Detection methods for algae, protozoa and helminths in fresh and drinking water

Detection Methods for Algae, Protozoa and Helminths in Fresh and Drinking Water

Detection Methods for Algae,

Protozoa and Helminths in Fresh and Drinking Water

EDITED BY

FRANCA PALUMBO

Azienda Mediterranea Gas e Acqua S.p A., Genoa, Italy

GIULIANO ZIGLIO

Universita di Trento, Italy

AND& VAN DER BEKEN

Techware, Brussels, Belgium

JOHN WILEY & SONS, LTD

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Contents

Series Preface

Preface

The Series Editor - Philippe Quevauviller

List of Contributors

PART ONE: SANITARY AND TECHNICAL ASPECTS

1 Presence of Algae, Protozoa, Helminths in the Water Environment:

S Kanih and Y Franco

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Algae

1.3 Protozoa

1.4 Nematodes

1.5

1.6 Actinomycetes

1.7 Iron and Sulphur Bacteria

1.8 Nitrifying Bacteria

1.9 Crustacea

1.10 Rotifers

1.1 1 Zebra Mussels

1.12 Conclusions

References

Significance, Sanitary Implications and Preventive Measures

Bloodworms or Midges (Chironomid Larvae)

2 Water Potabilization Plant in the Presence of Algae, Protozoa and

Helminths

L Coccagna and G Ziglio

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Separation Technology

2.3 Oxidation Treatments for Disinfection

ix

xi

xv xvii

3

3

4

6

7

8

9

10

12

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19

20

30

vi

2.4 Surface Water Treatment Plant

2.5 Conclusions

References

3 Biological Methods in Managing Problems in Water Works and

A SladeEkova

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Biological Criteria of the Czech Drinking Water Standard

3.3 Other Standards, Regulations and Recommended Methods

3.4 Application of Biological Methods in Water Supply Systems

3.5 Conclusions

References

Distribution Systems

PART TWO: ALGAE AND HELMINTHS

4 An Overview of Counting Methods for Algae

G Bowe

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Description of Sampling Methods

4.3 Description of the Subsampling Procedures

4.4 Description of the Counting Techniques

4.5 Considerations Regarding the Use of the Microscope

4.6 Algae as Bioindicators

4.7 Conclusions

References

5 Extraction and Determination of Chlorophylls

G Bowe

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Description of Methods and Comments

5.3 Procedures

References

6 Phytoplankton Analysis Using Flow Cytometry

S Sgorbati

6.1 Introduction

6.2 A Brief History of FCM

6.3 Application of FCM to Aquatic Science

Contents

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94 6.4 Pigment Autofluorescence and Probes for FCM Analysis of Phytoplankton 96 6.5 Species Identification with FCM: Oligonucleotides and Neural Network

Contents vii

7 Methods for Cyanobacterial Toxin Detection

J Rapala and K Lahti

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Cyanobacterial Toxins

7.3 Bioassays

7.4 Biochemical and Immunological Methods

7.5 Chemical Methods

7.6 Integrated Analysis of Cyanobacterial Toxins

References

Appendix 1

107

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128

8 Hygiene and Health Aspects and Interpretation of Data Related

to the Presence of Helminths in Water for Human Consumption 133

L Bonadonna and G Bezziccheri

8.4 Recommendations for the Development of an Analytical Method for

PART THREE: PROTOZOA

9 Pathogenic Protozoa in Fresh and Drinking Water

D Gold and H c! Smith

9.1 Introduction

9.2 The Parasites

9.3 Infectious Dose

9.4 The Disease

9.5 Laboratory Diagnosis

9.6 Transmission Routes

9.7

9.8

9.9

9.10 Conclusions

References

Impact of Water Catchment on Raw Water Quality

Methods for Dectecting Waterborne Oocysts and Cysts

Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Gardia in Water

143

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162

10 An Overview of Concentraction Techniques for Giurdiu and

E Carraro

Contents

Vlll

References

11 An Overview of Identification Methods in Use for Giurdiu and

E Carruro and Pulumbo

1 1.1 Introduction

1 1.2 Sample Purification Methods

1 1.3 Methods for the Analytical Determination of Cysts and Oocysts

1 1.4 Conclusions

References

Cryptosporidium

12 Viability of Cryptosporidium Oocysts and Giurdiu Cysts

J E O’Grady and H k! Smith

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Viability

12.3 Infectivity

177

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212

Series Preface

Water is a fundamental constituent of life and is essential to a wide range of economic activities It is also a limited resource, as we are frequently reminded by the tragic effects of drought in certain parts of the world Even in areas with high precipitation, and in major river basins, over-use and mismanagement of water have created severe constraints on availability Such problems are widespread and will be made more acute by the accelerating demands on fresh water arising from trends in economic development

Despite the fact that water-resource management is essentially a local, river basin-based activity, there are a number of areas of action that are relevant to all or significant parts of the European Union, and as a result it is advisable to pool efforts for the purpose of understanding relevant phenomena (e.g., pollution, geo- chemical studies), developing technical solutions andor defining management procedures One of the keys to successful cooperation aimed at studying hydrol- ogy, water monitoring, biological activity etc., is to establish and ensure good water quality measurements

