How disney portrays southeast asian cultures in the movie 'raya and the last dragon'

How disney portrays southeast asian cultures in the movie 'raya and the last dragon' How disney portrays southeast asian cultures in the movie 'raya and the last dragon'

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF LINGUISTICS AND CULTURES OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES

GRADUATION PAPER

HOW DISNEY PORTRAYS SOUTHEAST ASIAN CULTURES

IN THE MOVIE 'RAYA AND THE LAST DRAGON'

Supervisor: Vũ Thị Phương Quỳnh, M.A

Student: Nguyễn Mỹ Linh

Course: QH2018.F1.E2

HANOI – 2022

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ KHOA NGÔN NGỮ VÀ VĂN HÓA CÁC NƯỚC NÓI TIẾNG ANH

KHÓA LUẬN TỐT NGHIỆP

CÁCH DISNEY KHẮC HỌA CÁC VĂN HÓA ĐÔNG NAM Á TRONG BỘ PHIM “RAYA AND THE LAST DRAGON”

Giáo viên hướng dẫn: Th.S Vũ Thị Phương Quỳnh Sinh viên: Nguyễn Mỹ Linh

Khóa: QH2018.F1.E2

HÀ NỘI – 2022

ACCEPTANCE

I hereby state that I: Nguyễn Mỹ Linh, QH2018.F.1.E2.SPCLC, being a candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts (English Language Teacher Education - Honors Program) accept the requirements of the College relating to the retention and use of Bachelor’s Graduation Paper deposited in the library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for the care, loan or reproduction of the paper

Signature

Nguyễn Mỹ Linh

June, 21st 2022

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis would not have been completed but for the assistance of my beloved ones First and foremost, I am much obliged to have a supporting family who have taken care of me and ensured the best conditions for me to accomplish this research I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my dedicated supervisors, Ms Vũ Thị Phương Quỳnh and Mr Châu Hồng Quang for their conscientiousness, kindness, and expertise Without their constructive feedback and encouragement, I would have been unable to achieve such outcomes Moreover, I would also like to acknowledge the precious support from experienced teachers in the Intercultural Communication subcommittee and many inspiring teachers in the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education Their support, engaging lessons, and helpful advice played a crucial role in this thesis Last but not least, we would like to express my warm thankfulness to my 18E2 classmates, who were responsible, professional, and sympathetic

With deepest gratitude,

ABSTRACT

Disney's ubiquity has made it necessary for scholars to investigate whether Disney movies are used to promote educational values or to shape less dominant people's viewpoints Raya and the Last Dragon (2021) is Disney's first Southeast Asia-inspired animated movie This research aimed to explore how Disney depicts Southeast Asian cultures in this film and what ideologies about the region are reflected in such representations Both visual and linguistic data from the film were analyzed using Kress and van Leeuwen’s framework of visual grammar, combined with Fairclough’s model

of critical discourse analysis Four major emerging findings include Disney’s view of Southeast Asians as interchangeable with East Asians, the simplification and distortion

of Southeast Asian cultures, the stereotype of aggressive or uncivilized Southeast Asians, and the westernization of Southeast Asian cultures These findings suggest that Disney filmmakers may consider Southeast Asian cultures less favorable compared to Western ones

2.2.3 Depictions of Southeast Asian cultures in films 19 2.2.4 Contextual information of the film Raya and the Last Dragon 19

4.1 Disney’s view of Southeast Asians as interchangeable with East Asians 34 4.2 The simplification and distortion of Southeast Asian cultures 37 4.3 Disney’s depictions of Southeast Asian cultures as aggressive and

LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 1 Different styles of Khmer sabai

Figure 2 Raya’s costume

Figure 3 Two background characters looking alike

Figure 4 Sitting in Seiza

Figure 5 Raya’s offering to Sisu with Bánh tét

Figure 6 Vague fruits that resemble atemoyas

Figure 7 A musical ensemble in Heart

Figure 8 Two children sitting on a bare floor during a communal meal

Figure 9 Comic strips

Figure 10 Sisu’s buying a load of gifts on credit for Dang Hai

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides background information and states the research problem

of the study Besides, I identify the aims and research questions After that, I propose the significance of the study, recognize its scope, and summarize the main structure of the paper

