This thesis investigates the role of digital media in constructing and disseminating Vietnam’s national brand through two iconic cultural symbols: Phở Vietnamese noodle soup and Áo Dài t
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Amid globalization and digital transformation, the nation’s image is increasingly shaped by cultural narratives on digital platforms rather than by diplomacy or traditional media alone National branding—the strategic projection of a country’s identity to the global public—has become a vital tool for enhancing soft power, attracting tourism, promoting exports, and earning international recognition, as noted by Dinnie (2008) and Nye (2004).
Among the six dimensions of the Nation Brand Index (NBI) proposed by Simon Anholt
Culture plays a pivotal role in shaping a nation’s global image, as Anholt (2006) notes Cultural elements such as food, fashion, festivals, and the arts are powerful vehicles for communicating national identity and engaging audiences emotionally, a point supported by Anholt (2006) and Kaneva (2011).
In Vietnam, Phở and Áo Dài are deeply rooted cultural symbols that embody the country’s historical, aesthetic, and emotional values Phở represents culinary sophistication and regional diversity in Vietnamese cuisine, while Áo Dài reflects traditional elegance, femininity, and national pride These symbols have endured through historical transitions and have gained increasing visibility in international cultural discourse When effectively communicated through digital platforms, they hold strong potential to contribute to Vietnam’s national branding The rise of social media and online content creation has opened new avenues for the country to tell its stories and shape perceptions among international audiences who may never have visited.
Despite this potential, Vietnam's current global brand ranking remains modest According to the FutureBrand Country Brand Index (2020), Vietnam ranks 64th out of
Vietnam ranks 75th globally and 13th in the Asia-Pacific region in terms of its international brand performance, placing it among the lowest of four national brand groups that have yet to build a compelling or recognizable international image (Ministry of Information and Communications, 2020) This gap between Vietnam’s rich cultural heritage and its limited international visibility underscores the need for more strategic efforts in cultural representation and digital media engagement to boost the country’s global brand.
With the growing influence of social media and user-generated content, these symbols are being shared, interpreted, and reimagined on platforms such as Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube Digital media offers a unique opportunity to amplify these representations beyond geographical boundaries, making them part of global cultural conversations (Hall, 1997; Rahma Adila et al., 2022) However, how these digital portrayals affect Vietnam’s national image and whether they are effectively aligned with nation branding strategies remains underexplored
This study situates itself at the intersection of digital communication and cultural branding, aiming to investigate how Phở and Áo Dài are represented on digital media and how they contribute to building Vietnam’s national brand in the eyes of domestic and international audiences.
Problem Statement
Despite growing global attention to cultural diplomacy and digital storytelling, Vietnam has yet to fully capitalize on the strategic potential of digital media in building its national brand While Phở and Áo Dài are widely recognized as national symbols, their representations in digital spaces often lack consistency, depth, and alignment with a coherent branding strategy Many digital portrayals are fragmented, overly commercialized, or targeted primarily at tourists, resulting in limited cultural depth and engagement (Nguyen & Do, 2020; Pham, 2024)
Moreover, these representations often fail to reflect the diversity of audience perspectives International audiences especially those who have never visited Vietnam may form impressions of Vietnamese culture primarily through mediated images and content online If these digital narratives are not thoughtfully curated, they risk perpetuating stereotypes or diminishing the cultural authenticity and symbolic richness of national symbols (Kaneva, 2011; Hall, 1997)
In the context of Simon Anholt’s Nation Brand Index (2006), where culture is a key dimension shaping a country's global image, the need for strategic representation becomes even more critical Yet there remains a lack of empirical research exploring how Vietnamese cultural symbols such as Phở and Áo Dài are constructed, mediated, and interpreted through digital media, particularly from the perspective of diverse domestic and international audiences
This study addresses this gap by investigating the digital representation of Phở and Áo Dài and evaluating their contribution to Vietnam’s nation branding It aims to explore both the messaging created by media and the meaning received by audiences, thus bridging the space between production and perception in digital cultural diplomacy.
Research Objectives
This study aims to achieve the following objectives:
1 To examine how Phở and Áo Dài influence perceptions of Vietnam’s national brand
2 To evaluate the moderating role of digital media in the relationship between cultural symbols (Phở and Áo Dài) and national brand perceptions
3 To compare the perceptions of domestic and international audiences regarding Phở and Áo Dài as represented through digital media platforms.
Research Questions
This study is guided by the following research questions:
1 How do Phở and Áo Dài as cultural symbols influence perceptions of Vietnam’s national brand?
2 To what extent does digital media moderate the relationship between Phở and Áo Dài and perceptions of Vietnam’s national brand?
3 How do domestic and international audiences differ in their perceptions of Phở and Áo Dài through digital media platforms?
Significance of the Study
This study holds both academic and practical significance in the fields of cultural studies, communication, and nation branding
The research contributes to the existing literature on nation branding by examining the intersection of cultural symbols, digital media, and audience perception While much of the existing scholarship focuses on macro-level branding strategies or policy-driven campaigns, this study adopts a cultural-symbol approach, using Phở and Áo Dài as representative case studies By applying frameworks such as the Nation Brand Index (Anholt, 2006), representation theory (Hall, 1997), and soft power theory (Nye, 2004), the research expands theoretical understanding of how cultural elements are mediated digitally and perceived transnationally It also contributes to emerging discussions on the role of digital media in cultural diplomacy and identity construction in Southeast Asia
From a policy and strategic communication perspective, the study provides empirical insights into how Vietnam’s national image is shaped through everyday cultural symbols and digital engagement The findings can support government bodies, tourism authorities, cultural institutions, and digital marketing practitioners in developing more cohesive, authentic, and targeted cultural branding strategies Specifically, the results may inform initiatives seeking to position Vietnamese culture more prominently in global digital spaces while ensuring representation aligns with national identity and long-term branding objectives.
Scope and Delimitations
The study focuses on two prominent cultural symbols of Vietnam: Phở and Áo Dài, examining their roles in shaping the country’s national brand through digital media The research explores how these symbols are represented on popular digital platforms such as Instagram, TikTok, YouTube, and online news outlets, and how they are perceived by both domestic and international audiences
The study involves two types of data collection: a quantitative survey and qualitative interviews The survey targets three audience groups:
(2) foreigners who have visited Vietnam, and
(3) foreigners who have never visited but have encountered Vietnamese culture through digital media
This diverse sampling aims to capture varying levels of cultural familiarity and engagement
This study narrows the examination to Vietnam's digital media landscape, using Phở and Áo Dài as case studies to analyze online representations within national branding It does not attempt to evaluate Vietnam's overall branding strategy or broader cultural representations, and traditional media channels such as television, print newspapers, and radio are excluded from the scope.
