Understanding the effects of blended learning on efl students’ writing a study in a vietnamese university

Finally, besides locating the moderating impact of ICT skills, the present study quantified the direct and indirect effects of the BL environmental factors, students’ attitudes, beliefs,

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

CHU QUANG PHÊ

UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECTS OF BLENDED LEARNING ON EFL STUDENTS’ WRITING:

A STUDY IN A VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

CHU QUANG PHÊ

UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECTS OF BLENDED LEARNING ON EFL STUDENTS’ WRITING:

A STUDY IN A VIETNAMESE UNIVERSITY

A dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in TESOL Methodology

Supervisor 1: Raqib Chowdhury, Ph.D

Supervisor 2: Lê Thị Thanh Thu, Ed.D

Ho Chi Minh City - 2025

ABSTRACT

This study examined the multiple influences of blended learning (BL) on English as

a foreign language (EFL) students’ writing Accordingly, the ethnographic case study with its exploratory sequential mixed methods design targeted a sample of 175 students and two teachers of EFL writing Data collection and analysis occurred under the guidance of Bandura’s triadic reciprocal determinism, Venkatesh et al.’s unified theory of acceptance and use of technology, and the Vietnam Standardized English Test of Proficiency writing rating grid

In the writing process, interactions with the teacher, collaboration with peers, use of technology, and attitudes toward the BL course are the key components in impacting students’ behavioral engagements While they developed responsive behaviors in the

BL environment to fit each learning mode, the BL environment also positively changed students’ beliefs Though differing slightly in their attitudes toward BL for EFL writing, they perceived the BL environment as easy to study in and helpful for their writing This enabled them to feel confident in the writing process and in producing their written output

Regarding the effects of BL on EFL students’ products, their overall and component scores and language features appeared to be significantly enhanced throughout the

BL course However, plagiarism checks also indicated that students’ texts sometimes suggested the use of AI-generated resources This finding makes it important to consider alternative and more responsive methods of teaching writing and learning EFL and assessing students’ written products, especially when digital literacy has been a required competence of learners in Vietnam

Finally, besides locating the moderating impact of ICT skills, the present study quantified the direct and indirect effects of the BL environmental factors, students’ attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors on their writing performance All the relations were positive, meaning that the increase of an exogenous factor is likely to cause that of its corresponding endogenous one Specifically, students’ writing performance was

mainly affected by their behaviors in the writing process, which were determined by their beliefs, their attitudes, and the BL environment The study also highlighted some significant indirect effects of the BL environmental factors on EFL students’ behaviors and writing performance

To sum up, the study addressed all three research questions, and its findings extended the limited understanding of the effects of BL on EFL students’ writing regarding their behaviors, beliefs, and writing outputs These findings provided a mechanism to spur BL, personalize the BL environment, promote students’ beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, and enhance their writing outcomes Also, the present study concurrently calls for including BL in teaching and learning EFL writing

và Đào tạo Việt Nam

Kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy trong quá trình viết bài, tương tác với giảng viên, cộng tác với bạn học, hành vi sử dụng công cụ công nghệ ảnh hưởng lớn đến niềm tin và hành vi viết bài tiếng Anh của sinh viên Qua đó, sinh viên phát triển kiểu hành vi thích ứng trong mỗi môi trường học tập Mặc dù sinh viên có thái độ khác nhau về

mô hình học tập hỗn hợp để học viết tiếng Anh, hầu hết sinh viên cảm nhận được việc

dễ sử dụng, hữu ích và tự tin khi học viết trong môi trường học tập hỗn hợp

Về kết quả học viết, điểm số và chất lượng bài viết của sinh viên thể hiện xu hướng tăng đều ở tất cả 04 tiêu chuẩn: mức độ hoàn thành bài viết, tổ chức bài viết, từ vựng

và ngữ pháp Tuy nhiên, quét đạo văn cho thấy sinh viên sử dụng một tỷ lệ đáng kể ngôn liệu tạo ra bởi các công cụ trí tuệ nhân tạo (AI) Thực tế này đòi hỏi giảng viên phải đổi mới cách dạy, học và đánh giá kỹ năng viết tiếng Anh, đặc biệt là khi năng lực số đã được cụ thể hóa bởi Thông tư 02/2025/TT-BGDĐT

Trong quá trình nghiên cứu định lương, ngoài xác đinh được kỹ năng sử dụng công nghệ (ICT skills) là biến điều tiết, kết quả nghiên cứu đã mô hình hóa quá trình ảnh hưởng tuyến tính của môi trường học tập hỗn hợp, niềm tin, thái độ và hành vi lên kết quả viết tiếng Anh Tất các các mối quan hệ có ý nghĩa thống kê đều đồng biến, nghĩa là sự tăng của biến độc lập sẽ kéo theo sự gia tăng tương ứng của biến phụ thuộc theo mức độ của hệ số hồi quy

Trong mối quan hệ trực tiếp, môi trường học tập ảnh hưởng lớn đến thái độ và niềm tin học tập Đồng thời niềm tin có ảnh hưởng lớn đến hành vi, đồng thời hành vi trong quá trình viết bài tác động lớn lên kết quả học tập Đối với mối quan hệ gián tiếp, môi trường tác động lớn lên hành vi và kết quả học tập, điều đó cho thấy môi trường học tập hỗn hợp có vai trò ảnh hưởng đến cả quá trình lẫn kết quả viết bài

Nói tóm lại, nghiên cứu này đã giải quyết triệt để các câu hỏi nghiên cứu, và mang lại những đóng góp tích cực cho nhận thức khoa học về ảnh hưởng của mô hình học tập hỗn hợp lên kết quả học viết tiếng Anh, cả trong quá trình viết bài và chất lượng bài viết Kết quả nghiên cứu còn cung cấp thông tin hệ thống về cơ chế tác động, qua