1.1 Research problems

Movies are profoundly related to viewers’ perceptions (Fearing, 1947) According to Dundes (2019), Disney’s products are a staple of popular culture, affecting people's daily lives in many nations throughout the world The prominence of the Disney brand has increased the need for academics to explore whether Disney products are used by the Western elite to influence the perspectives of less powerful people (see Anjirbag, 2018; Armstrong, 2018) Some researchers, on the other hand, claim that Disney motion pictures can prompt educational values as well as innovative thinking (see Zurcher et al., 2018; Cheung et al., 2021)

The titular protagonist in Raya and the Last Dragon (2021) is Disney's first Southeast Asian princess, of which Disney is proud to have taken this pioneering step (Koeppel, 2021) On its website, Disney writes about the efforts to make the represented cultures authentic (Koeppel, 2021) Nevertheless, the film has sparked debate over whether Disney is striving to bring about a cross-cultural demonstration or just “token Asian representation” akin to those criticized in previous films

The main criticism often comes from the issue of filmmakers casting voices mostly of East Asian origin while presenting Southeast Asian characters, hence stereotyping all Asia as a single entity (Moon, 2021; see also Cynthia, 2021; L France, 2021; Romano, 2021; S Rose, 2021) The problematic voice cast has been recorded in Disney animated movies before One is Aladdin (1992), in which white voice actors

imitated "Arabic" accents (Lindgren, 2020) Another is The Princess and the Frog (2009), in which prince Naveen, who has a lighter complexion and is dubbed by a Brazilian voice actor, is not African American (Lindgren, 2020) Disney's decision to showcase a non-black prince is argued to stem from the studio's alleged hesitancy to bestow the title of prince on a black man (Barnes, 2009).In addition, the representation

of Southeast Asian cultures in the film has not been shown specifically in each ethnic group but as a mixture of all, which implies how Westerners view Southeast Asia as a block with no regard for its members’ unique and diverse cultures (Nawara, 2021; L France, 2021; Ketsiri, 2021; Romano, 2021)

Despite extensive media coverage of the controversy (Cynthia, 2021; L France, 2021; Moon, 2021; Romano, 2021; S Rose, 2021) regarding the film's cultural representation, the review of literature unearthed no academic studies that employed systematic methodologies to analyze Southeast Asian cultural representations As a result, this research into Raya and the Last Dragon proves necessary to fill in the gaps left by earlier research

1.2 Aims and research questions

First, this paper seeks to investigate cultural representations of Southeast Asia

in a Disney movie named Raya and the Last Dragon Moreover, drawing on those depictions, I expect to explore ideologies reflected in this animated movie This study will thus answer two questions:

[1] How are Southeast Asian cultures represented in Disney’s Raya and the Last Dragon?

[2] What ideologies about Southeast Asia are depicted through Raya and the Last Dragon?

1.3 Significance of the research

I expect the results of the research could bring in an insight into ideologies about cultures reflected through Disney’s films so that viewers recognize the need to whether support or challenge those ideologies Moreover, the study might heighten awareness about Southeast Asian cultures, which are often underrepresented in Western media Third, this paper is expected to provide documentary sources related to Southeast Asian cultural representations in movies

1.4 Scope of the study

This paper examines the visual animation in combination with the linguistic elements of the movie Raya and the Last Dragon in terms of cultural aspects such as arts, behaviors, beliefs, clothes, cuisines, language, and rituals

1.5 Organization of the study

This thesis includes five chapters Following the present chapter is Chapter 2, Literature review, which provides the key concepts and a review of related studies Chapter 3, Methodology, illustrates how this study addresses the research problems, involving the research design, collection of data, and analysis of data Subsequently, Chapter 4 presents the main findings, after each of which is a discussion Chapter 5 summarizes the study, suggests implications, recognizes the limitations of the study, and recommends several ideas for further studies

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, key terms associated with the research topic are highlighted, including culture, representation, and Southeast Asia Moreover, I review previous studies on the problems of representations in Disney’s films, a brief history of Disney princesses’ depictions, and portrayals of Southeast Asian cultures in movies I also incorporated background information about the film Raya and the Last Dragon