Structure of the Thesis
This thesis is structured into six chapters as follows:
Chapter 2: Literature Review, Theoretical Framework, and Hypothesis Development Chapter 3: Research Methodology
LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORETICAL BACKROUND AND
National Branding and Nation Image
National branding is the strategic practice of shaping and communicating a country’s identity to global audiences It encompasses elements such as culture, governance, tourism, exports, and people (Dinnie, 2008) Unlike traditional marketing, which promotes products or services, national branding involves the projection of a nation’s intangible values, including its culture, aspirations, and global role, through coherent and compelling narratives (Anholt, 2010)
At the heart of national branding lies the concept of nation image, which refers to the set of perceptions, associations, and attitudes held by international publics about a country These perceptions are often influenced by direct experiences, media representation, cultural exports, and diplomatic actions (Szondi, 2008) In the global competition for investment, tourism, and soft power, a positive nation image serves as a crucial asset that enhances credibility, attractiveness, and influence (Nye, 2004)
In this study, particular attention is given to audience perception, which is defined as the cognitive, emotional, and evaluative responses formed by individuals when engaging with a nation’s cultural representations Perception is operationalized through indicators such as emotional resonance, perceived authenticity, cultural appreciation, and feelings of national pride evoked through digital encounters with cultural symbols like Phở and Áo Dài This conceptualization aligns with Simon Anholt’s emphasis on the role of external audiences' emotional and intellectual reactions in shaping a country's brand value (Anholt, 2006)
In studying national image perception, two important cognitive mechanisms often referenced are top-of-mind awareness (TOMA) and guided brand associations Top-of- mind awareness refers to the first cultural symbol or image that comes to a person's mind when prompted with a country name This spontaneous recall is a strong indicator of symbolic salience and emotional connection (Keller, 1993) Guided associations, by contrast, are influenced by external prompts or media cues that shape what people think of when a country is mentioned (Aaker, 1996) Both mechanisms are particularly relevant in the context of this study, where Phở and Áo Dài function not only as cultural artifacts but as triggers of national image in the minds of domestic and international audiences The inclusion of such concepts helps explain how digital exposure shapes recall hierarchies and symbolic meaning structures in audience perception
Despite possessing a rich cultural heritage and experiencing strong economic growth, Vietnam has faced persistent challenges in consolidating its nation brand According to Brand Finance's 2018 Global Soft Power Index, Vietnam ranked 42nd globally, with a brand value of USD 203 billion However, in 2019, the country dropped one place, indicating a decline in relative brand strength despite continued economic momentum
The FutureBrand Country Brand Index 2019 similarly reflects Vietnam’s struggle to ascend into higher tiers of global recognition While the country showed notable growth in perceptions of product quality, it remained among the lowest-ranked nations overall From 2014 to 2019, Vietnam moved up only three positions, from 64th to 61st out of 74 countries assessed Within the Asia-Pacific region, Vietnam ranked 15th out of 18 countries, which represents a relatively modest standing given its strong tourism appeal, cultural depth, human resources, and growing economy (FutureBrand, 2019)
Notably, the Vietnamese public also recognizes the importance of national branding According to the National Image Promotion Strategy released by the Ministry of Information and Communications (2020), 96.2% of surveyed individuals agreed that building, developing, and maintaining a positive national image is important or extremely important This growing internal consensus underscores the urgency for deliberate and strategic efforts to enhance Vietnam’s global identity
Vietnam already enjoys a broadly positive international image in global media, yet a persistent gap remains between its rich cultural heritage and its global brand positioning A strategic national branding approach, grounded in the effective digital promotion of cultural assets, can narrow this perception gap and unlock Vietnam’s full soft-power potential on the world stage, strengthening the country’s global brand, attracting international audiences, and expanding its influence through digital storytelling.
Measuring Nation Brand: An Overview of Indices and Rationale for NBI
The concept of “nation brand” has prompted the development of various indices and frameworks aimed at measuring a country’s international image These tools serve as diagnostic instruments to help nations assess how they are perceived globally and identify areas for improvement Among the most widely recognized are the Anholt- Ipsos Nation Brand Index (NBI), the Country Brand Index (CBI) by FutureBrand, and the Brand Finance Nation Brands Report
The Country Brand Index (CBI) evaluates a nation’s brand through dimensions such as value system, quality of life, business potential, tourism, and heritage It places strong emphasis on emotional connection, perceptions of authenticity, and consistency of a country’s image across touchpoints (FutureBrand, 2022) Meanwhile, the Brand Finance Nation Brands Report focuses on the financial valuation of a country’s brand, assessing the impact of national reputation on economic performance and investment potential
By contrast, the Nation Brand Index (NBI) developed by Simon Anholt (2006) offers a comprehensive and multidimensional approach It evaluates countries based on six pillars: Exports, Governance, Culture, People, Tourism, and Investment & Immigration Unlike economically driven models, the NBI captures how a country’s values, behavior, and cultural outputs shape public perception globally Its framework aligns closely with soft power theory and allows for cultural assets like Phở and Áo Dài to be examined as tools of nation branding
While both NBI and CBI offer valuable perspectives, key differences justify the use of NBI in this study CBI focuses on experiential feedback, primarily from people who have visited or interacted with the country, and emphasizes lifestyle and emotional appeal NBI, on the other hand, uses a globally standardized survey to gather perceptions from both visitors and non-visitors alike, making it more suitable for measuring symbolic representation-especially important when studying the impact of digital media on international audiences Moreover, NBI places distinct emphasis on Culture as one of its core dimensions, offering a focused lens for analyzing cultural symbols such as Phở and Áo Dài
Vietnam has yet to fully capitalize on cultural soft power to elevate its image in global rankings Despite having strong cultural symbols, the country’s representation on global media remains fragmented As Pham (2024) points out, local branding efforts often lack coherence and depth in narrative, particularly when it comes to cultural identity This stands in contrast to countries like South Korea or Japan, which have successfully leveraged symbols such as K-pop or manga to improve their NBI scores and soft power status
Recent findings from the Anholt-Ipsos NBI (2023) indicate that Vietnam remains underrepresented in the “Culture” and “Tourism” pillars, highlighting an urgent need to reassess how national identity is communicated In this context, the use of digital platforms to project Phở and Áo Dài as tangible and intangible cultural assets presents a valuable opportunity to enhance Vietnam’s image abroad
Ultimately, as emphasized in Vietnam’s official national image strategy, only countries that perform well on both structural foundations and symbolic representation can establish a strong and sustainable national brand (Ministry of Information and Communications, 2020) Therefore, selecting the NBI framework with its emphasis on perception, culture, and soft power is not only theoretically appropriate but also strategically aligned with Vietnam’s long-term branding objectives.