đó có thể cá nhân hóa môi trường học tập phù hợp với niềm tin, thái độ và hành vi để sinh viên viết bài đạt kết quả tốt nhất Đồng thời, tác giả cũng ủng hộ việc tiếp tục nghiên cứu và triển khai mô hình học tập hỗn hợp trong dạy học viết tiếng Anh ở bậc đại học của Việt Nam

Chu Quang Phê

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, I show my deepest gratitude to my supervisors Dr Raqib Chowdhury and

Dr Le Thi Thanh Thu, who provided warm and expert guidance and support over three years, which resulted in this dissertation Their encouragement was central to keeping me going in times of uncertainty and doubt I am grateful for their painstakingly detailed commentaries on my early drafts While the conclusions and errors in this dissertation are entirely mine, I sincerely acknowledge the freedom they all extended to me to find my own way

My heartfelt thanks go to Ho Chi Minh City Open University and the University of Finance - Marketing for their services over the last few years Without their training and support, I could not have completed this dissertation

I am grateful to my participants, two teachers of English writing and 175 students in the qualitative inquiry My special thanks go to the six students who agreed to be interviewed for this study and were generous enough to make time from their busy schedules to share their valuable experiences and insights with me

I thank my wonderful teacher, friends, and colleagues – Assoc Prof Dr Nguyen Ngoc Vu, Assoc Prof Dr Bui Phu Hung, Dr Tran Tin Nghi, Assoc Prof Dr Pham

Vu Phi Ho, Dr Bao Dat, Dr Nicholas Howard, Prof Dr Nguyen Minh Ha, Mr Phan Van Quang, Ms Vo Thi Anh Dao, Dr Nguyen Thi Chau Ngan, Ms Pham Thi Thuy Trang, and Ms Duong Thi Thu Hien for their encouragement and confidence in me

I thank my wife, Trang, for her understanding, patience, and generosity in enabling the fruition of this study I thank my fifteen-year-old daughter, Van, for making sure that I did not get lost in my books, and whose phone calls always brought me back to reality I could not have completed my PhD journey without the love and support of

my family, for reminding me that there was more to life than the completion of a research project They have graciously tolerated my changes in temperament and my physical absence at times when they were entitled to more of my time and attention

CCOSA Cooperative Council for Oklahoma School Administration

IWP interaction with peers

MrQP code of EFL writing teacher/Rater 1

MsDV code of EFL writing teacher/Rater 2

MOET Ministry of Education and Training

TT Student participant code

UFM University of Finance-Marketing

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.2 Triadic reciprocal determinism of Bandura's SCLT 40 Figure 2.3 Framework for exploring the BL effects on students’ beliefs and

Figure 2.4 Framework for examining students' scores and text features under MOET’s VSTEP writing rating grid 44 Figure 2.5 Theorized model on the BL factors affecting EFL students' writing

Figure 3.2 Qualitative data collection and analysis 59 Figure 4.1 Part of an observation note (Source: Observation data) 70 Figure 4.2 Interaction ICT tools (Source: Questionnaire data) 71 Figure 4.3 Location and retrieval ICT tools (Source: Questionnaire data) 72 Figure 4.4 Communication tools (Source: Questionnaire data) 72 Figure 4.5 Material creation ICT tools (Source: Questionnaire data) 73 Figure 4.6 Part of an observation note (MsDV.21.2.AM) 75 Figure 4.7 Part of an observation note (MrQP.19.2.PM) 75 Figure 4.8 Part of an observation note (MrQP.19.1.AM) 77 Figure 5.1 EFL student's collaboratively written outline (TT, Week 3) 117 Figure 5.2 EFL student's individually written outline (TT, Week 3) 118 Figure 5.3 EFL students' online collaboratively written outline (TT, Week 5) 119 Figure 5.4 EFL students' online individually written outline (TT, Week 5) 120

Figure 7.1 Effects of BL on students' writing performance 165

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Participants’ demographic information in the multiple case study 50

Table 3.3 Criteria for validity and reliability 68

Table 4.3 Students' attitudes towards BL for EFL writing 98

Table 5.4 EFL students’ overall writing scores 115

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

1 Collaborative Writing Factors

Affecting English as a Foreign

Language Student Writing

Performance

2025 International Journal of

Virtual and Personal Learning Environments (IJVPLE)

2 Using the UTAUT2 model to

determine the factors affecting

students’ acceptance of blended

learning for English writing

2025 Computer-Assisted

Language Learning Electronic Journal (CALL-EJ)

3 Factors affecting EFL students’

acceptance of blended learning

for writing: examining the

mediating effect of self-efficacy

and writing performance

2025 Cogent Education

4 Exploring different approaches

to studying EFL writing at the

tertiary level: A systematic

review

2025 13th OpenTESOL

International Hybrid Conference

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2.1 Second language writing 23 2.2.2 Second language writing learning approaches 26

2.2.5 Blended learning and business English correspondence writing 37

2.3.1.1 Learning in light of social cognitive learning theory 38

2.3.2.1 Framework on the BL effects on EFL students’ beliefs and behaviors 43 2.3.2.2 Framework on the BL effects on EFL students’ written products 44 2.3.2.3 Framework on the BL factors affecting EFL students’

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.3.5 Questionnaire 57

3.4.1 Qualitative data analysis and interpretation 59 3.4.2 Quantitative data analysis and interpretation 62

CHAPTER 5 BLENDED LEARNING AND EFL WRITTEN PRODUCTS

RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT OF BL FOR EFL WRITING

8.1 Revisiting the findings in response to the research questions 178

Appendix D: VSTEP writing rating grid (Task 1) 211 Appendix E: Blended learning consent form (BL courses) 212

Appendix H: Student consent form (Qualitative part) 230 Appendix I: Model on the effects of collaborative learning

Appendix K: Model on blended learning acceptance 239

Appendix M: Construct validity and reliability 240

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter outlines the rationale for and the context of the study, the research gaps and problems, the aim and objectives, the scope, the significance, and the organization of the research Its purpose is to provide a preface by contextualizing and specifically elucidating the research problem and how it is addressed It also includes the contributions that the research attempts to achieve and orients the organization of the study contents