2.1 Key concepts

2.1.1 Culture

Scholars have made numerous attempts to define culture Tylor (2016, p 1) gives a broad definition of culture "as a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man

as a member of society.” Emphasizing the distinctions between peoples, Hofstede (2001, p 9) considers culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.” Bearing

a certain resemblance to one of Hofstede’s, another definition by Matsumoto (1996, p 16) – "the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people, but different for each individual, communicated from one generation to the next" seems

to draw attention to the development of culture and the formation of personalities

Having discussed various definitions by well-known scholars, in this thesis, I decided to adopt the definition that incorporates mostly the aforementioned elements, proposed by Baldwin et al (2014, p 55) for its clarity and suitability for research purposes: Culture is “the way of life of a group of people, including symbols, values, behaviors, artifacts, and other shared aspects, that continually evolves as people share messages, and, often, it is the result of a struggle between different groups who share

different perspectives, interests, and power relationships.” Baldwin et al (2014) recognize culture as dynamic rather than static

2.1.2 Representation

English dictionaries provide various definitions of representation The Cambridge Dictionary defines representation as "the way that someone or something is shown or described.” S Hall (1997), nonetheless, argues that representation involves a far more complex process, which is to create and exchange meaning among people This process entails the use of language, signs, as well as images that represent the world

In the realm of socio-cultural studies, the concept of representation has taken on

a crucial role (S Hall, 1997) Representation matters since people's expectations for themselves and each other are shaped by the positives or negatives they see around them This is especially concerning in the case of children, as early experiences influence their imagination of what is possible For instance, children might exhibit racial biases against members of different ethnic groups as a result of previous erroneous internalization (Pewewardy, 1996)

S Hall (1997) mentions three theories regarding representation: the reflective, the intentional, and the constructionist approaches Advocates of the first approach believe language functions as a mirror, reflecting a meaning that pre-exists in the real world In contrast, supporters of the intentional theory assume language expresses only the author’s imposed meaning The third approach, the constructivist one, serves as the most comprehensive: meaning is fixed neither in the material world nor by an individual Rather, meaning is constructed through representational systems such as symbols, signs, and concepts

This thesis will scrutinize representation from a constructionist approach Under the umbrella term of constructivism, two major models have been established The first one – the semiotic approach – is significantly inspired by Saussure, who suggests that humans communicate and represent the world through a system of signs (S Hall, 1997) Saussure’s definition of “sign” distinguishes between the “form” (signifier) and the triggered meaning in one’s head (signified) (Saussure, 1966) His works have laid the foundation for studies of representation as a cultural practice According to him, the use

of signs is required because all cultural objects and activities communicate meaning Saussure’s model tends to be ahistorical and fixed Thus, Saussure left a gap regarding social knowledge and power, which concerned subsequent theorists The second constructionist approach – the discursive approach – is developed by Foucault, who views representation as the production of knowledge through discourse rather than that

of meaning through language His concern is the relation between power and knowledge In addition, Foucault's radical historicization of speech, representation, knowledge, and “truth” is the most important element to grasp in this approach (S Hall, 1997)

In this thesis, I combine both theories of constructionism, as the two versions could supplement each other On the one hand, semiotics assists in "reading" cultural meanings within a social context Meanwhile, the discursive approach looks back at history to make sense of such representations This theory proves fruitful for researching knowledge production and power relations, as well as unearthing ideologies, which are the concerns of the thesis

2.1.3 Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia, a large Asian subregion to the east of the Indian subcontinent and to the south of China, is composed of eleven countries divided geographically into

two portions: Mainland Southeast Asia (including Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam) and Maritime Southeast Asia (including Brunei, Malaysia, East Timor, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Singapore) (Andaya, n.d.)

