com plex and meaning-focus strategies than less advanced learners Second, patterns o f strategy use can change over time as a learner either matures or becomes m ore proficient in the target language Finally, these results imply that learners may be w illing to try new strategies if they are introduced to and instructed in them Therefore, cognitive m aturity and language proficiency should be taken into consideration when introducing strategies to the learners and a wide range o f strategies should be recom m ended over time. c, Fan’s research (2003)
Early in 1999, Fan sought to identify the factors contributing to success in learning a second language She examined the beliefs and strategies of Hong Kong tertiary students learning English The study’s findings revealed a consistent relationship between language learning beliefs and the strategies employed by learners and their success in acquiring an L2.
Recently, Fan (2003) launched the largest scale project ever conducted in
H ong Kong concerning the learning o f English vocabulary by C antonese speakers
This study investigates the frequency with which learners use vocabulary learning strategies, their perceived usefulness, and the actual effectiveness of these strategies, drawing on Fan's research that included 1,067 university entrants who had recently been offered places at seven local higher education institutions.
Data were collected via a vocabulary test and a vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire, and the results indicate two distinctive features of Hong Kong tertiary learners First, unlike Japanese learners in Schmidt (1997), these students did not regard repetition strategies as useful, nor did they use these strategies more frequently than others Second, there is strong evidence that Hong Kong tertiary learners do not favor imagery or grouping strategies in vocabulary learning Their reluctance to use association strategies may reflect the language distance between their mother tongue and the target language.
Taking inspiration from Fan’s (2003) study, Law (2003) extended the examination of vocabulary learning within a secondary school context She conducted an action research project involving 80 Form Four students to explore both their perceptions of vocabulary learning strategies and their actual use of those strategies The participants studied in a Band Two secondary school in Hong Kong, where Chinese was the medium of instruction for all subjects except English and Putonghua.
This study was implemented in three phases—semi-structured interviews, a survey, and think-aloud vocabulary tasks The results indicated that most intermediate learners focused on learning the word form and neglected the context, and Law (2003) explained that this might be due to the practice of using.
L1 and L2 word lists play a role in teaching and learning L2 vocabulary in junior forms Furthermore, Law (2003) reported that guessing from context or inferencing and using a dictionary were the most common strategies for students to discover a new word meaning at the first encounter Law also found that students seldom spent time and took initiative to learn vocabulary outside class time The results suggested that teachers should make learners aware of their own responsibility in vocabulary learning and expose them to different approaches and strategies in enhancing vocabulary acquisition, as discussed in Trinh Tuyet Mai’s research (2006).
Trinh Tuyet Mai (2006) conducted a survey among English majors at Lang Son College of Education to identify the most frequently used vocabulary learning strategies and the factors influencing students’ choices The study found that individual cognitive strategies were the most commonly employed, with two sub-strategies—using the vocabulary section of the textbook and taking notes in class—being particularly prominent Memory-based and social strategies were the least favored Mai attributed this to Vietnamese cultural background and typical learning styles, which make students less comfortable with learning through pair work, group work, or by asking peers and teachers The research also identified several factors shaping strategy choice, including vocabulary learning anxiety, starting proficiency, learning a second language, ethnicity, and age.
Sum m ary
This chapter surveys the history of research on the issue, introduces learning strategy concepts and the classifications of learning strategies, and reviews empirical studies on vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) in Vietnam and in other countries These findings provide teachers with valuable insights for understanding vocabulary teaching and learning, and they illuminate the design principles underlying the present study.
In tro d u ctio n
This chapter provides a detailed account of the research design, including the study setting, participants’ backgrounds, and instrument design It also outlines the data collection procedures and describes the methods used for data analysis.
Research q u e stio n s
The prim ary aim o f the present study is to investigate the vocabulary learning strategies o f the second year students at NUTE This research attempts to answer the follow ing questions:
1 W hich vocabulary learning strategies do the second year students at NUTE use most frequently?
2 W hich vocabulary learning strategies do the second year students at NUTE perceive as m ost useful?
3 Is there any difference betw een the use and the perception o f vocabulary learning strategies by high and low achievers?
4 How do the low achievers perceive vocabulary learning?
Research d e sig n
The study was implemented in two stages In the first stage, a vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire (see Appendix 1) was administered to second-year students to capture their perceptions of how often they used the strategies and how useful they found them.
T he questionnaire draws on five categories: Determ ination, Social, M emory,
C ognitive and M etacognitive based on Schm itt (1997) taxonom y o f VLS It included
33 statem ents describing how the learners discover and consolidate a new word.