1.1 Rationale for the research

Technology is a part of daily learning and teaching processes and enables students to access education services at any time and from any place because of the omnipresence and availability of mobile devices (Selwyn, 2023; Smith & Hill, 2018) The proliferation of information and communication technology (ICT) use has revolutionized education rigorously (Masri, 2020) and put it on track to gradual automation, which is generative, empowering, and nourishing with the deep infusion

of apps, platforms, software, systems, and other digital devices (Selwyn et al., 2023) Among the varied forms of online learning, blended learning (BL), which is the combination of face-to-face and online learning where teachers and learners can deploy the advantages of both delivery modes, is growing in popularity (Anthony et al., 2022; Atef & Medhat, 2015; Graham et al., 2013) Specifically in higher education institutions (HEI), their deployment started as early as the 1990s (Smith & Hill, 2018) and then increased significantly around the world in the next two decades (Lin et al., 2018; Smith & Hill, 2018) With the current widespread use of technology

in education, Selwyn et al (2023) asserted that technology-based automation has infused it and promoted the idea of digital degrowth, calling for “a proactive renewal

of technology use around goals of voluntary simplicity and slowing down, community-based coproduction and sharing, alongside conscious minimalization of resource consumption” (p 1) This suggests that future ICT research in education is warranted to enhance its effectiveness and efficiency, thereby freeing up the mental, emotional, and temporal space for transformative learning Online learning and BL are integral components of this transformation

In Vietnam, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has issued numerous policies and documents on promoting technology use in education at all levels in the last 20 years, indicating that they support the inclusion of technology to boost educational quality (MOET, 2001) Especially during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, the application of technology for online teaching and learning was effective in such a challenging situation, and the deployment of BL has got increased attention from policymakers, spurring ICT use and recognizing the online learning as part of mainstream education (MOET, 2021, 2023, 2024), leading to the current growth of BL, especially in the university context Although BL has received much interest from researchers, educators, and policymakers, the voluntary application of this model remains very limited and primarily focuses on students’ attitudes (i.e Huynh, 2022), students’ writing results (i.e Luu, 2024; Phan, 2021) or students’ beliefs ( i.e Kieu et al., 2024; Tran et al., 2023), rather than on English writing teaching and learning practices which have received much research and investment

in developed countries (Hill & Smith, 2023; Selwyn et al., 2023)

The literature shows that earlier BL studies have focused on different aspects of BL policies, their implementation, and the corresponding improved learning results, even before the COVID-19 pandemic (i.e Quvanch & Kew, 2020; Sujannah et al., 2020) Specifically, Graham et al (2021) mentioned a rapid growth in BL research and implementation in the world, especially in Asia (Quvanch & Kew, 2020) However, most of them were done in countries whose socio-cultural contexts are quite different from those of Vietnam Accordingly, the findings of those earlier studies have not been applicable in the Vietnamese context In addition, most of those studies were quasi-experimental and based, explicitly or implicitly, on Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory (1978) as the learning theory to build the learning environment and the analytic tool to measure the effectiveness of the treatment (i.e Hassan et al., 2021; Means et al., 2013; Rahman et al., 2020; Shehadeh, 2011; Sumbayak et al., 2025) Most earlier findings have affirmed the efficacy of BL on education by pointing out students’ improved learning results and/or their positively changed attitude after being exposed

to this learning model

BL research has been extensive, and the previous findings have mostly reported positive results (Anthony et al., 2022; Quvanch & Kew, 2020); nonetheless, the exploration of the impacts of BL on specific disciplines and topics (in the case of this study, business English correspondence writing) utilizing Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning Theory (SCLT) (2002) as the analytic tool is limited, especially in an English as a foreign language (EFL) context such as Vietnam In response, this research targeted a BL course in the context of a Vietnamese university under the light of Bandura’s (2002) SCLT as a means to understand its influences on EFL students’ cognitive and behavioral engagement in the writing process, and its effects

on their written products

1.2 Research context

To understand the study context, this section outlines the specifics of the institute where the writing course was chosen as the research site and how the BL model was applied

The University of Finance - Marketing (UFM), located in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, has been providing a bachelor's program in Business English since 2004

As described in the curriculum, all the courses were delivered in the face-to-face mode; nonetheless, during and after the COVID-19 pandemic and on special occasions after that, UFM has drawn on the online mode to maintain its education and training service (i.e UFM, 2024) Then, it called for digitalizing courses to modernize and internationalize its education and training and improve learning outcomes (UFM, 2021, 2023) Additionally, UFM once chose or empowered its lecturers to choose the BL or online models to teach and test their students, although the syllabus of those courses requires in-person learning This has significantly stimulated the ongoing use of BL across all the majors at this university since 2023, including Business English

For Business English major students, four courses on English writing skills are

offered, each lasting 45 45-minute periods Writing 1 focuses on English paragraphs,

Writing 2 on English essays, Writing 3 on business English correspondence, and Writing 4 on research writing Their syllabi stipulate that learning takes place in the

classroom; nevertheless, these writing courses have taken place online at times during

and after the COVID-19 pandemic

In this study, Writing 2 and Writing 3 were under scrutiny Students learned to write

five types of essays: description, narration, comparison and contrast, cause and effect, and opinion in Writing 2, and four genres of business English correspondence:

memos, emails, letters, and notices in Writing 3 (see Appendix P) Before this BL

study, students had completed nine other courses (i.e Grammar, Reading 1, Philosophy) in the BL model as required by UFM syllabi (UFM, 2023) It can thus

be said that they had accumulated substantial experience and familiarity in BL

As a lecturer at the Faculty of Foreign Languages for nearly 17 years, I have gained substantial experience teaching and investigating English writing Anecdotally, the