In terms of landforms, Southeast Asia is an assemblage of mountains, forests, plains, and seas, which are connected by numerous river systems (Gupta, 2005) In the past, the rivers of Southeast Asia served as the primary means of transportation until modern roads and rails were built (Gupta, 2005) These elements, therefore, contribute

to the distinctive and diverse cultures of the region

The region's distinct ecology, which includes a warm, humid monsoon climate, vast rainforests, an enormous river system, as well as periodic natural disasters, has retained outstanding diversity while resisting large-scale unification Reid (2015, p 26) calls Southeast Asia a distinct "humid tropical environment" that shaped common aspects of material culture along with social structure while, to some extent, insulating

a diverse region from assimilation by foreign countries

When it comes to the ancient origin of Southeast Asian peoples, a century-long debate has been raging among experts over two schools of thought One holds that Hoabinhian ancestors, who inhabited the region more than 40,000 years ago, independently created farming skills The other favors the immigration hypothesis that early indigenous residents of Southeast Asia were replaced by migrating farmers from Southern China, resulting in genetic diversity in modern-day Southeast Asia According

to a study published in 2018 (McColl et al., 2018), evidence shows a more complex interpretation of the present diversity of Southeast Asia: early Hoabinhians integrated with East Asian migrants, followed by multiple waves of Austroasiatic, Kradai, and Austronesian immigrants

Complex linguistic patterns in Southeast Asia are based on five major language families: Sino-Tibetan; Kra–Dai; Hmong–Mien; Austroasiatic; and Austronesian (Sidwell & Jenny, 2021) Each broad branch is then categorized into a plethora of different languages and dialects though For instance, in the Philippines and Indonesia, this linguistic diversity is most apparent (Bravante & Holden, 2020; Hamied & Musthafa, 2019) Moreover, most countries have a dominant language, such as Vietnamese in Vietnam, Indonesian in Indonesia, or Malay in Malaysia Several language pairs have a degree of mutual intelligibility in spoken form, for example, Thai and Laotian (Ding et al., 2016)

In addition to those diverse geographical landscapes, climates, peoples, and languages, Southeast Asia has seen divergent waves of history, according to Mahbubani and Sng (2017) In their book, these two virtuoso writers succinctly describe the four major waves from India, China, Islam, and the West Affected by those four great civilisations, Southeast Asians actively participated in the process rather than being passive consumers of foreign influences As a result, Southeast Asia is one of the most varied and distinct regions on the earth Despite this, a regional organization, ASEAN (the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, including all ten countries, except East Timor), has brought forth stability and success Mahbubani and Sng (2017) analyzed five rationales behind ASEAN achievements First is the concern of the Communist typhoon to sweep through the lands of the founding fathers of ASEAN Second is the mutual cooperation between key leaders during critical periods Another factor is geopolitical fortune, such as the Cold War or the Sino-Soviet split, which placed ASEAN in a favorable position The fourth contribution to success refers to those market-oriented economic policies such as Malaysia’s “Look East” policies Last but

not least, it is ASEAN that makes regional cooperation between different parts of the globe possible

One point that is constantly praised in ASEAN reports is the spirit of unity in diversity Specifically, most Southeast Asian nations share commonalities such as rice agriculture, unique cuisines, animism, and women’s social freedom (Frederick & Leinbach, n.d.) At the same time, the region is culturally diverse in terms of ethnic composition, linguistic composition, and religious composition In order to dig deeper into the cultures of the region, the ensuing section describes both tangible and intangible aspects such as costumes, cuisines, and behaviors

Costumes The primary purpose of clothes is to keep human beings comfortable

by safeguarding them from external elements On the one hand, clothing helps to protect wearers from the environment In hot areas, for instance, clothing shields the skin from the sun On the other hand, clothing enhances safety during potentially dangerous production and daily-life activities Affected by the hot and humid climate as well as rice cultivation, Southeast Asian residents love to wear light, comfortable, and flexible clothes (Lâm, 2014) It is for aesthetics – the second purpose – which renders the costumes of each Southeast Asian member state unique

Speaking of the unity in costumes of Southeast Asians, from then to now, it is the skirts that are so typical and popular that in some Southeast Asian ethnic groups, not only women, but men also wear skirts (Trần, 2014) This, again, could be due to the versatility of skirts, which Southeast Asians creatively combined with other pieces of clothing to suit their purposes Moreover, due to its geographical location, Southeast Asia has been influenced by trade, exchange, or colonization, which makes the costumes share certain similarities with other cultures such as India, China, Islam, and the West These commonalities can be seen in textiles, skirts, trousers, shirts, and accessories