Cultural Symbols and Phở and Áo Dài as Cultural Symbols of Vietnam
Cultural symbols are tangible or intangible representations that embody a nation's identity, values, and collective memory According to Smith (1991), cultural symbols serve as critical vehicles through which nations express their uniqueness, foster internal cohesion, and project recognizable identities to the world In the context of national branding, cultural symbols play a central role by communicating a country’s essence in ways that transcend language and political discourse, thereby building emotional connections with both domestic and international audiences (Dinnie, 2008)
A cultural symbol is identified by members of a culture as representative of that culture The process of identification is inherently subjective, and symbols are evaluated based on the extent to which they are perceived as authentic embodiments of cultural identity (Grayson & Martinec, 2004) When individuals perceive a cultural symbol, they relate it to their broader understanding of the culture it represents Cultural symbols can also be recognized across cultural boundaries, with external audiences identifying them as authentic representations of another culture (Motley & Henderson, 2008) This cross- cultural recognition enhances the role of symbols in national branding efforts, especially in global digital environments
In Vietnam, Phở and Áo Dài stand out as two of the most prominent cultural symbols Each represents a distinct yet complementary dimension of the nation's cultural heritage and identity construction
2.3.1 Phở as a Culinary Cultural Symbol
Phở represents Vietnam’s culinary richness, everyday cultural life, and national identity
It is a Vietnamese soup dish consisting of a flavorful broth, rice noodles (bánh phở), herbs, and meat, usually beef (phở bò) or sometimes chicken (phở gà) (Oxford English Dictionary, 2006; Collins English Dictionary, 2013) Phở is widely consumed throughout Vietnam, served in households, street stalls, and restaurants across the country (Thanh Nien News, 2012)
Phở is considered by many as Vietnam's national dish, although it is a relatively recent addition to the country’s cuisine Written records first mention Phở in the early twentieth century in Northern Vietnam (Trinh, 2017) The origins of Phở are subject to debate, but scholars widely agree that French and Chinese culinary influences contributed to its development, particularly the influence of French pot-au-feu (Oxford Dictionaries, 2013; American Heritage Dictionary, 2011; Barber, 2005)
Regional variations in Phở have developed, reflecting Vietnam's cultural diversity Hanoi-style Phở features a lighter, clearer broth with fewer herbs, whereas Saigon-style Phở tends to have a sweeter broth with a more abundant accompaniment of herbs and condiments (Nguyen, 2012; Greeley, 2002) Following the Vietnam War, Vietnamese refugees helped globalize Phở, making it one of the most recognized symbols of Vietnamese culture worldwide In acknowledgment of its cultural importance, the Vietnamese government officially designated December 12 as "Day of Phở" in 2017 (Tuoi Tre News, 2018)
In this study, Phở is conceptualized as a culinary cultural symbol, operationalized through its representation of tradition, hospitality, and emotional resonance By examining digital portrayals of Phở, the study explores how this symbol contributes to the construction and dissemination of perceptions of Vietnam’s national brand among international audiences
2.3.2 Áo Dài as a Visual Cultural Symbol
Meanwhile, Áo Dài embodies Vietnam’s aesthetic refinement, historical continuity, and cultural pride The Áo Dài is a modernized Vietnamese national garment consisting of a long, split tunic worn over silk trousers It serves as formalwear for both men and women (Dictionary.com, n.d.; Collins English Dictionary, n.d.) The word "Áo" originates from a Middle Chinese term 襖, meaning "padded coat," while "Dài" means
Historically, the term Áo Dài has been used inconsistently In contemporary usage, it most often refers to the close-fitting, two-panel dress that gained popularity in the early twentieth century, largely through the work of designer Nguyễn Cát Tường and the Francized versions that followed.
"Áo Dài Le Mur" design (Trần, 2023; Sàigòneer, 2022) Broader interpretations of Áo
Dài include older traditional garments such as áo ngũ thân, áo tứ thân, and áo giao lĩnh (Chúng Ta, 2021)
The Áo Dài traces its roots to the Nguyễn Lords' era in the eighteenth century, evolving from the áo ngũ thân worn in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries It was later influenced by French aesthetics during the colonial period, leading to its modern form through the efforts of artists from the Tự Lực Văn Đoàn group (Ellis, 1996; Lieu, 2000) Saigon designers further refined the Áo Dài in the 1950s, emphasizing a more form- fitting silhouette that became iconic in representations of Vietnamese women
While Áo Dài is primarily marketed with a feminine appeal through cultural events and beauty pageants, such as "Miss Áo Dài," variations also exist for men Male versions, often made of thicker brocade fabrics known as áo gấm, are worn during formal ceremonies like weddings and Tết festivals (Sàigòneer, 2022; Ellis, 1996) The Áo Dài is thus a versatile cultural symbol that embodies both tradition and modernity across genders
In the context of global cultural branding, Áo Dài can be classified as a visual cultural symbol, similar to how the kimono represents Japan, the sari represents India, and the cowboy hat represents the United States (Dinnie, 2008) Like these symbols, Áo Dài serves as an immediate cognitive cue to Vietnam’s tradition and national identity across global audiences, making it a powerful soft power asset when effectively promoted through digital media
In this study, Áo Dài is conceptualized as a visual cultural symbol, operationalized through its portrayal of elegance, cultural resilience, and national pride in digital media representations It is crucial to clarify the scope of this conceptualization: in both historical and contemporary Vietnamese society, there are at least two distinct categories of Áo Dài: one for men and one for women Moreover, even within the female category, Áo Dài encompasses a variety of forms, including: the ceremonial Áo Dài worn by Buddhist or religious women during worship; the traditional multi-layered version worn in historical or ritual contexts; and modernized, fashion-oriented adaptations such as the controversial Trần Lệ Xuân style of the 1960s
This study focuses on the contemporary, close-fitting female Áo Dài, tracing its emergence in the early twentieth century and its refinement through the 1950s to 1970s in South Vietnam Defined by a sleek silhouette, two front and back panels, and long silk trousers, this form is the most widely recognized and internationally identifiable version of the Áo Dài It is the modern female Áo Dài that has gained visibility through digital media, featured in national branding campaigns, and served as a soft power asset in Vietnam’s global cultural diplomacy.
Digital Media and Its Role in Cultural Representation
Before examining digital media in depth, it is essential to understand the broader concept of communication, as it provides the fundamental basis for all media forms Communication explains how messages are created, transmitted, and interpreted, and therefore underpins every form of media, with digital media representing one specific type within this wide media landscape.
The concept of communication has been defined in various ways, depending on the disciplinary approach, context, and technological developments of the time Particularly with the explosion of information technology and social networking platforms, the field of communication has expanded dramatically, making its definitions richer and more diverse than ever
Communication is the exchange of information through speaking, writing, or other media and is an activity or process aimed at conveying ideas and emotions or transmitting information to others, as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary In mass media studies, Wilson and Wilson describe communication as the process by which a communicator arranges, selects, and shares symbols in a way that enables the receiver to perceive and interpret the communicator's intended ideas and purposes Narula notes that human communication is the process of conveying ideas through emotions and behaviors from one person to another, underscoring both the emotional and behavioral dimensions involved.
In recent years, particularly in Vietnam, the concept of communication has been increasingly discussed and utilized in various contexts Despite differing definitions, most perspectives agree that communication is fundamentally a process of information transmission between individuals or groups, aiming to convey ideas, emotions, and influence perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors
Within this broader framework, digital media has emerged as a transformative mode of communication Digital media refers to all digitized content transmitted through the internet or computer networks, including text, audio, video, and interactive formats (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010) Importantly, digital media is not limited to social networking platforms such as Facebook, TikTok, or Instagram It also includes official government websites, electronic newspapers, online journals, digital magazines, and streaming services These platforms have become increasingly important in the information ecosystem, especially in the context of accelerating digital transformation efforts For instance, Vietnam has formally institutionalized this trend through Decision
No 348/QĐ-TTg dated April 6, 2023, which approves the "Digital Transformation Strategy for Press Agencies until 2025, with orientations toward 2030." This strategic initiative highlights the national commitment to adapting journalism to the digital environment, ensuring that digital platforms serve not only entertainment or social purposes but also formal, verified channels for information dissemination
Through such platforms, traditional and modern elements of a country's culture, including national symbols like Phở and Áo Dài, can be systematically introduced, framed, and promoted to domestic and international audiences In this study, the term
"cultural representation" is used to refer specifically to the ways in which cultural symbols are presented, interpreted, and understood through digital media channels Digital media has fundamentally transformed how culture is created, distributed, and consumed in the twenty-first century With the rise of social media platforms, user- generated content, and algorithm-driven curation, digital spaces now serve as the primary sites of cultural exchange across borders (Jenkins, 2006; Hall, 1997) These technologies allow national symbols and cultural products to transcend geographical limitations and reach diverse international audiences in real time
From a theoretical standpoint, cultural representation in digital media involves not only what is portrayed but also how it is framed Hall’s (1997) representation theory emphasizes that media is not a passive reflector of reality but an active producer of meaning In this view, the ways Phở or Áo Dài are visualized, narrated, and circulated online significantly shape public understanding of Vietnamese culture, whether through food blogs, fashion reels, or government-backed campaigns
Within Vietnam's media landscape, digital media powerfully shapes cultural narratives and national branding The Ministry of Information and Communications (2020) identifies digital platforms as the most influential channels for promoting Vietnam’s image abroad The strategy’s survey shows that more than 96.2% of respondents agree that building and maintaining a positive national image is crucial, with digital tools playing a central role in achieving this goal.