BL practices at UFM demonstrate that most lecturers prefer a model where students spend time studying in the classroom before transitioning to online learning, and then return to classroom-based learning for tests and assessments This enables lecturers

to meet their students, introduce them to one another, form groups, and familiarize them with the learning environment before transitioning to the online mode Moreover, this BL practice is in the current response to MOET’s call for incorporating ICT into education (MOET, 2021, 2023, 2024) In the light of Vygotsky’s social cultural theory, BL can be supportive of students’ learning as knowing one another helps students collaborate well in their learning tasks during the course (Chen et al., 2022)

UFM provides its LMS, on which MS Teams is the online learning platform Lecturers are updated on how to use technology, and then they guide their students

on how to use it Nevertheless, the lecturers were not formally trained on how to offer

a BL course This results in teachers primarily learning how to teach in a BL course independently, and students behaving as instructed by their teachers Such a lack of formal training for both lecturers and students further necessitates this study, which explores EFL students’ beliefs and behaviors as well as their learning results in a BL model for English writing

1.3 Research gaps and research problems

Most earlier researchers claimed that BL is an opportunity for education renovation (Arifin, 2020; Klein, 2017; Rahman et al., 2020) and have supported the incorporation of BL in the training program at the tertiary level (Callum, 2011; Graham, 2021; Kieu et al., 2024) Nonetheless, the literature on BL research in the field of English writing teaching and learning reveals three major gaps as follows

Firstly, BL research focusing on business English correspondence writing is limited

In reality, extant literature indicates that BL research has primarily focused on literary writing (i.e Klein, 2017), essay writing (i.e Nguyen, 2023; Sujannah et al., 2020), paragraph writing (i.e Mulyadi & Wijayatiningsih, 2020; Shehadeh, 2011), and writing as part of an integrated English skills course at college or in schools (i.e Arifin, 2020; Arta et al., 2019; Mulyadi et al., 2024), rather than specifically on business English correspondence writing Most earlier researchers have investigated the effects of BL on their English writing in the traditionally defined second language (L2) learning context and have identified the various forms of improved learning that

BL has brought about (Qi et al., 2024; Quvanch & Kew, 2020) However, a study to understand if BL could help students achieve their language and content goals in a business English correspondence writing course as the EFL context remains very limited in the body of literature, especially in the context of Vietnamese higher education In response, this study relies on a business English correspondence writing course to examine how BL influences EFL students’ writing in terms of competences

and linguistic features in terms of task fulfillment, organization, vocabulary, and

grammar under the VSTEP Writing rating scale (MOET, 2015)

Secondly, BL research that elaborates intensively on how EFL students’ beliefs and

behaviors are impacted in the writing process is limited in the literature Most

research findings focused on the causal relationship between the treatment and its results Specifically, earlier findings showed improved learning results and effective collaborative and cooperative learning after the students were exposed to the BL learning environment (Challob et al., 2016; Sime et al., 2024 ), including the pure online environment (Thai & Nguyen, 2022; Nguyen, 2016) These researchers observed conspicuous improvement in students’ writing performance in a holistic

assessment procedure in terms of their score (Arifin, 2020), their outcomes and skills (Quvanch & Kew, 2020; So & Lee, 2013), their writing ability (Do & Nguyen, 2023; Hassan et al., 2021) as well as their fluency and accuracy (I, 2023; Torabi, 2021; Thai

& Nguyen, 2022) However, a study on understanding the effects of BL on EFL students’ writing manifested in their cognitive and behavioral engagements in the writing process has been ignored in the literature

Besides, in reviewing empirical studies to understand the effectiveness of BL, Means

et al (2013), Quvanch and Kew (2020), and Qi et al (2024) reported that students in the BL model outperformed those in the purely face-to-face classes Furthermore, a handful of earlier findings showcased that students generally hold a positive attitude toward BL use, which leads to more student engagement (i.e Hill & Smith, 2023) and improved learning (i.e Qi et al., 2024; Rahman, 2018) Most of those studies drew on Vygotsky’s social cultural theory (1978) as an analytic tool to find the effects

of BL on students’ learning However, a study to cohesively explore how BL impacts students’ beliefs, how they adaptively respond to the BL environment to write, and how their written productions are mediated accordingly remains under-researched in the literature

Regarding research on writing, Xu (2016) claimed that besides examining students’ written products, researchers should evaluate the process by which they produce the texts In response, I decided to explore how students cognitively and behaviorally interacted with the BL resources to produce a piece of writing, and then both students’ behavior in the writing process and their beliefs were observed under the modified assumption of the triadic reciprocal influences of the personal, environmental and behavioral aspects in Bandura’s (2002) SCLT

Finally, studies to understand the systems information on how BL affects EFL

students’ writing performance psychologically and technologically have so far been ignored In a qualitative study completed in the context of Vietnam's higher

education, students believed that online learning could hardly lead to quality learning (Nguyen, 2016) While BL has been reported to improve students’ writing (Means et al., 2013; Qi et al., 2024; Rahman, 2018), a lack of technical support and advice has

often been believed to be a salient barrier to the implementation of technology-based education (Ataizi & Komür, 2021) Moreover, in a study conducted in the Saudi tertiary EFL context, Alqasham (2018) found that contextual constraints are likely to cause class failure and that the school infrastructure plays an important role in maintaining social network use Also, Tsui and Tavares (2021) asserted that BL pedagogy and technology are interconnected and interdependent in the classroom environment to support students’ learning Accordingly, these arguments suggest that there needs to be a study that explores and rates the technology-relevant factors that influence the learners’ learning results in a BL course Then, a deep understanding of students’ perception of BL use for learning English writing will enable teachers and/or HEIs to construct a good BL environment for students

