The grammar of the english verb phrase part 118 pptx

Seemingly sloppy simultaneity: in a complex sentence with an adverbial when-clause, the phenomenon that the actualization of the situation of the head clause and that of thewhen-clause a

at which the habit is located For example: I used to smoke weed when I got hired for my first job.

Repetitive situation: hypersituation, i e situation whose actualization involves

the actualization of a number of similar subsituations, e g [All the time I was speaking] John was nodding assent; She stabbed him six times with her pen-knife.

Replay comment: comment on a replay (e g on television).

Reported speech: the phenomenon of reporting an utterance or thought

Re-ported speech may be ‘direct reRe-ported speech’ (e g.He said: ‘I am ill.’), ‘indirect

reported speech’ (e g He said that he was ill.) or ‘free indirect speech’ In the

latter case there is no reporting clause likeHe said … and what is a subclause

in indirect reported speech appears as an independent clause (e g [He let me know that he couldn’t come.] He was ill He had to stay at home.)

Reporting clause: the head clause of a sentence that is an instance of reported

speech (e g He said in He said he was ill).

Represented speech: cover term for indirect reported speech (e g.Jill told her-self that she was going to take revenge) and free indirect speech (e g She was going to take revenge, when used to represent the thought of a character in a

past-tense novel) Note that in both types, and especially in the latter,speech

should be interpreted as also including thought rather than just spoken dis-course

Restrictive when -clause: term that is sometimes used as an alternative to

case-specifying clause It is inspired by the fact that a case-specifying

when-clause can as a rule be replaced by a restrictive relative when-clause without any obvious change in meaning: compare Children are orphans when their parents are dead with Children whose parents are dead are orphans.

Result: see direct result and indirect result.

Resultative reading (or interpretation): a particular usage type (a functional

reading) of the indefinite perfect: the sentence in the present perfect is taken to draw attention to a present direct result For example, the reading triggered by the sentenceI’ve locked up the shop is that the shop is now locked up.

Rhetorical question: sentence that has the form of an interrogative sentence

but which is interpreted as a forceful statement (e g.Who can blame him?, on

the interpretation ‘Nobody can blame him’)

Right boundary: the point at which the actualization of a situation comes to

an end

Root modality: see nonepistemic modality.

Scalarity: the phenomenon that a word (e g a focusing adjunct like even) is

interpreted as a ‘scalar operator’, i e as representing the constituent which it

focuses as extremely high or extremely low on a particular scale of values For

example,Even Mary managed to do it implies that (of those who did it) Mary

was the least likely person (or one of the least likely ones) to be able to do it

(Here the scale is a scale of unlikelihood, on which the values are people that

are increasingly unlikely to be able to ‘do it’.)

Seemingly sloppy simultaneity: in a complex sentence with an adverbial

when-clause, the phenomenon that the (actualization of the) situation of the head

clause and that of thewhen-clause are not interpreted as W-simultaneous (i e.

as having at least one point in common), although the tense form in the

when-clause expresses T-simultaneity, e g When John sees this, he will phone the

police This phenomenon differs from ‘real’ sloppy simultaneity, as in e g.

You’ll arrive at 8.35 if you take the 7.56 bus, in that it is not a question of

tense choice (more specifically, choice of T-relation to be expressed) but follows

naturally from the semantics of when, which does not require that the two

orientation times that are contained by the durative common Adv-time be

W-simultaneous with each other

Semantics of a tense: the invariant meaning of a tense, i e the tense structure

expressed by any form belonging to the tense in question For example, the

basic semantics of the present tense is ‘The situation time is T-simultaneous

with the temporal zero-point’

Semelfactive aspect: kind of grammatical aspect: the speaker uses a special verb

form to represent a situation as actualizing only once (rather than as being a

repetitive situation)

Semelfactive situation: situation that actualizes only once, i e a nonrepetitive

situation A semelfactive situation is not a hypersituation consisting of

subsitu-ations of the same kind

Sentence: linguistic unit which is prototypically made up of a clause or a

combi-nation of clauses and which can function as an independent utterance

Shift of domain: the creation of a new temporal domain by the use of an

absolute tense In other words, the choice of an absolute tense form to create

a new temporal domain (as in John left after I arrived, where the past tense

formarrived does not temporally subordinate its situation time to the situation

time of the head clause but establishes a new domain) rather than the use of a

relative tense form to expand an already established domain (as in John left

after I had arrived, where the past perfect is used to express T-anteriority

within the domain established by the past tense form left).

Shift of temporal domain: see shift of domain.

Shift of temporal focus: deviation from the unmarked choice of temporal focus

by the use of a marked tense form Consider the following example: [I asked John about the colour of the paint.] It is white In the second clause, the

speaker no longer focuses on the past time when he asked John about the colour of the paint – which he would do if he said It was white – but locates

the actualization of the situation of the paint being white in the present zone, thus shifting the temporal focus from the past to the present

Shift of temporal perspective: the selection of a tense, not in order to locate a

situation time in a particular time-zone but in order to represent itas if lying

in that time-zone; in other words, the creation or expansion of a temporal domain by a tense that is typical of domains lying in a different time-zone For example, in They leave tomorrow, the present tense represents a post-present

situation as if it were a present one In I hear you have been promoted, the

present tense represents a pre-present situation as if it were a present one In

Next time his excuse will be that he is ill the time of the post-present excuse

is treated as if it were the present The historic present is another typical case

Shift the domain: effect a shift of domain, i e create a new temporal domain.