This perspective is supported by Adila, Hanita, and Subhi (2022), who argue that mass media, especially digital platforms, can shape cultural identity through inclusive and interactive storytelling They emphasize that cultural diplomacy in the digital age requires not only broadcasting polished national images but also fostering meaningful, two-way engagement with audiences
However, digital media represents a double-edged sword While it democratizes cultural visibility and broadens participation, it also risks commodifying, exoticizing, or oversimplifying rich cultural traditions (Kaneva, 2011) In the case of Phở, for instance, online representations often emphasize exoticism or fusion reinterpretations that detach the dish from its historical and regional roots Likewise, aestheticized portrayals of Áo Dài on Instagram tend to highlight its visual appeal while omitting its socio-cultural significance, potentially reducing it to a mere fashion object devoid of historical context
Therefore, effective digital representation requires a strategic balance between accessibility and authenticity Vietnam’s national branding efforts must not only increase digital presence but also ensure that such representations are context-rich, culturally accurate, and emotionally resonant In an era characterized by short attention spans and fleeting digital impressions, such authenticity is crucial to sustaining meaningful, enduring perceptions of Vietnam’s national identity
In this study, digital media is conceptualized both as a dissemination tool and as a site of cultural negotiation By analyzing the digital portrayals and audience receptions of Phở and Áo Dài, the study seeks to understand how perceptions of Vietnam’s national brand are constructed, transformed, and disseminated across global media landscapes.
Theoretical Framework
Representation Theory, developed by cultural theorist Stuart Hall, provides a powerful lens for analyzing how meaning is created and circulated through media Hall (1997) argues that representation is not merely about mirroring reality, but about constructing reality through language, symbols, and discourse In this view, media does not simply reflect cultural identities, it actively produces and shapes them Representation is thus a site of power, where meanings are contested, reinforced, or transformed based on who is speaking, to whom, and under what context
In the context of digital media, representation becomes even more dynamic Platforms such as TikTok, Instagram, and YouTube allow not only state institutions but also individuals, influencers, and online communities to produce and disseminate cultural content This shift decentralizes the production of national identity narratives and introduces competing voices, interpretations, and visual framings Hall’s encoding/decoding model (1980) further explains that audiences do not passively receive media messages; instead, they interpret them through their own cultural frameworks, leading to varied readings dominant, negotiated, or oppositional
This study applies Hall’s theory to investigate how Phở and Áo Dài as cultural signifiers are represented in the digital space For instance, Phở may be depicted in state- sponsored tourism ads as a symbol of heritage and hospitality, while food bloggers might frame it as a trendy, global comfort food Similarly, Áo Dài may appear in official contexts as a marker of national elegance and tradition, but could also be sexualized, commercialized, or hybridized in user-generated content, especially when filtered through global fashion aesthetics
Representation Theory also sheds light on issues of authenticity and power: who gets to define what Phở or Áo Dài “means”? Are these symbols being flattened to meet global consumer expectations, or do they still carry cultural depth and national pride? How does algorithmic visibility (e.g., TikTok trends) affect which versions of Phở and Áo Dài become most prominent online? These questions are central to understanding how cultural symbols can either strengthen or dilute Vietnam’s national image depending on how they are framed and consumed
Through an analysis of the production and circulation of digital content featuring Phở and Áo Dài, this study decodes the layered meanings embedded in visual narratives and examines their broader implications for Vietnam’s cultural diplomacy and nation branding.
The concept of soft power was first analyzed and theorized by Professor Joseph Nye in
1990, and later formalized as a central theory in international relations In contrast to hard power based on coercion and force, soft power refers to the ability of a country to influence others through attraction, persuasion, and voluntary admiration According to Nye (1990), this power emerges from the appeal of a nation’s ideology, culture, institutional values, and foreign and domestic policies In his 2004 work, Nye further outlined three key sources of soft power: (1) A nation’s culture, (2) Its political values and internal policies and (3) Its foreign policy and international behavior
Among these, culture is perhaps the most enduring and emotionally resonant form of soft power, especially when it is perceived as authentic, universal, and non-impositional
Nye distinguishes between elite culture (such as literature, classical music, fine arts) and popular culture (such as fashion, cuisine, mass entertainment) When a nation’s cultural expressions contain values that resonate globally, and when the state actively promotes and shares those values, the country can achieve its goals through attraction rather than coercion As Nguyen (2011) observes, this kind of cultural communication generates soft power by building a sense of responsibility, familiarity, and admiration in the receiving societies
Nguyen (2016) further contextualizes cultural soft power within contemporary nation- building, arguing that it contributes directly to the composite strength of a country He identifies three features of cultural soft power in the current global context First, cultural soft power promotes a nation’s image and identity through exchange activities and highly diffused elements of mass culture - allowing it to generate trust, likability, and influence Second, it tends to flow more easily toward regions or countries with shared cultural, historical, or political traits Third, in the age of information globalization, the internet and digital platforms allow cultural soft power to transcend borders, making it a “weapon” that can penetrate everyday life in foreign societies without force - by embedding appealing values and aesthetics into the digital ecosystem
This study draws from these insights to examine the role of cultural symbols specifically Phở and Áo Dài as vehicles of Vietnam’s soft power in the digital age These symbols encapsulate not only Vietnamese history and aesthetics but also emotional appeal and universal values such as hospitality, elegance, and authenticity When represented strategically on digital platforms, these symbols may foster positive sentiment and cultural affinity among international audiences
Soft power in the digital age is not limited to state narratives; it is co-produced through decentralized media ecosystems A viral video of street Phở cooking or a short reel of an Áo Dài runway show can spark global curiosity, admiration, and engagement Hence, the strategic representation of these symbols becomes central to Vietnam’s ability to enhance its image, win hearts, and elevate its global position through cultural attraction
The Nation Brand Index (NBI), developed by Simon Anholt in 2006, provides a systematic framework for measuring and comparing how countries are perceived globally Unlike conventional marketing approaches, Anholt emphasized that nations cannot simply "sell" themselves like products Instead, a country's reputation must be earned through consistent behavior, performance, and cultural engagement The NBI offers a multidimensional model to assess national image across six key dimensions:
1 Exports – perceptions of a country’s products and services;
2 Governance – views on government competency, fairness, and responsibility;
3 Culture – appreciation for a country’s heritage, contemporary culture, and global influence;
4 People – friendliness, openness, and talent of the population;
5 Tourism – interest in visiting the country for natural beauty or cultural experiences;
6 Investment & Immigration – attractiveness as a place to live, work, or invest
Among these, the Culture dimension plays a crucial role in shaping long-term emotional connections It encompasses both traditional heritage (e.g., historical sites, folklore, cuisine) and modern cultural exports (e.g., fashion, music, film) As Anholt (2010) argues, cultural richness and originality when authentically conveyed can significantly enhance a nation’s reputation and increase global soft power
In the Vietnamese context, cultural assets such as Phở and Áo Dài hold high potential to strengthen the “Culture” and “Tourism” pillars of the NBI However, despite their symbolic importance, these elements have not been strategically mobilized or systematically measured in national brand assessments Vietnam remains relatively underrepresented in global brand rankings, in part due to the fragmented and underutilized communication of its cultural identity on international digital platforms (Anholt-Ipsos, 2023)
This study applies the NBI framework particularly the Culture dimension as a theoretical lens to assess how the digital representation of Phở and Áo Dài contributes to global perceptions of Vietnam When these cultural symbols are consistently and meaningfully represented online, they can increase the country’s cultural capital, attract tourism, and stimulate international curiosity and respect On the other hand, inconsistent or commercialized portrayals risk diluting their symbolic value and undermining the nation’s brand integrity
By combining the NBI with Representation Theory and Soft Power, this study provides a multi-layered understanding of how digital content not only reflects but actively shapes Vietnam’s image abroad It argues that effective digital storytelling of cultural symbols is not merely an exercise in promotion but a strategic component of nation branding.