The literature also shows that numerous previous researchers tried to understand learners’ acceptance of ICT tools for educational purposes in purely online courses

or technology-rich learning environments through Davis’s technology acceptance model (i.e Nguyen, 2017; Chu & Nguyen, 2019), or Venkatesh et al.’s unified theory

of acceptance and use of technology ([UTAUT] 2003) (i.e Callum, 2011; Nguyen & Chu, 2021) These researchers attached learners’ acceptance of these tools to their perceived ease of use or effort expectancy, perceived usefulness (i.e Arta et al., 2019; Nguyen, 2017; Callum, 2011; Chu, 2022), social influences (i.e Li et al., 2022) or facilitating conditions (i.e Azzi et al., 2020; Norman, 2022; Shachak et al., 2019) However, a structural model adopted to estimate the acceptance of BL to estimate how BL employment influences EFL students’ writing remains scant in the literature

In response, I took into account the integral BL environment and developed a structural model in light of Bandura’s triadic reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 2002) and Venkatesh et al.’s (2012) extended theory of acceptance and use of technology

to determine how BL factors affect students’ writing performance

On the whole, the findings of this study were supposed to bridge the gaps in the literature, address the research problems, and simultaneously help reform and/or innovate the English writing teaching and learning approach As stated above, although the research site is confined to one university in Vietnam, the findings are

likely transferrable to other universities in the country, as well as elsewhere, especially in EFL countries with similar socio-economic profiles

1.4 Research aim and objectives

In recent years, BL has been considered a viable option for enhancing education and training in developing countries in Africa and Asia (Atef & Medhat, 2015; Qi et al., 2024), including Vietnam, a country with the recent widespread use of BL in tertiary education in comparison with the long history of BL across the world Therefore, this study would be based on the emergent practices of BL in the Vietnamese higher education context to understand its effects on students’ English writing and consider the changes that BL will likely make toward education effectiveness Relying on this aim, the following three objectives are set below

First, the research explores the students’ current English writing learning practices in the BL environment to understand their behaviors and beliefs in the writing process Second, the students’ written products would be deliberately examined to comprehend the effects of a BL course on EFL students’ writing competences and text features

Finally, the study centers on determining the various BL factors that affect the students’ English writing performance

In short, the study intends to provide deep insights into the degree to which BL impacts English major students’ writing process and products Further, the research examines major causative BL factors that influence students’ writing performance Once all the research questions are answered, some implications will be suggested for better use of BL to effectively teach and learn English writing

3 How do BL factors impact their writing performance?

Overall, the answers to the three research questions above correspond to the three earlier set objectives The above-mentioned questions are hoped to direct the entire study through the empirical research procedures to arrive at the desired findings and help understand the research problems stated in Section 1.3

1.6 Scope of the research

The study targeted about 175 English major students in their second year at UFM in

2024, who experienced learning English essays (Writing 2) and business English correspondence writing (Writing 3) in BL courses Though the research centered on two writing courses, formal data collection primarily took place in Writing 3

The study closely investigated the BL environment, students’ personal factors, and their behaviors as well as their learning results when they went through two modes

of delivery to write business English correspondence In the meantime, the study examined the various causative BL factors to understand how BL influences English major students’ writing

In addition, with an education focus, this study does not evaluate the policy on or its implementation of BL for English major students’ writing skills but explains the impacts of BL on their English writing and predicts the change that BL may bring about

1.7 Significance of the research

Theoretically, the findings of this study contribute to computer-assisted language learning, the design and implementation of BL, BL research, and EFL teaching and learning by extending the current understanding to a certain type of BL Particularly, the study generates that systems information on how BL affects EFL students’ writing The findings also help future studies to generalize about the issues under scrutiny, not only in Vietnam but elsewhere in contextually similar ELF settings Practically, the findings of this study provide empirical evidence for explaining the impacts of BL on English major students’ writing and their responsive behaviors towards it Specifically, knowing the effects of BL on English major students’ writing

and identifying the various factors affecting their writing performance serve as a founded basis for policymakers to construct better-grounded policies to boost the use

well-of BL in the educational environment and for teachers, learners, HEI administrators, and other stakeholders to spur more effective use of BL as the spirit of “digital degrowth” called for by Selwyn (2023)

1.8 Organization of the research

The dissertation principally includes the following sections Chapter 1 is the introduction to the project of study, addressing the background, the study context, rationale, statements of the problem, research questions, research aims and objectives, the scope, the significance, and the organization

Chapter 2 focuses on BL, SCLT as the learning theory, and EFL writing pedagogy and their varied applications to formulate two conceptual frameworks for the qualitative part of the research and one theorized measurement model to predict the impacts of BL on English major students’ writing performance

Chapter 3 discusses various components such as the research design and approach, the participant recruitment for the qualitative inquiry and sampling for the quantitative phase, the research methods and the instruments, and data analyses and interpretation are presented and justified in detail

Chapter 4 analyzes the effects of BL on students’ writing process, manifested in their beliefs and responsive behaviors in the BL environment

Chapter 5 analyzes the BL effects on students’ written products, manifested in their VSTEP writing rating grid The findings provide the qualitative results of content analysis of the students’ weekly papers through a description of their writing competencies and text features

Chapter 6 analyzes the survey questionnaire, through which all the hypotheses are tested, and the theorized model is validated to determine BL factors that affect EFL students’ writing performance

Chapter 7 is the overall discussion of the findings in alignment with the research questions It also provides a new understanding of the effects of BL on EFL students’

writing and explains how the findings have contributed to the existing literature on

BL research and EFL writing

Chapter 8 is the conclusion and implications, which summarizes and reviews the study results compared to the objectives stated earlier It also suggests some implications for teachers, learners, HEI administrators, and other stakeholders to enhance the quality of education and training at the tertiary level with the assistance

of the BL in teaching and learning English writing Finally, it considers the study's limitations and suggests further issues that need investigating

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter problematizes and critically discusses the dual concepts of BL and EFL writing Specifically, the first section targets the notion of BL and how it has been studied The second section focuses on EFL writing in terms of its pedagogy and student performance The last section rationalizes the conceptual frameworks for qualitative research and the theoretical framework for quantitative inquiry