In He said that Gordon and Jill are married, the tense form are shifts the

domain (from the past to the present)

Simple situation-template: what is denoted by a lexical verb.

Simultaneity: type of temporal relation between two times As a T-relation (⫽ relation expressed by a tense form), T-simultaneity means strict coincidence (between a bound situation time and the binding orientation time) Simultane-ity that is not T-simultaneSimultane-ity may be a relation of either coincidence or overlap

An example is the containment relation that exists between an Adv-time and

a situation time See also W-simultaneity

Simultaneous: see T-simultaneous and W-simultaneous.

Since -cleft:it-cleft whose second clause is introduced by since (rather than by that or by a wh-word as in It was John {who / that} did it) The highlighted

(focused) value constituent is always an indication of duration For example:

It’s been three weeks since I have heard from him.

Single-zone adverbial: see single-zone time-specifying adverbial.

Single-zone specifying adverbial (or single-zone adverbial): deictic

time-specifying adverbial which refers to only one absolute time-zone For example,

yesterday specifies an Adv-time which can only lie in the past zone.

Situation: cover term for the various possible types of contents of propositions,

i e for anything that can be expressed in a clause: an action, event, process,

or state The verb actualize is used as a cover term for the predicates that are

typically associated with one of these categories

Situation-template: cover term for simple situation-template (denoted by a

verb) and enriched situation-template (denoted by a verb phrase or a possibly

longer predicate constituent) Situation-templates can be characterized in terms

of ontological features

Situation time (or time of the situation): the time of a predicated situation, i e.

the time of actualization of a situation as it is located in time by a tense form

(i e as it is temporally related to the temporal zero-point or to another

orienta-tion time) and to which the situaorienta-tion time of another situaorienta-tion can be

tempo-rally related by a tense form In homogeneous clauses, the situation time may

be shorter than the time of the full situation Thus, inAt five o’clock I was in

my bed, the situation time is that portion of the full situation (of my being in

my bed) that is contained in (in this case: coincides with) the Adv-time specified

byat five o’clock.

Situation-time adverbial: time-specifying adverbial denoting an Adv-time which

‘contains’ (in terms of either inclusion or coincidence) a situation time (e g [I

left there] {yesterday / at five o’clock}).

Situation type: In this work, a situation type is a type of situation (as denoted

by a complete clause), such as an action or a state For example,John smokes

denotes a permanent habit, which is a kind of state Where necessary, we

distin-guish ‘situation type’ (or ‘type of situation’) from ‘type of situation-template’

(as denoted by a verb, verb phrase or predicate constituent) (Other linguistic

studies use the term ‘situation type’ to refer to both kinds of types.)

Situation-unbounding constituent: see unbounding constituent.

Sloppy simultaneity: the phenomenon that a situation time is linguistically

rep-resented as T-simultaneous with a binding situation time even though the

bind-ing situation time and the bound one are not strictly simultaneous (⫽

coincid-ing) with each other and the full situations are not even W-simultaneous (⫽

interpreted as having at least one point in common) Thus, both in If John

received a letter, he replied almost at once and in If John receives a letter, he

will reply almost at once, the if-clause situation is interpreted as W-anterior to

the head clause situation, but theif-clause uses a relative tense form expressing

T-simultaneity (received / receives) rather than a relative tense form expressing

T-anteriority (had received / has received).

Special Present Time-sphere System: systematic use of present-time-sphere

tenses to refer to situations that are interpreted as actualizing in the past, the

pre-present or the post-present For example: the historic present

Specificational clause / sentence: clause or sentence which specifies a value for

a presupposed variable and in doing so focuses (highlights) the value For ex-ample, each of the following sentences specifies ‘a book’ as the value that satisfies the variable ‘the x that I gave him’ and implies ‘nothing else’ (⫽ con-trast): It was a book that I gave him, What I gave him was a book, A book was what I gave him, I gave him a book.

State (or static situation): type of situation (i e situation type) which is

con-ceived of (and represented as) existing (rather than as being done, taking place

or developing) and as being unchanged and hence homogeneous throughout its duration A static kind of situation is not agentive and is not conceived of as needing a continuous input of energy to continue For example: Bill’s baby is

a girl.

Statement (or declarative sentence): sentence making an assertion rather than

having the illocutionary force of another speech act (such as a question or com-mand)

State verb (or static situation verb): verb that can only be used to refer to a

state, e g.seem, contain, know, consist of, etc Also known as ‘verb of state’.