Research Gaps
While there has been growing academic and policy interest in nation branding, cultural diplomacy, and the strategic use of soft power, several research gaps remain particularly concerning Vietnam's context and the role of digital media in cultural representation
Much of the current literature on nation branding concentrates on Western nations or leading cultural exporters such as South Korea and Japan, where national image is closely tied to global cultural products like K-pop, anime, and cuisine By contrast, Vietnam’s cultural assets—phở and Áo Dài—have attracted relatively little scholarly attention regarding their symbolic role within the Nation Brand Index (NBI) framework, even though these symbols enjoy widespread recognition both domestically and internationally.
Studies applying the NBI model to Vietnam have largely focused on macro-level indicators—such as governance, exports, and tourism statistics—leaving the Culture dimension largely unexplored There is a clear gap in empirical research on how iconic cultural symbols influence perceptions of Vietnam’s national image in the global digital environment, underscoring the need for culture-focused analysis in NBI studies.
While Representation Theory has been widely applied in media and cultural studies, its use in nation branding—particularly in Southeast Asia—remains underdeveloped The representations of Phở and Áo Dài on TikTok, YouTube, and Instagram have not yet been systematically analyzed for narrative framing, audience reception, or symbolic depth.
Fourth, although Soft Power Theory has been applied in policy and diplomacy research, few studies have empirically examined how cultural soft power operates in digital settings, where cultural meaning is co-produced by audiences, influencers, and algorithms The everyday representations of Vietnamese culture on social media remain understudied in terms of their potential to enhance or undermine national branding efforts
Lastly, existing research often neglects comparative audience perspectives There is insufficient understanding of how domestic and international audiences-particularly those who have never visited Vietnam interpret and emotionally engage with Vietnamese cultural symbols in digital contexts This gap is significant because audience perception is central to the effectiveness of soft power and nation branding
This study seeks to address these gaps by integrating Representation Theory, Soft Power Theory, and the Nation Brand Index to examine how Phở and Áo Dài are digitally represented and perceived, and how these representations contribute to Vietnam’s national brand It aims to provide new insights into the intersection of cultural identity, digital communication, and international image-making.
Hypothesis Development
Building on the theoretical foundations and prior literature, this study proposes four hypotheses to examine the dynamics between cultural symbols (Phở and Áo Dài), digital media, and national brand perception The hypotheses are designed to capture the direct effects of digital media on national brand perception, the moderating effects of digital media in shaping responses to cultural symbols, and cross-audience differences in perception across different viewer segments By focusing on Phở and Áo Dài as emblematic cultural symbols within digital media contexts, the research aims to reveal how digital platforms influence national brand perception and whether audience characteristics modify these relationships, providing actionable insights for marketers and researchers into how cultural symbolism and digital media converge to shape national branding.
H1: Cultural symbols (Phở & Áo Dài) positively influence national brand perception
Cultural symbols serve as critical assets in national branding strategies, contributing to how countries are recognized and emotionally valued on the global stage (Anholt, 2006; Nye, 2004) When effectively communicated, cultural symbols such as Phở and Áo Dài evoke national pride, authenticity, and cultural uniqueness, thereby enhancing a nation’s image in the eyes of international audiences
H2: Digital media positively influences perceptions of cultural symbols (Phở & Áo Dài)
Representation theory asserts that media constructions fundamentally shape public understanding of cultural symbols (Hall, 1997; Kaneva, 2011) Given the dominance of digital platforms such as YouTube, TikTok, and Instagram in constructing cultural narratives, digital media is hypothesized to play a significant role in shaping audience perceptions of Phở and Áo Dài
H3: Digital media moderates the relationship between cultural symbols and national brand perception
While cultural symbols are important in shaping national brand perception, the effectiveness of this contribution may vary depending on the level and quality of digital media exposure Digital media can enhance, modify, or even dampen the impact of cultural symbols on brand perception based on framing effects, saturation, and audience engagement levels (Eppler & Mengis, 2004; Hall, 1997)
H4: There are significant differences between domestic and international audiences in their perceptions of cultural symbols (Phở & Áo Dài)
Cultural interpretation is influenced by prior exposure, familiarity, and socio-cultural context (Smith, 1991; Adila et al., 2022) Domestic audiences, with deeper emotional and historical connections to Phở and Áo Dài, are likely to perceive these symbols differently compared to international audiences, who may view them through lenses of novelty, exoticism, or aesthetic appreciation.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this study is grounded in the integration of three interrelated theoretical lenses: Representation Theory (Hall, 1997), Soft Power (Nye,
2004), and Nation Branding (Anholt, 2006) Together, these perspectives provide a holistic basis for analyzing how cultural symbols specifically Phở and Áo Dài shape the perception of a country’s image, and how this symbolic influence is mediated by digital media and conditioned by audience identity
At its core, the framework positions Phở and Áo Dài as cultural symbols that represent deeper aspects of Vietnam’s identity, history, and values Drawing on Hall’s (1997) notion of representation as a site of meaning-making, these symbols are not fixed signifiers but dynamic constructs shaped by both producers and audiences They embody layers of cultural, emotional, and political significance that can be read differently depending on context and interpretation From a soft power perspective (Nye,
2004), such cultural symbols serve as instruments of attraction, helping a nation enhance its image and influence through appeal rather than coercion Nation branding theory (Anholt, 2006) further positions these symbols as vehicles for projecting national identity in the global arena, especially when strategically deployed in public diplomacy and cultural communication
Building on these theoretical underpinnings, the framework posits that Phở and Áo Dài have a direct and positive influence on perceptions of Vietnam’s national brand However, the relationship is not linear nor context-free In the digital age, cultural symbols are increasingly disseminated through platforms such as social media, video- sharing sites, and transnational online communities These platforms amplify visibility but may also distort meaning through aesthetic filtering, commodification, or decontextualization As such, the framework introduces digital media as a moderating variable, one that can either enhance or dilute the impact of cultural symbolism on nation branding, depending on the depth, authenticity, and framing of representation
Audience identity represents a second moderating dimension that shapes perception, influenced by cultural proximity, expectations, and viewers' interpretive frameworks Consequently, the analysis uses a comparative lens to explore how domestic and international audiences differ in their reception and interpretation of Phở and Áo Dài, particularly when these symbols are encountered through digital media This approach aligns with Hall’s encoding/decoding model (1997), which asserts that meaning is actively constructed by the audience rather than simply received as intended.