Textiles Regarding garment materials, Southeast Asian residents have used

plant-based materials, which are the product of farming (Lâm, 2014) These materials are light, airy, and suitable for a tropical climate Several popular materials are cotton, mulberry silk, bark cloth, jute, and banana silk (Maxwell & Gittinger, 2014) Of all these, silk is highly appreciated in the global market Silk woven in Southeast Asia competed with that from China in the marketplace (K Hall, 1996) According to K Hall (1996), the mainland had a more advanced silk culture Silk was manufactured in Burma and Thailand; nevertheless, it was only in Vietnam that silk overtook cotton both

in use and production, owing to Vietnam's regular interaction with China The Vietnamese silk industry was not at all less developed and delicate than that of the Chinese A complicated procedure of cocoon reeling and weaving is required to produce silk, a kind of protein fiber Silk has several spectacular features, such as softness, smoothness, high absorbing capacity, and light weight

In order to produce a wide range of garment materials, Southeast Asians invented as well as learned various textile techniques Of all these, batik is a well-known

practice in the region Batik is now made in a number of Southeast Asian countries

(Soebaryo, 2000) In the Southeast Asian islands, batik is more advanced and meticulous, reaching the level of art in central Java, Indonesia (Soebaryo, 2000) In the past, batik was only worn by the Javanese elite, yet it has lately become popular among the general population (Soebaryo, 2000) In its original sense, the term "batik" refers to the practice of sketching on cloth There are two methods to produce batik: traditionally drawing with canting tools and using a modern printing cap In whatever way, melted wax is poured onto a plain piece of fabric and subsequently dyed, with only the unwaxed areas absorbing color It is possible to repeat the process with other colors Traditionally, the colors used in batik were derived from natural sources (Widyatmono

& Ayu, 2014) For instance, the indigo plant's leaves were used to create a dark blue dye Wide-range patterns can be applied, which reflect animistic beliefs (K Hall, 1996)

Skirts Skirts are the most popular type of clothing among Southeast Asian

residents (Lâm, 2014) Over time, despite various alterations for practicality, the skirt still retains its unique features to help distinguish the traditional costumes of Southeast Asian countries compared to other countries in the region In essence, the skirt is a lower-body wrapper from waist to knee-length or ankle-length that is made of a giant rectangular piece of cloth (K Hall, 1996) This cloth can be unstitched or stitched at both ends to form a tube (Edwards, 2001)

In Southeast Asia, skirts are also called sarongs Each country may have its own special name for sarongs, which have different designs Cambodians wear sampot, a 1.5-meter-long sheet of fabric sewn together at both ends The bottom edge of a sampot, which is closest to the wearer's feet, is always more delicately designed (Nelson, 2014)

In Laos, women wear Sinh, a tube-shaped skirt, in the workplace or at ceremonial events (Nada, 2019) Islanders such as Indonesians, Malaysians, and Bruneians, wear sarongs, also called Kain (Lâm, 2014) Sarongs in Thailand are called Phasin, a silk or cotton garment that forms a part of female Thai national costumes (Boonsirisumpun & Puarungroj, 2018) In Myanmar, men wear Longyi, a front-knotted wrap-around sarong, while women wear Thummy, which bears a close resemblance to Lao skirts (Lâm, 2014)

Trousers Before pants were introduced, loincloths played a vital role in

Southeast Asian lives (Lâm, 2014) Both men and women frequently wore simply a bark-cloth loincloth before the availability of trade cloth (Howard, 2006) As Southeast Asian residents preferred flexible lower-body wrappers such as sarongs, trousers or pants were lately used (Lâm, 2014) Traditionally, a trouser-like piece of cloth is a

variation of Sampot called sampot chong k’ben, a creation of Cambodians (Edwards, 2001) A sheet of cloth is wrapped around the wearer's waist, tied up in a front knot, and the cloth's end is tucked in at the wearer's lower back after passed between the legs Besides, a Vietnamese traditional costume, áo dài, also includes wide trousers (Cao et al., 2014)

Shirts Long ago, people in Southeast Asia left their upper bodies nude and

tattooed (K Hall, 1996) Then they began to wrap cloth around (shawls), which might have been inspired by South Asian cultures It is conspicuous to see many Southeast Asian traditional costumes have a shawl draped over the shoulders The most flexible upper wrapper is Sabai, which comes from the Khmer period There are multiple styles

to wear sabai (Figure 1) One common way among Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, and Malaysia is that the sabai is wrapped crosswise around the torso, covering one shoulder and dangling behind the back Later, during the intensive Western contact, the shirts are introduced and adapted to the local communities For instance, prior to áo dài, Vietnamese people wore áo tấc (or áo ngũ thân) which is translated as a five-piece dress Áo tấc is designed with five buttons, symbolizing Confucian ideologies (Thanh, 2021) The sleeves of Áo tấc can be wide or tightly fitted