2.1 Blended learning

2.1.1 Problematizing “blended learning”

Blended learning (BL) is also known as hybrid learning, mixed-mode learning,

integrated learning, or mixed-mode education (Graham, 2006; Smith & Hill, 2018),

and among those various terms, BL remains the dominant name for an approach that combines the different learning methods with the different models of instruction (Smith & Hill, 2018) The literature indicates that researchers have considered BL as the blend of methods, learning, teaching, programs, or environments (Mirriahi et al., 2015), which will be discussed below

As a blended method, BL simply means using more than one method of delivering lessons to learners (Atef & Medhat, 2015; Klein, 2017) In the same vein, Humaira

et al (2018) defined BL as “an educational program that combines online digital media with traditional classroom methods” (p 32) In language education, Challob et

al (2016) defined BL as a language teaching method that blends the best features of in-person teaching and online learning This form of integration makes a single, whole learning environment to improve the quality of English language teaching and learning In this sense, BL is conceptualized as the combination of online and face-to-face methods Thus, proponents of BL as a mix of methods treat BL as the medium for teachers to deliver their lessons and for students to experience mixed instruction methods

Regarding instructional activities, BL is implemented to help teachers provide online materials in the content area (enabling blend), deliver supplementary resources online

to support the face-to-face instruction (enhancing blend), and replace some of the

face-to-face instruction with the online mode (transforming blend) (Graham, 2006) This approach was widely mentioned among researchers in their studies (Mirriahi et al., 2015) largely because they believed that BL is related to teaching, which influences students’ learning (Klein, 2017)

From another angle, Neumeier (2005) defined BL as a combination of face-to-face and computer-assisted learning and teaching to establish a single integral educational environment In this manner, the widely-mentioned term “online” is substituted by

“computer-assisted” to describe the teaching and learning setting In the same vein, the Cooperative Council for Oklahoma School Administration ([CCOSA], 2019) conceptualized BL as an instructional approach in which teachers design a framework that integrates traditional classroom instruction with online learning, allowing students some degree of control over when, where, and at what pace they study Caner (2012) further noted that since both face-to-face and online learning come with distinct strengths and limitations, educators have increasingly sought to merge aspects of the two in order to maximize their benefits and reduce their drawbacks Overall, numerous scholars argue that BL creates an engaging and effective environment for English language teaching, contributing positively to the process of EFL acquisition

In a more comprehensive view, Blended Learning Universe (Blended Learning Universe [BLU], 2023), an established online hub packed with BL resources for educators in the United States, defined BL as an instructional approach where students engage in both online study and face-to-face learning at a physical location outside the home, with the different modes intentionally coordinated to create a unified learning experience In such courses, resources and activities are purposefully structured and systematically combined to achieve academic objectives, support learning outcomes, and address students’ needs, individual characteristics, and learning preferences (So & Lee, 2013)

However, the aforementioned definitions fail to encompass the present-day nuances

of BL Graham (2021) criticized that the earlier definitions of BL were principally based on the dimensions of media, method, and modality; however, the blend of those

features does not reflect the term “blended learning” which should be viewed from the student's perspective Accordingly, it was defined as “the strategic combination

of online and in-person learning” (Graham, 2021, p 13)

Graham’s (2021) definition of BL is a student-centered approach to BL, indicating that BL is the principled mix of two learning modes: online and face-to-face, and it

is treated as a convergent act rather than a divergent one when students experience their learning in two modes Also in this angle, Humaira et al (2018) used BL to mean a combination of learning: learning in the classroom and learning that uses the internet, which allows students to take advantage of the strengths of both modes of learning All in all, when BL is defined from a student perspective, it refers to the combination of learning in two different settings, which reflects the agentic view of learning

These varied problematizations lead to the fact that BL takes shape in variable ways through several broad models, each with unique implications for students and teachers (Waite & White, 2019) Caner (2012) also pointed out that modern learning environments now draw on several methods, ICT tools, and modes of delivery Pure online learning is when everything takes place on the internet, while BL is when students spend a certain proportion of time and effort studying online and then experience the rest of the course in the physical classroom (Rahman et al., 2020) The literature clearly shows evidence that the proportion of content that should be delivered online in a BL model is disputed, as it is measured differently by different researchers, and the quantification is debatable For example, Caner (2012) reviewed the earlier BL research and suggested that traditional classes occur without any content delivered online, web-facilitated classes come with 1-29% of the online content, BL classes feature 30% to 80 % of the content delivered online, and online courses provide above 80% of web-based content In a meta-analysis of the BL research a year later, Means et al (2013) recalculated the proportion of online content and activities and concluded that most researchers agree that any case in which students learn 25% or more but not all of the content on the internet is categorized as

BL

As far as the conceptualization of BL varies, it is carried out in different formats and

at different levels Graham (2006) posited that BL can appear in blended activities, courses, programs, or institutions In some courses, BL takes the form of an online tool to supplement the in-class activity, while in other courses, the online part replaces the face-to-face content (Atef & Medhat, 2015) Despite the differences, BL is a convergent learning setting rather than a divergent one, which treats learning methods and teaching separately (Challob et al., 2016; Li et al., 2022; Neumeier, 2005)

In this study, BL means the blend of learning as per Graham’s (2021) suggestion, stated above, which refers to a blended behavior that works in relation to blended media, modalities, and methods This is relevant to Bandura’s (1989, 2002) triadic reciprocal determinism (TRD) in a way that people’s behavior works under the influence of their personal factors and the environment As a result, EFL students’ writing was theorized to be affected directly by their BL behavior and indirectly by their personal and environmental factors

2.1.2 Classifications of blended learning

2.1.2.1 Types of blended learning

The variation in the definitions of BL has come from the BL practices that are taking place in HEIs (Caner, 2012), and Graham (2006) has worked out that BL is carried out as a blended activity, course, program, or institution