The resulting conceptual framework illustrated in Figure 2.1 below:
This framework enables researchers to test direct and interaction effects using a mixed-methods design, enhancing analytical rigor It also provides a platform to examine the tensions between cultural authenticity and media amplification, as well as the gap between national intentions and audience reception Together, these features deliver theoretical depth and empirical relevance to contemporary debates in nation branding and cultural diplomacy.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study adopts an Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods Design, a type of mixed- methods research in which the quantitative phase is conducted first, followed by qualitative phases to help explain, elaborate, or contextualize the findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018) This approach is suitable for exploring how national cultural symbols are perceived and represented through digital media, and for understanding the deeper meanings behind such perceptions
The research unfolds in two stages:
1 Survey (Quantitative phase): A structured questionnaire will be administered to domestic and international respondents to gather perceptions of Phở and Áo Dài as cultural symbols portrayed through digital media This phase identifies major trends, audience interpretations, and areas for further inquiry
2 In-depth Interviews (Qualitative phase): The final phase involves interviews with a diverse set of stakeholders, including cultural experts, content creators, small business owners, and informed audience members These interviews aim to provide deeper insight into motivations behind representation choices, branding strategies, and public engagement with cultural symbols.
Data Collection Methods and Sampling Strategy
The first phase of this study involves conducting a structured survey designed to measure how domestic and international audiences perceive Phở and Áo Dài as national cultural symbols within digital media environments This quantitative approach provides a foundation for understanding public sentiment, allowing for broad data collection across diverse demographic groups and enabling the identification of trends for further exploration in subsequent qualitative phases
The questionnaire includes both closed-ended and Likert-scale items, focusing on variables such as cultural recognition, emotional resonance, perceived authenticity, and the influence of digital representation on national image A 7-point Likert scale is employed instead of the more commonly used 5-point scale, as it allows for more nuanced measurement of attitudinal strength and captures subtle differences in perception and evaluation-elements particularly critical when examining cultural symbols and national image perception This approach aligns with methodologies used in studies employing the Anholt Nation Brands Index (NBI), which frequently utilizes 7-point scales to assess factors such as favorability, credibility, and associative strength (Anholt, 2006; Buhmann & Ingenhoff, 2015)
The items related to digital media exposure and influence are theoretically grounded in literature emphasizing the role of media environments in shaping cultural perception Specifically, Tan and Lee (2023) found that exposure to cultural content on digital platforms significantly impacts individuals’ recognition, understanding, and emotional engagement with traditional cultural elements Their study demonstrated that digital media not only transmits information but also enhances personal connection and interest in national cultural symbols Building on this, the current study develops items that measure both the degree of digital media exposure and its perceptual influence, supporting the investigation of digital media as a potential moderating variable in the relationship between cultural symbols and national brand perception
The overall questionnaire is informed by dimensions from internationally recognized frameworks, most notably the Anholt-Ipsos Nation Brands Index (NBI) and the Country Brand Index (CBI), which were also referenced in Vietnam’s 2020 National Image Criteria Framework (Ministry of Information and Communications, 2020) The NBI is particularly influential in this research It surveys over 40,000 people annually across 20 countries, gathering perceptions of 50 nations based on six key dimensions: Exports,
Governance, Culture, People, Tourism, and Investment & Immigration These elements form the Nation Brand Hexagon®, a tool for assessing each country’s brand strength and global appeal The NBI also employs Key Driver Analysis (KDA), a statistical technique used to determine the most influential factors shaping overall national perception, including variables such as likelihood of recommendation and overall favorability
The survey will be distributed online in both Vietnamese and English via Google Forms, with 202 participants across three core audience groups:
1 Domestic Vietnamese citizens, especially those active on digital platforms;
2 Foreigners who have visited Vietnam;
3 Foreigners who have never visited but engage with Vietnamese culture through digital media
This survey serves as the entry point to the explanatory sequential research process, generating baseline data to inform and direct the subsequent phases of observation and interviews
During the survey phase, purposive and snowball sampling techniques will be employed to recruit respondents who are familiar with Vietnamese culture or who have encountered Vietnamese cultural symbols through online media The target population comprises three distinct audience groups.
1 Domestic Vietnamese citizens, particularly young people who actively engage with digital platforms;
2 Foreigners who have visited Vietnam, including tourists, students, and expatriates;
3 Foreigners who have not visited Vietnam but are exposed to Vietnamese culture through digital content
The study aims to collect at least 200 valid responses, ensuring variation in terms of age, gender, nationality, and level of digital media engagement This sample will allow for comparative insights between domestic and international audiences and between those with direct or indirect exposure to Vietnamese culture
The final stage of data collection involves conducting semi-structured interviews to gather in-depth qualitative insights that contextualize and explain the patterns observed in the survey and observation phases Interviews are particularly useful for understanding the motivations, strategies, and challenges behind how Phở and Áo Dài are represented, managed, and promoted as cultural symbols through digital media Unlike the earlier stages, which focus on general public perceptions and observable content, interviews target individuals with insider perspectives or informed opinions These include:
1 Cultural and tourism experts, involved in heritage preservation or national branding strategy;
2 Digital media professionals, such as social media marketers, cultural influencers, or branding consultants;
3 Small business owners, including those running Phở restaurants and Áo Dài rental services;
4 Engaged audience members, such as international visitors or diaspora who actively engage with Vietnamese culture online
The interview protocol will be flexible enough to accommodate diverse stakeholder experiences while maintaining thematic focus on three core areas:
1 Perceptions and meanings of Phở and Áo Dài as national cultural symbols;
2 Role and effectiveness of digital media in promoting these symbols;
3 Strategic considerations for improving Vietnam’s national brand through culture- based content
Interviews will be conducted either face-to-face or online, depending on availability and location of participants All interviews will be audio-recorded (with consent) and transcribed for thematic analysis using qualitative coding software Preliminary findings from the survey and observations will inform question design, ensuring that the interviews provide both clarification and deeper interpretation of earlier results
This phase completes the explanatory sequential design of the study by adding narrative depth to the quantitative trends
For the final qualitative phase, criterion-based purposive sampling will guide the selection of interviewees who have relevant knowledge or experiences related to cultural branding, media communication, and the use of Phở or Áo Dài in practice The study plans to conduct 10 semi-structured interviews with: cultural and tourism experts; digital content creators and media professionals; owners or managers of Phở restaurants and Áo Dài services; and audience members who actively engage with Vietnamese cultural content online
This triangulated and targeted sampling framework ensures that each stage of the research draws insights from relevant and diverse perspectives, enhancing the reliability and richness of the study's findings
This study adopts a combination of quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods, aligned with the explanatory sequential mixed-methods design Each research phase is analyzed using appropriate analytical tools to ensure methodological rigor, reliability, and alignment with the research objectives
The quantitative data derived from the survey will be examined using both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques, supported by statistical software such as SPSS or Stata Descriptive statistics - including means, standard deviations, and frequency distributions - will be used to summarize respondents’ overall perceptions of Phở and Áo Dài Inferential techniques such as t-tests or one-way ANOVA will be applied to identify statistically significant differences across demographic subgroups, such as nationality and levels of exposure to Vietnamese culture Additionally, correlation analyses will be conducted to explore potential relationships between media exposure and key perception variables, including perceived authenticity, emotional appeal, and the evocation of national pride To ensure the reliability of scale-based items, internal consistency will be assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha The insights generated from the quantitative analysis will serve to inform the subsequent qualitative phase of the research
For the qualitative component, data collected through interviews will be analyzed using thematic analysis in accordance with Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase framework This process entails familiarization with the data, generation of initial codes, development of themes, review and refinement of those themes, clear definition and naming of themes, and the final reporting of results This structured approach enables the identification of key patterns and meanings embedded in participants’ narratives
This study is conducted in accordance with established ethical standards for research in the social sciences, with particular emphasis on informed consent, participant anonymity, data confidentiality, and cultural sensitivity At every stage of the research process, measures are taken to ensure the rights, privacy, and dignity of all participants are fully respected
Informed consent will be obtained from all participants prior to data collection Individuals involved in the survey and interview phases will be clearly informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation, and their right to withdraw at any point without consequence For the interview component, written consent will be secured, while digital consent will be acquired through the online survey platform
DATA ANALYSIS RESULTS
Quantitative Results
This section provides a demographic overview of the 202 survey respondents, including both Vietnamese and international participants The diverse composition of the sample offers a robust foundation for analyzing perceptions of Vietnamese cultural symbols and their impact on the national brand.