Static: kind of ontological feature, viz the opposite of dynamic The term can

be applied to a situation-template denoting a state, a verb phrase lexicalizing the situation-template in question (e g.is a boy), a situation (e g Kim’s being

a boy) or to a sentence referring to a concrete actualization of a situation (e g

Kim is a boy) In other words, ‘static’ is the quality of being a state, denoting

a state or referring to a state

Static situation: see state.

Static situation verb: see state verb.

Stem (or verb stem): that part of the verb that remains constant in the different

forms of the verb, e g unchain in unchains, unchained, unchaining The stem

of a verb is homophonous with the present infinitive form and the present subjunctive form of that verb

Strong intensional verb: verb likeimagine, fancy, dream, wonder, which

estab-lishes an intensional domain (⫽ possible world which is different from the actual world) which is so strong that the clause(s) in the scope of the verb can only receive an intensional (opaque, de dicto) interpretation Such a strong intensional domain is treated as a temporal domain from which a shift of domain is very difficult or impossible Thus, we can say Helen dreamed that she was pregnant, but not *Helen dreamed that she is pregnant.

Strong verb: see irregular verb.

Subclause (or subordinate clause, dependent clause, embedded clause): clause

that forms part of a complex sentence and is syntactically dependent on

an-other clause (the head clause), e g.if you leave in I’ll be glad if you leave Most

subclauses are either nominal clauses, adjectival clauses or adverbial clauses,

depending on their syntactic function

Subdomain: kind of temporal domain inside a temporal domain See temporal

subdomain

Subject complement: the complement of a copula It says something about the

referent of the subject, i e it either ascribes a characteristic to that referent, as

inHe seems a reliable man, or identifies the person or entity in question, as in

The chair is that woman over there.

Subjunctive: see present subjunctive and past subjunctive.

Subordinate clause: see subclause.

Subordinating conjunction: conjunction (⫽ nonadverbial connector)

introduc-ing a subclause (e g because, if, that, unless, etc.).

Subordination: (a) as a syntactic term: the phenomenon that the combination

of two clauses produces a complex sentence, consisting of a head clause and a

subclause, rather than a compound sentence; (b) in connection with tenses: see

temporal binding.

Subsituation: any of a series of repeated situations that make up a durative

hypersituation For example, in [All the time I was speaking] John was nodding

assent, any single nod of the head is a subsituation of the repetitive

hypersitua-tion Habitual-repetitive situations are also hypersituations consisting of

subsi-tuations:She comes to see me very evening.

Superordinate clause: see head clause Such a clause may or may not be the

matrix of a complex sentence

Syntactic subordination: the syntactic relation (often, but not necessarily,

corre-sponding with a T-relation) between a subordinate clause and its head clause

t 0: abbreviation of temporal zero-point

t 0 -factual (or factual at t 0): said of a situation whose actualization is

(interpre-ted as being) a past, pre-present or present fact

T-anterior: showing the relation of T-anteriority For example, inHelen

admit-ted she had made a mistake, had made represents the situation time of the

situation of Helen making a mistake as T-anterior to (⫽ preceding) the time

of Helen’s admission

anteriority: anteriority expressed by a tense form; more specifically: the

T-relation when the situation time is linguistically (viz by a tense) represented as

preceding the binding orientation time in one of two ways Either the bound situation time lies completely before the orientation time (as inI knew I had locked the door) or it begins before the orientation time and leads up to it (as

inI told them that we had been friends since we had first met).

T-binding: see temporal binding.

T-bound: see bound.

T-bygone situation: predicated situation which is represented as T-anterior to

the temporal zero-point (t0) by the use of a tense Thus, in Ten minutes ago, Jane was working in the garden, the time of the predicated situation (which

coincides with the punctual Adv-time of ten minutes ago) is represented as

lying wholly before t0 by the use of the past tense form was working, even

though the full situation may still be continuing at t0

T-concept: concept relevant to the description of the tense system (contrasted

with W-concept)

Telic: ontological feature Said of a situation-template if the verb phrase

de-scribing it represents any actualization of the situation as tending towards a natural (inherent) point of completion, i e a necessary terminal point, beyond which the actualization of the situation cannot continue For example, inBetty ran three miles, the situation of Betty running three miles is complete and

naturally comes to an end when Betty finishes running the third mile If Betty happened to go on to run another three miles, this would not constitute a continuation of the same (instance of the) situation of Betty running three miles The term telic is also applied to verb phrases representing a

situation-template as telic, and, by further extension, to clauses and sentences containing

a telic verb phrase

Telicizing constituent: constituent which renders a verb phrase telic, for

exam-plea mile in walk a mile.

Telos: point of completion In a telic verb phrase the telos may be indicated by

a measure phrase (as in walk a mile) or may be pragmatically implied (as in write a book).

Temporal adverbial (or time adverbial): cover term for three kinds of adverbials

giving temporal information: time-specifying adverbials (e g at six o’clock),

pure duration adverbials (e g.for two hours) and bifunctional adverbials

(spec-ifying both time and duration, e g.from six to eight).

Temporal anchor: see anchor time.

Temporal binding (or temporal subordination): the phenomenon that a

situa-tion time is T-related to another situasitua-tion time (or other orientasitua-tion time)