At an activity level, BL “takes place when an activity in the classroom contains both face-to-face and online or computer-mediated elements” (Graham, 2006, p 12) Caner (2012) provided an example of a blended activity where students in a military training course might attend the lectures for some time and then move to the online

or computer-assisted simulation tools to complete their learning activity Another possible application of a blended activity in language learning is that students learning to write emails might explore the theory in the face-to-face mode first and use their email account to write a real email later

A blended course, known as the most common BL type, “engages face-to-face and online activities as part of a course” (Graham, 2006, p 13) Some BL approaches

engage students in several conditions that assist in-person and online learning Caner (2012) also claimed that blended courses usually adopt online content in addition to some in-class meetings, indicating that both types of activities are important parts of

a course, and students should complete them in order to pass the course well Regarding the role of online activities, Atef and Medhat (2015) posited that they can supplement or replace face-to-face activities

At the program level, certain face-to-face courses come with others delivered at a distance or online (Graham, 2006) The definition hints that BL learners are permitted

to pick among a mix of courses delivered via different modes (Caner, 2012) In fact, program-level BL in higher education is usually provided by HEIs, where one program has online and face-to-face courses

The institution-level BL resembles program-level BL; however, in such situations, HEIs regulate that face-to-face and online teaching and learning take place throughout an organization (Graham, 2006) Caner (2012) also added that a blended institution creates a BL model for its institution-wide implementation He took the University of Michigan as an example of an institution-level BL when this university chose the center rotation model of BL, and all BL lecturers there must follow the same procedure of this model

The notion of BL at the tertiary level was hailed as an opportunity to enhance the teaching and learning quality by balancing the pros and cons of classroom-based and online learning (Graham, 2021; Caner, 2012) At the institutional and program levels,

BL is often determined by learners; nevertheless, at the course and activity levels, teachers typically choose it (Caner, 2012) In this study, BL under exploration was a blended course because the students wrote business English correspondence in a BL course chosen and proposed by the teacher EFL writing

2.1.2.2 Blended learning models

The practice has proven that BL is gaining popularity as every aspect of personal and professional life transitions to the online world in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic (Naba, 2022), and it takes learning out of a traditional classroom, making

it possible to for learners to get resources both on the website and in the classroom

(Gupta, 2022) Naba (2022) reviewed the literature on BL research and concluded that BL is categorized by the time proportion and the content of the online part, and the result is a typology of BL models In the following section, the research will discuss some typical BL models

Station rotation

The station rotation model permits learners to transition through different stations as

scheduled, one of which must be the online mode (BLU, 2023) It is one of the most popular BL approaches because this model permits students to switch between two

or more stations on a set schedule, typically established by the teacher (White, 2019)

He continued that the three secrets for the fruitful implementation of this model are letting students spend time establishing relationships among their groups, using the data of the course to direct instruction, and permitting students to make the BL model

of their own Overall, students rotate between content and courses in a structured way (Naba, 2022)

Lab rotation

A lab rotation model allows learners to rotate the learning stations on a previously

set timeframe; nevertheless, online sessions occur in designated computer labs other than on the website, away from the brick-and-mortar classroom (BLU, 2023), such

as at students’ homes An example of this model is that students listen to lectures delivered in the auditorium first, and then they move to the lab to train further and apply what they have studied theoretically to address a real-like or simulated task with the assistance of tools, machines, or computers Moreover, White (2019) posited that this model allows teachers and students to schedule flexible arrangements and helps HEIs to make the most out of their computer labs

Individual rotation

An individual rotation model permits learners to switch through different stations on

their tailored schedules (BLU, 2023) In this BL model, students do not have to move

to all stations but only to the activities posted on their own playlists Flores (2018) praised this model as it facilitates the students’ personalized learning For example,

after exploring a theory of interpreting, students can choose what they interpret and how they can work together, either at home or in class, to provide a performance This model corresponds to a blended activity (Graham, 2006)

Flipped classroom

The flipped classroom model blends schoolwork and home assignments in a fixed

schedule Thanks to the available materials, students study at home via online delivery of content, and lecturers save class time for teacher-guided activities such as discussions, projects, or practice (BLU, 2023) Because students complete reading materials, watching clips, listening to the lessons, and/or doing assigned homework before they present themselves in the classroom, this model of learning allows for maximizing class time and opportunities for students’ practice or skill improvement Waite and White (2019) commented that this BL model affords flexibility for personalization within the bounds of the traditional system and creates opportunities for deeper learning

Flex

A flex model enables learners to follow flexible schedules to complete various

activities and meet their learning needs, and online learning is the key feature in this model (BLU, 2023) Teachers support and instruct students flexibly during the course In this model, students have a certain degree to which they can control their learning activities In the light of Graham (2006), a flex model occurs at the course level Furthermore, according to Flores (2018), the flex model is credited with an innovation of adapting instruction to meet students’ unique needs while giving them greater control over the time, place, pace, and content of their learning

A La Carte

The A La Carte model permits learners to study online with an instructor of record to

assist the in-person delivery of content, in which they achieve more flexibility over strictly following their pre-arranged learing schedules (BLU, 2023) This approach emphasizes the supplementary role of online learning to in-person learning (Graham, 2006) A La Carte is actually a blended program Moreover, CCOSAA (2019)

asserted that A La Carte courses are often chosen when schools are unable to offer certain learning opportunities, such as advanced placement or elective classes, which contributes to their popularity as a model

Enriched virtual

The enriched virtual model is an alternative form of full-time online learning that

permits learners to complete the majority of their coursework online from outside the school while still attending scheduled in-person class sessions for a set period of time (BLU, 2023) This model does not require students to attend classes every day; in fact, some courses may ask for school attendance twice a week (BLU, 2023) Also, students must move through instructor-scheduled classrooms, either in physical or virtual learning environments Methodologically, Gupta (2022) claimed that this model adds to remote learning experiences by promoting the online interactions between the instructor and his students