From a cohort of 193 students, the 20 with the lowest first-year Basic English scores were selected to participate in semi-structured interviews in the second stage (see Appendix 3).
D ata collected through this stage reflected the low achievers’ opinions on vocabulary learning.
The subjects o f the s tu d y
A total of 193 second-year students at NUTE, aged 19 to 23 and from various regions of Vietnam, agreed to participate in the study Some had been studying English for many years, while others began learning English only in their first year To form comparison groups, the researchers used each student's English average from the previous year to select the top 20 high achievers and the bottom 20 low achievers.
Data collection in stru m en ts
V ocabulary learning strategies qu estio n n aire
An adapted questionnaire (Appendix 1) based on Smith (1997) was used to explore learning‑strategy use among 193 second‑year students at NUTE The instrument has two sections: the first gathers personal information about participants, and the second assesses the strategies they may have used It contains 33 items, divided into five categories: Determination, Social, Memory, Cognitive, and Metacognitive.
Metacognitive strategies were evaluated by asking participants to rate each strategy statement on a five-point Likert scale, reflecting how frequently they used the strategy from 1 (never) to 5 (always) In addition, participants identified which strategies they perceived as useful The questionnaire presents a repertoire of strategies for assessment, forming the core of the study’s metacognitive measure.
4 A sk the teacher for an L I translation
5 A sk the teacher fo r a sentence including the new word
6 Ask the classm ates for meaning
7 Discover new m eaning through group work activities
8 Ask the teacher fo r checking word lists for accuracy
9 Associate new w ords w ith know n words
10 Connect word to a personal experience
11 Associate the w ord w ith its synonym s and antonyms
12 Group words together to study them
13 Use new word in sentences
15 Use the vocabulary section in your textbook
17 Study words through the m ass m edia (internet, television program s, newspaper, m agazines, songs, film s )
20 Put English labels o n physical objects
21 Skip or pass new w ord
23 Explain the m eaning in your ow n English
26 A nalyze the affixes and the roots o f w ords (rem em bering)
27 R em em ber part o f speech
29 Learn the words o f an idiom together
30 Test oneself with w ord tests
31 Study w ords through talking to classm ates
32 Associate English sounds and w ord formation with Vietnam ese
33 C ontinue to study w ord o v er tim e
For more detail, a table o f vocabulary learning strategies in the questionnaire is provided below:
Group of strategies Questions in the questionnaire
Table 3.1 V ocabulary L earning Strategies in The Q uestionnaire
Sem i-structured interview
To reveal students' beliefs and attitudes toward vocabulary learning, the difficulties they encounter in learning vocabulary, and the use of strategies not addressed in the questionnaire, researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with a group of 20 low-achieving learners.
Participants were given a list of closed- and open-ended questions prior to their interviews They responded in Vietnamese during the interviews Each interview was conducted individually to ensure privacy The interviews were audio-recorded for research purposes, and the researcher took notes to supplement the data.
The following questions were answ ered by the participants in the interview:
1 How im portant do you think vocabulary learning is? Why?
2 You are asked to rate the im portance o f vocabulary learning from 1 to 10 “ 1” is the least im portant and “ 10” is the m ost im portant How do you rate it?
3 D o you plan your vocabulary learning? How?
4 How much tim e do you spend on vocabulary outside class tim e ?
5 W hat do you do when you m eet a new w ord?
6 D o you think the m ethod(s) is/are effective to discover a new word meaning?
7 W hat d o you do to study and rem em ber a new word?
8 D o you think the m ethod(s) is/are effective to help you rem em ber a new word?
9 W hat difficulties do you m eet w hen you learn vocabulary?
The setting o f the s tu d y
The study was conducted at NUTE, where students learn English for Specific Purposes (ESP) in the third term, and where the researcher has been teaching English for five years Prior to the study, informed consent to participate will be sought from potential second-year student participants.
Data collection p ro c e d u re s
The vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire took approximately 30 minutes to complete and was administered during the students' English class Prior to the assessment, participants were informed that participation was voluntary and that their responses would remain confidential; they were also encouraged to provide their opinions as honestly as possible, a factor crucial to the study's success The researchers reaffirmed that the purpose of the study was to improve students' English learning in general and their vocabulary learning in particular The questionnaire was written in Vietnamese (Appendix 2) so that all informants could understand and complete every item.
Twenty low-achieving participants took part in a semi-structured interview, conducted individually They were interviewed one-on-one, and a list of questions was provided to them 15 minutes prior to the interview The questions were also in Vietnamese (see Appendix 4).