Measurements of quality are essential to demonstrate the comparability of data obtained worldwide and they form the basis for appropriate decision-making related to management of water resources, monitoring issues, biological quality etc In addition to the necessary quality control tools developed for various types

of physical, chemical and biological measurements, there is a great need for education and training related to water quality measurement This need has been recognized by the European Commision which has funded a series of training courses on this topic, covering aspects such as monitoring and measurement of lake recipients, measurement of heavy metals and organic compounds in drinking and surface water, use of biotic indexes, and methods for identification and quantitation of algae, protozoa and helminthes

This book series will ensure a wide coverage of issues related to water quality measurements, in particular the topics covered in the above-mentioned courses In addition, other aspects related to methods of quality control (e.g., certified reference materials for the quality control of water analysis) and waste-water monitoring will also be considered

The present book, Detection Methods for Algae, Protozoa and Helminths in

Fresh and Drinking Water, is the second one of the series It has been written by

x Series Preface

experts in water biology and offers the reader an extensive overview of all the important aspects that need to be considered when studying sanitary problems related to water potabilization, including biological methods for the analysis of algae, protozoa and helminthes

The Series Editor - Philippe Quevauviller

PREFACE

The specific aim of the course which this book refers to, is to consider a few potentially disease-causing biological agents - Algae, Protozoa, Helminths - through the entire water cycle

Particular attention is to be paid by specialists working in the water sector to analytical aspects and also to other relevant issues related to epidemiology, toxicology, sanitary engineering and plant technology, in order to reach an integrated and clear strategy for carrying out surveillance, quality control, preven- tion and remedial measures

These biological agents, which can be of natural origin or related to human activities, have different potential impact and significance in the water cycle:

Algae can have direct and indirect effects on water resources at ecological level and directhndirect effects on human health, due to the presence of toxigenic algae and by-products formed during the treatment (oxidatioddisinfection stages)

Protozoa - in particular cysts of Giardia and oocysts of Cvptosporidium - can be a significant risk factor and have been documented to be responsible for outbreaks of waterborne diseases

Free-living species of Nematoda can be responsible for aesthetic and so-called nuisance problems in the water distribution systems in temperate European countries, as the probability of pathogenic microorganisms being harboured by helminths in the final water product, is only very remote

The presence of these biological organisms through the water cycle has a strong impact on treatment technologies and monitoring strategies at different levels A characteristic which is common to all these biological agents is their dimensions which are in the order of several microns and which are significantly larger than those of the more common water contaminants, pathogenic bacteria For this reason, filtration technologies have a major role in controlling their removal

xii Preface

There are many biological methods available for characterizing the water resource quality or for evaluating the performance of individual stages in water purification

Applying the most appropriate method in the laboratory (or in the field) will result in the production of reproducible data at the lowest cost However, in order

to correctly interpret the collected data, it is also necessary to consider the following aspects:

0 the epidemiological situation and other information (geographic, social etc.) related to the catchment area

the environmental context

the structure of the water works and the configuration of the treatment plant the location where samples are to be collected (catchment, source and water the sampling methodology and strategy

works)

In this book, not only have the methods of water quality measurement been described, but specific examples of the role played by complementary aspects have also been given

Management of infective and acute risks should take priority over the chronic toxicological chemical risks associated with disinfection treatments

In risk management, the use of biologically-derived parameters needs to be integrated with surrogate physicochemical parameters, which can be recorded on- line and at high frequency This is especially relevant when evaluating the per- formance of filtration technologies Water supply professionals, public officials and decision makers should be take all this into account when they are deciding whether specific biological tests are currently not sufficiently sensitive, too time consuming or costly

This book aims to urge people sharing responsibilities in water quality monitor-

ing and surveillance to improve the quality and the safety of the water they produce by:

being conscious of the important role played by microbiologists and parasitolo- gists

having the capacity to integrate the competence and skill of specialist personnel,

in order to better perceive the problems each specialist sector is dealing with and to comprehend the language and terminology they are using

0 being able to integrate biological data with conventional and innovative physicochemical parameters and to find coherence among them

In the time which has elapsed between the end of the course and the publication of this book, some relevant changes have occurred in some technical and legislative fields related to topics covered in the book The authors have tried to update their chapters accordingly The editors have asked the various chapter authors to avoid, when possible, the use of specialized language in order to make the contributions from different scientific fields easy to understand, thus broadening the range of readers who will be able to benefit from this book

We gratefully acknowledge the authors for their contributions and for their efforts in achieving the objectives of this book

Giuliano Ziglio, Franca Palumbo and Andre Van Der Beken

The Series Editor - Philippe

Quevauviller

Philippe Quevauviller began his research activities in 1983 at the University of Bordeaux I, France, where he gained a PhD degree in oceanography Between

1984 and 1987, he was Associate Researcher at the Portuguese Environment Ministry where he performed a multidisciplinary study (sedimentology and geochemistry) of the coastal environment of Gale and of the Sad0 Estuary, Portugal In 1988, he became Associate Researcher at the Dutch Ministry for Public Works, where he investigated the organotin contamination levels of Dutch coastal environments Since 1989, he has been managing various Research and Technological Development (RTD) projects in the frame of the Standards, Measurements and Testing Programme (formerly BCR) of the European Commis- sion in Brussels In 1999, he obtained an HDR (Dipl6me d’Habilitation a Diriger des Recherches) in chemistry at the University of Pau, France, from a study of the quality assurance of chemical species’ determinations in environmental elements Philippe Quevauviller has published (as author and co-author) more than 180 scientific publications, 50 reports and 2 books for the European Commission, and has acted as editor and co-editor for 19 special issues of scientific journals and

6 books