Nationality Of the 202 respondents, 112 (55.4%) were Vietnamese and 90
(44.6%) were international participants This balanced structure supports the cross- cultural comparative aims of the study
Gender distribution Among the Vietnamese participants, 61 (54.5%) identified as female, 49 (43.8%) as male, and 2 (1.8%) selected “prefer not to say.” Within the international group, 67 (74.4%) were female, 20 (22.2%) male, and 3 (3.3%) preferred not to disclose their gender
Age distribution across the study sample encompasses multiple generational cohorts for cross-cultural analysis Vietnamese participants (n=112) include 48 (42.9%) aged 18–28, 50 (44.6%) aged 29–44, 13 (11.6%) aged 45–60, and 1 (0.9%) above 60, while international respondents (n=90) include 24 (26.7%) aged 18–28, 39 (43.3%) aged 29–44, and 27 (30.0%) aged 45–60 This arrangement enables generational analysis across Generation Z, Millennials, and Generation X, each reflecting different levels of exposure to Vietnamese culture via diverse media channels.
Familiarity with cultural symbols All Vietnamese respondents confirmed their awareness of both Phở and Áo Dài In contrast, international participants demonstrated varying levels of familiarity: 40 (44.4%) were familiar with Phở only, 7 (7.8%) with Áo Dài only, 38 (42.2%) with both, and 5 (5.6%) with neither These figures reflect the stronger domestic symbolic saturation of these elements and the comparatively limited recognition among foreign audiences, particularly for Áo Dài
Access to cultural information Participants were asked to indicate the channels through which they accessed information about Vietnamese culture Among Vietnamese respondents, 96.4% cited social media platforms (e.g., Facebook, TikTok, Instagram) as a primary source, followed by 66.1% who selected official websites (e.g., government tourism pages and online newspapers) For international respondents, digital media also dominated, with 97.8% reporting access through social media and 58.2% through official websites, far exceeding other sources such as television, traditional print media, word of mouth, or direct experience
Previous exposure to Vietnam Among the international sample, 60 participants
(66.7%) had previously visited Vietnam, while 30 (33.3%) had not This distinction introduces variation in the degree of firsthand cultural experience, which may affect perception and symbolic resonance
Overall, the demographic structure of the sample provides a well-rounded basis for examining how cultural symbols such as Phở and Áo Dài as interpreted through both domestic and international lenses contribute to shaping perceptions of Vietnam’s national brand in an era of digital cultural communication
This section highlights key contrasts between domestic and international respondents in terms of cultural symbol recognition and digital media access, providing a contextual foundation for subsequent analyses
Symbol familiarity While all Vietnamese participants reported familiarity with both
Phở and Áo Dài, recognition levels were more fragmented among international respondents Of the 90 international participants, only 38 (42.2%) were familiar with both symbols Notably, Phở exhibited greater recognition abroad, with 40 respondents familiar only with Phở, while just 7 reported familiarity with Áo Dài alone Five participants indicated unfamiliarity with both symbols This asymmetry suggests that culinary symbols such as Phở have achieved broader global visibility, whereas traditional attire like Áo Dài remains less known beyond national borders
Media access patterns A clear distinction emerged in how respondents accessed information about Vietnamese culture Among Vietnamese participants, 96.4% cited social media (e.g., Facebook, TikTok, Instagram) as a key channel, followed by 66.1% who used official websites, including online news platforms and government portals For international participants, digital media was even more dominant: 97.8% reported social media as a primary source of cultural exposure, while 58.2% accessed official websites Other media sources such as television, traditional print media, word of mouth, and direct experience were less frequently mentioned across both groups
Digital media drive the symbolic diffusion of Vietnam’s cultural brands to international audiences, underscoring its central role in shaping symbolic reach Phở benefits from its embeddedness in global culinary narratives and visually engaging platforms, whereas Áo Dài encounters greater diffusion barriers The disparity in symbol familiarity suggests that the internationalization of Vietnam’s cultural brand is uneven, with digital visibility and symbolic accessibility varying by artifact type and media representation.
Table 4.1 presents the demographic characteristics of the 189 respondents who evaluated Phở as a cultural symbol of Vietnam The sample includes both Vietnamese and international participants, enabling a cross-cultural perspective on symbolic representation
In terms of nationality, the majority were Vietnamese (58.7%), while foreigners accounted for 41.3% of the sample This composition provides a balanced basis for comparing local and global perceptions of Phở
Gender distribution among respondents shows that 62.4% identified as female, 34.9% as male, and 2.6% chose not to disclose their gender This female predominance is particularly relevant in light of the gendered nature of culinary identity and the cultural attachment to food-related symbols.
Age distribution indicates that 34.4% of participants were aged 18–28, followed by 29.6% in the 29–44 age group Respondents aged 45–60 accounted for 17.5%, while only a small fraction (0.5%) were above 60 Minor inconsistencies in age grouping - such as overlapping ranges (e.g., 29–43 and 29–44) - may reflect data entry errors but do not significantly affect the overall interpretive value The diversity in age cohorts is important for analyzing generational differences in symbolic perception and cultural resonance of Phở
In terms of cultural familiarity and digital exposure, the majority of respondents reported prior awareness of Phở as a cultural symbol All Vietnamese participants confirmed their familiarity with Phở, whereas 12 international respondents indicated unfamiliarity This finding highlights the existence of symbolic variation in global cultural recognition, suggesting that while Phở is deeply rooted in Vietnamese cultural consciousness, its international visibility is not yet universal Furthermore, most participants reported encountering Phở-related content through digital media, especially on platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube This observation reinforces the study’s underlying assumption that Phở functions not only as a domestic cultural emblem but also as a digitally mediated symbol that circulates widely in online environments
Table 4.2 presents descriptive statistics for the three main constructs related to the Phở model: Phở as a cultural symbol (PHO), Digital Media regarding Phở (DMP), and National Brand regarding Phở (NBP) The overall mean scores are all above 5.7, indicating strong agreement among participants regarding the significance of each construct
Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics – Phở Group
N Number of Items Minimum Maximum Mean Std
Specifically, the PHO construct recorded a high mean of 6.10 (SD = 0.90), reaffirming its status as a culturally meaningful and positively perceived symbol Digital Media exposure related to Phở (DMP) yielded a mean of 5.80 (SD = 1.13), suggesting frequent but varied engagement with Phở-related content on digital platforms such as social media and video-sharing sites The NBP construct achieved the highest mean score of 6.13 (SD = 1.05), reflecting a strong positive association between Phở and Vietnam’s national brand
These results underscore the cultural salience of Phở and its perceived contribution to enhancing Vietnam’s national brand through digital media
4.1.2.3 Measurement Test – Phở a Reliability Test
Qualitative Results
This study employs an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, with the qualitative phase conducted after the quantitative data analysis to deepen the interpretation of the results The in-depth interviews are designed to achieve three main purposes: to explain the quantitative findings in greater depth, to uncover the mechanisms and contextual meanings behind patterns observed in the survey, and to identify any emerging themes not captured in the initial analysis.