Data an aly sis
Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from a vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire and accompanying interviews The questionnaire data were coded for statistical analysis to identify which vocabulary learning strategies are most commonly used and how often students at Nam Dinh University of Technology Education employ them In the analysis, high frequency is defined as always or usually, and low frequency as sometimes or rarely Each questionnaire item was examined within its strategy group, and responses were summarized by percentage Mean scores for vocabulary learning strategy use were calculated to examine differences between high- and low-achieving students.
T he subjects self-reported their actual use o f strategies and the usefulness o f each strategy were added up to reflect the general pattern o f the strategy use am ong
193 second year students at NUTE.
To determine the difference in VLS usage between high achievers and low achievers, the study conducted an in-depth analysis of the results from 40 student questionnaires—20 high achievers and 20 low achievers—as described in section 3.4.
The study’s second and final instrument was a semi-structured interview Twenty low-achieving students were interviewed individually immediately after completing the questionnaire To complement the data from the questionnaire’s closed items, the interviews explored the students’ opinions on vocabulary learning, the strategies they used, and the difficulties they faced when learning vocabulary.
The tape recordings o f the interview s w ere trandlated into English and recurring and salient responses w ere identified and included in the discussion o f results.
S um m ary
In this chapter, the research design and instrum ents used in the study were described The study was carried out in tw o stages: a questionnaire adm inistered to
This study involved 193 second-year students and semi-structured interviews with 20 first-year students who had the lowest English scores After data collection, both quantitative and qualitative analyses were conducted Questionnaire data provided a general pattern of strategy use and identified the most useful strategies among the 193 students at NUTE, as well as the differences between high achievers and low achievers Qualitative data from the semi-structured interviews illuminated low achievers’ perspectives on vocabulary learning The next chapter presents a detailed account of these results, interpreted in light of the literature and the actual situation.
In tro d u ctio n
This chapter presents results o f the vocabulary learning strategies o f second year students at N U TE gained through a questionnaire and sem i-structured interviews.
Students’ use o f vocabulary learning s tra te g ie s
The m ost-used VLS by second year stu d en ts
Research question 1: Which vocabulary learning strategies do the second year students at N U TE use m ost freq u en tly?
Questionnaire data were coded for statistical analysis to identify which vocabulary learning strategies are most commonly used and how often students at Nam Dinh University of Technology Education apply them In this study, high frequency means always or usually, while low frequency means sometimes or rarely Each questionnaire item was analyzed within its vocabulary learning strategy group by calculating its percentage, and mean values of strategy use were computed to examine differences between high achievers and low achievers The section titled “Applying Determination to Learning English Vocabulary” presents these analyses.
Table 4.1 Students’ use o f D ET strategies in vocabulary learning
Question 1 results show that 47.1% of informants always or usually found the meaning of a new word by guessing from textual context, while 46.2% used this strategy at a low frequency Only 6.7% never did so These findings highlight the prominence of contextual guessing as a reading strategy for deriving word meaning among participants, with a small minority not relying on contextual cues.
Monolingual dictionary use (Question 2) is expected to be infrequent in our English‑learning setting The results for Question 2 show that 30.1% of informants never use monolingual dictionaries, 19.6% do use them, and 50.3% use this type of dictionary only infrequently.
The third question reveals how often the informants used bilingual dictionaries, showing that almost all participants relied on English–Vietnamese dictionaries with a high frequency of use, at 73.1% Importantly, none of the informants reported never looking up a new word in a bilingual dictionary, indicating a strong preference for bilingual language resources when encountering unfamiliar terms.
Bilingual dictionaries are used more frequently than monolingual dictionaries because they help learners quickly grasp meanings and avoid time-consuming guessing from context While monolingual dictionaries encourage active vocabulary practice and deeper engagement with word usage, many students are still advised to start with bilingual dictionaries to build familiarity, and once they are comfortable with this strategy they often find it very helpful for English vocabulary learning Additionally, applying social strategies to learning English vocabulary—such as collaborative study with peers, discussing word meanings, and sharing contextual clues—can enhance retention and fluency, making dictionary-based learning more effective.
4 A sk the teacher fo r an LI translation 2.6 50.8 23.3 18.1 5.2
5 A sk the teacher fo r a sentence including the new word 4.6 13.0 47.2 30.6 4.6
6 A sk the classm ates for meaning 9.3 53.9 36.8 0.0 0.0
7 D iscover new meaning through group work activities 10.3 30.6 30.6 16.6 11.9
8 A sk the teacher for checking w ord lists for accuracy 1.5 16.1 31.1 39.4 11.9
Table 4.2 Students’ use o f SO C strategies in vocabulary learning
In Question 4, 53.4% of informants usually asked their teacher to translate a new word into Vietnamese, 23.3% sometimes did so, and 18.1% rarely did so; 2.6% always asked for their teacher’s help, and 5.2% never did.