Face-to-face driver model

The face-to-face driver model is quite similar to conventional classrooms because

most training activities occur in teacher-led classroom settings (Naba, 2022) This model personalizes support to assist learners who face difficulties with their learning Students spend most of their time studying in the classroom but can also do some online activities Simultaneously, instructors might continually introduce online features to help people who need to spend some extra time mastering a content point Overall, the eight common models of BL above differ in the amount of time and content with which students work online CCOSA (2019) posited that students’ benefits should come first when a BL course is chosen to be implemented Likewise, Gupta (2022) recommended that BL be tailored to the institution and students This means that the deployment of a BL model depends much on the institution's and its students' specific conditions Accordingly, the discussion and the categorization of

BL above were used to examine the BL practices, which were the context of this study A detailed description and identification of the BL model for English major students’ writing will be presented in Chapter 4

2.1.3 Blended learning research

The existing literature shows that earlier researchers adopted different approaches to

examining BL (see Section 1.3) They did a lot of BL research and made conflicting

claims about its adoption

On the one hand, most researchers considered BL as an opportunity to improve the quality of education Quvanch and Kew (2020) and Anthony et al (2022) did systematic reviews of the effects of BL on English writing and reported that most findings showed improvements in the examined areas Besides studies on students, research on teachers’ perception of BL also indicated their positive attitudes toward

BL use in education and held the belief that BL could be effective for learning and could be the future solution to education (Alqasham, 2018; Pham, 2021; Phan, 2021) They also reported that BL was good for students’ collaboration, reflection, and discussion on the platform and found that the learners’ practice and experiences are useful (Phan, 2021; Qi et al., 2024)

On the other hand, a minority of BL research targeted the challenges of implementing this model Anthony et al (2022) claimed that BL is the choice of the teacher rather than the students Fan et al (2023) also reported that students did not equip themselves with adequate connected facilities and ICT skills to study well in a BL model In the same vein, Faizan et al (2023) mentioned poor internet connection, insufficient facility conditions, and untimely technical support hindered BL

In the context of Vietnam, earlier researchers also provided conflicting claims about

BL adoption While Do and Nguyen (2023) found that BL can improve EFL students' writing and attitudes, Kieu et al (2024) and Huynh (2022) reported that students were not skilled enough to study in BL, negatively affecting their learning results Especially in online sessions, they demonstrated passive reactions to their teacher’s online instructions (Vo et al., 2024) or doubted the quality of learning online (Nguyen, 2016)

Despite the two contrasting views of BL above, multiple studies called for the implementation of this model (i.e Hill & Smith, 2023; Li et al., 2022; Truss & Anderson, 2023), even those that mentioned the negativity of implementing BL (i.e

Faizan et al., 2023; Huynh, 2022; Kieu et al., 2024) Fisher et al (2021) claimed that students’ perceptions and experiences in BL would change positively over time Then, the BL environment creates a good atmosphere because it enables teachers to deliver their lessons well, increases learner engagement, and makes the learning experiences more interesting (Sime et al., 2024)

In short, this BL study supported previous findings that BL should be incorporated in education to increase its quality, especially in English writing It also supported Anthony et al.’s (2022) view that subsequent BL research should focus on the BL practices While earlier researchers attempted to prove the effectiveness of BL by locating the causal relationships between the treatment and its result, this study deepened the process in which students thought and behaved to write EFL in a BL context The findings of this BL study were expected to help understand a mechanism

to change EFL students’ writing process or their written products

2.1.4 Blended learning acceptance

To understand how BL affects EFL students’ writing, it is important to make sure that they deploy this model to write English Because students are supposed to adopt

a lot of technology, especially in the online mode, earlier researchers used different models to estimate their acceptance or refusal Java et al (2022) reported that the internet, artificial intelligence, and virtual classrooms are promoting education Accordingly, studying the students’ acceptance of ICT tools in a BL course can help facilitate the students’ increased deployment and improve the overall quality of education

Empirically, certain popular research models that have been used to estimate the adoption of technology are the Theory of Reasoned Actions, the Theory of Planned Behavior, and, notably, Davis’s Technology Acceptance Model (Callum, 2011; Lai, 2017) as well as Venkatesh et al.’s Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of

Technology (UTAUT) (2003; Nguyen & Chu, 2021) UTAUT is a unified model of

the earlier validated ones adopted to estimate people’s use of ICT for their professional needs This model was applied in various research fields, including education technology (Callum, 2011)

In UTAUT, people’s use behavior towards ICT is explained directly by behavioral

intention and facilitating condition – the degree to which people believe that there is

sufficient support from their organization to use ICT tools (Venkatesh et al., 2003)

In another direction, behavioral intention to use ICT is influenced by three immediate constructs: performance expectancy – the degree to which people believe that

adopting ICT helps them to enhance their work performance (Venkatesh et al., 2003),

effort expectancy – the degree of effort that people make to use ICT (Venkatesh et

al., 2003) and social influence – the degree to which people perceive that those around them impact their use of ICT (Venkatesh et al., 2003) Besides that, age, gender,

experience, and voluntariness of use are four additional moderators that influence the

causal relations within the research model

Based on extensive theoretical and empirical research, Venkatesh et al (2012) extended UTAUT to UTAUT2 nine years later to encompass more personal attributes

(Figure 2.1) In UTAUT2, use behavior toward technology can be predicted by

behavioral intention and habit – “the extent to which people tend to perform

behaviors automatically because of learn” (Venkatesh et al., 2012, p 161) In another

layer, behavioral intention to use ICT is collectively impacted by performance

expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating condition, habit, hedonic motivation – the perceived fun or pleasure people have when they use ICT (Venkatesh

et al., 2012), and price value –“consumers' cognitive trade between the perceived

benefits of the applications and the monetary cost for using them (Venkatesh et al.,

2012, p 161) In addition, there are only three moderators: age, gender, and

experience in the estimation model that influence the causal relations among the

constructs