A total of ten individuals were selected using purposive sampling to ensure diversity in nationality, professional background, and exposure to Vietnamese culture and its symbols (Phở and Áo Dài) Five participants were Vietnamese experts, while the remaining five were international individuals with varying degrees of familiarity and connection to Vietnam
The Vietnamese group includes journalists, cultural content creators, diplomats, and artisans who possess extensive experience and direct involvement with national cultural symbols The international participants consist of scholars in Vietnamese and cultural studies, as well as foreign visitors with diverse levels of exposure to Vietnam, ranging from those who have never been to the country to those who have lived in or frequently visited it
Ten participants, evenly divided with five domestic and five international perspectives, provide a qualitative research sample size that aligns with established guidelines Research by Guest et al (2006) shows data saturation often emerges within the first six to twelve interviews in focused studies, while Creswell (2013) recommends a phenomenological sample range of five to twenty-five participants With recurring core themes and rich participant insights, this study's sample is sufficient to achieve analytical richness and thematic completeness.
All interviews were conducted in the preferred language of the participants, transcribed verbatim, and anonymized A summary of anonymized participant profiles is presented in Table 4.23
Table 4.23 Anonymized Profiles of Interview Participants
VN1 Vietnamese Female Digital journalist
VN2 Vietnamese Female Content creator, international communication scholar & lecturer VN3 Vietnamese Male Senior diplomat, former Head of
Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs VN4 Vietnamese Male Content creator, Phở restaurant owner in
Tokyo VN5 Vietnamese Male Áo Dài artisan recognized as National
Intangible Cultural Heritage bearer INT1 Chinese Male Scholar in Vietnamese Studies
INT2 Japanese Male Vietnamese Studies professor, over 30 years living in Vietnam INT3 Laotian Male Cultural studies researcher based in
Vietnam INT4 Korean Male Korean citizen, never visited Vietnam INT5 Korean Male Korean citizen, frequent visitor to Vietnam
(Source: Compiled by the author from in-depth interview data) 4.2.2 Analytical Approach
The qualitative phase employed thematic analysis to interpret insights from in-depth interviews, using the six-phase framework proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006, 2021), including familiarization with data, coding, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the final report This method allowed for a flexible yet rigorous exploration of patterns and meanings embedded in participants’ narratives regarding national cultural symbols and their representation through digital media
All interviews were audio-recorded (with participant consent), transcribed verbatim in the original language used (Vietnamese, English, or Korean), and analyzed using MAXQDA software The interviews were conducted both online and offline, depending on participants’ location and availability For Korean participants, interpretation support was used to facilitate communication and ensure translation accuracy Transcripts were later translated into English when required for consistent coding
While thematic analysis provided the overarching six-phase structure, all coding in MAXQDA was carried out in accordance with the core procedures of Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Charmaz, 2014) After an initial round of open coding, meaning units were constantly compared across transcripts to keep emerging concepts closely tied to the data Next, axial coding explored relationships among categories, and selective coding refined these links into an integrative narrative about how cultural symbols shape perceptions of Vietnam’s national brand in the digital sphere Throughout the process, analytic memos were used to document hunches, track coding decisions, and preserve a transparent audit trail This grounded-theory orientation - built into MAXQDA’s code system, memo manager, and comparison tools ensured that the final themes were not only thematically coherent but also grounded in participants’ lived experiences, thereby enhancing the credibility and theoretical contribution of the qualitative findings
The analysis followed both deductive and inductive approaches: deductive coding was informed by the quantitative findings and research objectives, while inductive coding allowed new and unanticipated themes to emerge directly from participants’ experiences Thematic development was carried out through an iterative process, during which initial codes were generated and clustered into overarching themes and subthemes
Data saturation is defined not simply by the number of interviews but by the repetition and stability of information observed during the coding process In line with the definitions proposed by Glaser and Strauss (1967), Guest et al (2006), and Saunders et al (2018), saturation was considered achieved when no new themes emerged after coding ten interviews, indicating that the thematic coverage was sufficiently comprehensive.
To ensure the trustworthiness of the findings, all coding decisions and thematic interpretations were carefully reviewed for consistency and alignment with the study’s objectives, strengthening the rigor of the qualitative analysis The qualitative results also served to support, clarify, or expand on the patterns identified in the quantitative phase, thereby enriching the overall interpretation of the data.
4.2.3.1 Perceptions of Vietnamese Cultural Identity and Its Representative Symbols
The qualitative analysis reveals a clear consensus regarding the key characteristics of Vietnamese culture, as perceived by both domestic and international participants Vietnamese culture is regarded as an open, diverse, and symbolically rich system, in which prominent symbols such as Phở, Áo Dài, and Nón Lá are not only traditional elements but also vivid representations intimately linked to national identity and personal experience From the perspective of research scholars and experts, a Chinese scholar specializing in Vietnamese studies (INT1) emphasized the greater degree of cultural integration in Vietnam compared to China, stating:
Vietnamese culture is more accepting than China’s When exposed to foreign elements, Vietnam integrates them very well I can list three things: Phở, Áo Dài, Nón Lá These three things are what immediately make me recognize the culture of Vietnam and my own culture
Similarly, a Japanese scholar (INT2), who has resided in Vietnam since before the Đổi Mới reforms (6th National Congress of the Communist Party, 1986), remarked:
Food and clothing have long been powerful symbols of a nation, and Vietnam’s rich culinary culture and distinctive fashion reinforce this truth With these elements, Vietnam possesses the core potential to become the nucleus of its national symbols While there are many possible symbols—ranging from ethnic minority costumes to regional dishes—the most representative and iconic symbols of Vietnam remain Phở and Áo Dài.
He further categorized perceptions of Vietnamese culture into three levels:
The basic level: the general public who know little or nothing about Vietnam; the intermediate level: those who appreciate Vietnamese culture; and the advanced level: those who especially love Vietnamese culture, for example, scholars specializing in Vietnamese studies
He also recounted a conversation with a tourism student who has traveled extensively, noting “Vietnamese cultural symbols are often popular and widely embraced by the public This is clearly reflected in Phở and Áo Dài.”
Another perspective comes from a Lao cultural researcher (INT3), currently residing in Vietnam, who expressed deep affection for Vietnamese culture:
I like all the aspects of Vietnamese culture, especially the food, particularly Phở
I think Vietnamese women look more beautiful in Áo Dài Áo Dài and Phở have already become cultural heritages of Vietnam, and they are unique to Vietnam