Asking teachers or friends to compose a sentence that uses a newly learned word is a common strategy for learning and retaining new vocabulary (Question 5) In the study, up to 47.2% of informants revealed that they sometimes asked their teacher or a friend to create a sentence containing a new word The results also show that 4.6% always did so, 30.6% rarely did, and 4.6% never did.
Besides incorporating a new word into a sentence, students often turn to peers for Vietnamese translations In question 6, 53.9% of respondents said they usually ask friends or classmates to translate a new word into Vietnamese, while 36.8% reported that they sometimes do so.
W ith regard to studying and practicing meaning o f words in a group (question
7), only 10.3% o f the inform ants alw ays used it 30.6% o f them usually and the sam e num ber rarely adopted it 11.9% never did so.
When asked whether they asked their teacher to check the meaning or spelling (question 8), 70.5% of students used this strategy at low frequency, 11.9% never used it, and 17.6% employed it at high frequency.
C om m unicating w ith native speakers (question 24) is a fantastic w ay to practice vocabulary N oticeably, there have recently been som e voluntary foreign teachers com ing to school and this is a w onderful chance for students to practice their English in general and their vocabulary in particular How ever, a m oderate num ber o f the inform ants (1.1% ) alw ays took the chances to use it M eanw hile, 4.1% usually, 29.5 % som etim es, 39.4% rarely and up to 25.9% never did so.
In this group, the inform ants reported that more than half o f them used these strategies with low frequency (57.1% ), about 33.0% used them w ith high frequency and 9.9% never did so It can be seen that these strategies were not frequently used by the students Asking teachers or friends for L I translation is the most frequently used strategy (94.8-100% ) w hile interacting with native speakers is the least frequently used (74.1% ) This fact can be easily understood because students are not afraid to ask their friends or teachers fo r their help in LI translation As far as I know that our students do want to interact with native speakers although they d o n ’t have many chances, and when they m eet a foreigner, they are so pessim istic that they can ’t talk to him /her; it is because o f the fact that the students d o n 't have enough vocabulary to com m unicate w ith native speakers Studying and practicing meaning o f w ords in groups or peer learning was not frequently used by the students A possible explanation is that the students have no extra tim e for this activity They finish school and then go hom e and most o f them have the habit o f learning at home by themselves For the students living in the hostel, this activity can be easily organized and conducted But why d id n ’t they do it? They d id n 't make use o f this activity regardless o f its benefits such as vocabulary com m and, com m unicative competence, cooperation, group work skills and som ething like that Students should be encouraged to em ploy this strategy in learning vocabulary Asking teacher to check the m eaning o r spelling was used with low frequency or even 11.9% o f the students never used it T his can be acceptable They can apply this strategy to peer learning instead o f asking their teacher. c, Applying Memory strategies to learning vocabulary
9 A ssociate new w ords with know n words
10 C onnect w ord to a personal experience
11 A ssociate the w ord with its synonym s and antonyms 0.0 0.0 11.9 51.8 36.3
12 G roup w ords together to study them
13 Use new w ord in sentences 9.9 15.5 52.3 20.7 1.6
23 Explain the meaning in your own English
26 A nalyze the affixes and the roots o f words (rem em bering)
27 R em em ber part o f speech 23.3 54.4 15.5 5.7 1.1
29 Learn the words o f an idiom together
T able 4.3 Students’ use o f M EM strategies in vocabulary learning
Question 9 examined whether informants linked a newly learned word to words they already knew This strategy was used by more than half of the participants (53.4%), but it occurred with low frequency Only 7.2% of informants always used it, while 28.0% typically employed the strategy.
M eanw hile, 11.4% o f them never used this strategy.
Associating new words with personal experience can boost vocabulary learning Question 10 shows that 79.3% of respondents connect new words to personal experiences at least occasionally, whereas only 11.9% use this strategy with high frequency, and 8.8% never do so.
Sense relationships, such as coordination, synonymy, and antonymy, are used to consolidate vocabulary more effectively In Question 11, more than half of the informants reported using this strategy only occasionally or rarely (11.9% sometimes and 51.8% rarely) Conversely, 36.3% never use it, and no respondents reported high-frequency use.
Grouping words by topic or by word type as a study strategy was used by 14% of informants Meanwhile, 40.9% used it sometimes, 35.2% rarely, and up to 9.9% never practiced this approach.
T o our surprise, the m ajority o f the inform ants reported that they sometimes (52.3% ) or rarely (20.7% ) m ade sentences to study or practiced the m eaning of words (question 13).
The difference in the use o f V LS betw een high and low achievers
Research question 3 Is there any difference between the use vocabulary learning strategies by high a n d low achievers?
Each student has his or her own Vocabulary Learning Strategy (VLS) to uncover the meaning of new words they encounter In this study, the researcher aims to explore the VLS of high-achieving and low-achieving students and to compare these strategies to determine whether they differ.
M eans w ere calculated and then com pared to find the difference in the use o f VLS betw een high and low achievers.
1 G uess its meaning from textual context 4.05 2.75
4 A sk the teacher for an L I translation 3.1 3.05
5 A sk the teacher for a sentence including the new word 2.9 2.55
6 A sk the classm ates for m eaning 3.3 4.3
7 D iscover new m eaning through group work activities 3.25 2.3
8 A sk the teacher for checking w ord lists for accuracy 2.85 2.2
9 A ssociate new words w ith know n words 3.55 2.4
10 C onnect w ord to a personal experience 3.1 2.2
Associate the word with its synonyms and antonyms
G roup w ords together to study them
Use new w ord in sentences
Use the vocabulary section in your textbook 4.25 4.7
Study w ords through the m ass m edia (internet, television program s, new spaper, m agazines, 2.5 2.5
Put English labels on physical objects
Skip or pass new w ord
Explain the m eaning in your ow n English 2.7 2.55
A nalyze the affixes and the roots o f words
Rem em ber part of speech 3.85 2.6
Learn the w ords o f an idiom together 2.1 1.7
Test oneself with w ord tests 3.6 2.4
Study w ords through talking to classm ates 3.55 2.4
Associate English sounds and w ord formation w ith Vietnam ese 2.65 1.95
Continue to study w ord o v er time 3.65 2.0
Table 4.7 C om parisons o f Strategy Use by high and low achievers.
A ccording to the data from the above table the high achievers had a large proportion o f m ean value above 3.0 Up to 6 strategies had m ean values above 4
Among the 33 strategies, high achievers relied more on using a monolingual dictionary (M = 4.0), consulting the vocabulary section in their textbook (M = 4.25), guessing its meaning from textual context (M = 4.05), and using written repetition (M = 4.15) They also prioritized taking notes in class (M = 4.3) and highlighting new words (M = 4.0).
Among the low achievers, the mean scores for strategies were mostly between 2.00 and 3.00, with three strategies scoring above 4.00 and up to seven strategies scoring below 2.00 The low achievers preferred using the vocabulary section in the textbook (M = 4.7), asking classmates for meaning (M = 4.3), and using a bilingual dictionary (M = 4.25) (see Table 4.7) There were only three strategies in which undergraduate students recorded higher means than the high achievers.
High achievers tend to rely on monolingual dictionaries and infer the meaning of new words from contextual clues, whereas low achievers prefer bilingual dictionaries and asking classmates for help Using the vocabulary section in your textbook is both useful and feasible, and it is favored by both high- and low-achieving learners.
In terms of consolidation strategies, high achievers posted three mean values above 4: taking notes in class (M = 4.3), using written repetition (M = 4.15), and highlighting new words (M = 4.0) By contrast, low achievers relied on a single high-frequency strategy—using the vocabulary section in the textbook (M = 4.7) Comparing the mean values shows that high achievers appear to work harder, using almost all strategies more frequently, which helps explain their higher English final scores They also spend significantly more time studying words (M = 3.65 for continuing to study words over time), whereas the mean for this strategy among low achievers was only 2.0.
High achievers use vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) more frequently than low achievers, but both groups should boost their awareness of English learning and, in particular, vocabulary development English and ESP are becoming more central to graduation exams and future careers, so students should devote more time and effort to vocabulary learning and adopt a broader set of effective strategies Teachers should guide students on selecting and applying appropriate vocabulary learning strategies, enabling improvements in general English proficiency and ESP-specific language skills.
S um m ary
The results of the questionnaire summarize the strategies used by second-year students and compare the approaches of high achievers and low achievers The data indicate that using the vocabulary section in the textbook was the most commonly used strategy among the students at NUTE, and also among both high achievers and low achievers.
Among vocabulary learners, high achievers employ a broad set of strategies to learn and consolidate new words, including inferring meaning from textual context, using monolingual dictionaries, taking notes in class, utilizing written repetition, and highlighting unfamiliar terms In contrast, low achievers rely on a more limited range of strategies, primarily using bilingual dictionaries and asking classmates for the meanings of words.