Accessories In addition to the fundamental parts of costumes, Southeast Asians

created unique accessories such as hats, headbands, and personal ornaments The Filipino salakot (translated from Tagalog as “native hat”) holds such a captivating history (Morales, n.d.) On the one hand, salakots represent the Philippines' biodiversity

as they are made of palms, bamboo, and rattan On the other hand, salakots are associated with the heroic history of the Philippine Revolution coupled with the Philippine-American War With Indonesian traditional costumes, men and women typically wear arm rings, known as kelat bahu, traditional jewelry during wedding

ceremonies or traditional dance These arm rings can also be popularly seen among Cambodian royal dancers

Figure 1

Different styles of Khmer sabai

Note From Sabai, by C Sophorn, 2019, Wikipedia

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sbai#/media/File:Style_of_Sbai.png)

Cuisine Cuisine means a style of cooking, the food or dishes served Food and

culture are closely linked together, and every group uses food to show their uniqueness (Civitello, 2011) Geographical locations and natural conditions determine the main meal structure of Southeast Asian residents, including three courses: rice, vegetables, and fish (Lâm, 2014) Throughout the region, rice has been the staple for its nutritional values and ritual uses (Reid, 2015) Before the twentieth century, Southeast Asians had access to fish-rich water areas such as ponds, lakes, and rivers while sources of meat were constricted as topographical conditions were unfavorable for large-scale cattle rearing Besides, Southeast Asian diets are rich with fruits, vegetables, herbs, and

spices, which contribute to the diversity and balance of cooking food (Lâm, 2014; Ooraikul et al., 2008)

In addition to the common staples, each Southeast Asian country has its own special cooking style For instance, Vietnam is famous for spring rolls and sticky rice cakes (bánh chưng or bánh tét) during the Tết holiday Laotians also share similar ingredients when packing sticky rice cakes, but the only difference lies in the shape of the cake Tomyum, the hot and sour shrimp soup, is one of the most popular dishes in Laos and Thailand, including main ingredients such as: lemon grass, kaffir lime leaves, galangal, and chilies (Panjapiyakul et al., 2017) Another spicy mixture, sambal, which originated in Indonesia, has become an essential part of the cuisine of peninsular Southeast Asia Sambal is made of onions, ginger, dried shrimp or prawns, and chili powder (Civitello, 2011)

Respectful behaviors Southeast Asians share a tradition of elder respect, and

each nation has their own way to show their respect People in Thailand and Myanmar, for example, celebrate the Songkran Festival, which is a tradition that dates back to ancient Buddhism (Jolliffe & Worland, 2018) In this celebration, to show honor and ask for blessings, the young pour water into the palms of the elderly's hands Besides, Thai people have three types of greeting with "wai," one of which is for seniors Cambodians also show great respect for their elders, and it is rude to touch elders’ heads In Vietnam, those who are older should be addressed with relationship, age-related, or job indicators rather than mere first names; for example, sister Lam, uncle

Ho, master Hoa, and the like Similarly, younger Filipinos also address their seniors with titles such as "tito" (for uncles) and "tita" (for aunts) In addition, they let the elders touch their foreheads as a greeting This gesture of respect is called salim in Indonesia (Ashar, 2015)

2.2 Related studies

2.2.1 The issues of representations in Disney’s movies

Academics have vigorously studied how Disney stereotypically presents Blacks, Hispanics, Native Americans, Italians, and Asians (Jackson, 2014) Buonanno (2008) explains that the American media broadcasts images of specific cultures that are widely accepted and viewed as accurate by the public As a result, the appropriation of cultural elements in movies might cause an artificial cultural diversity Buonanno (2008) also discusses cultural imperialism, which takes the United States, capitalism, and the West as examples of hegemonic systems that wield cultural dominance on the global arena of politics and economics Since its early films, Disney’s depictions of other cultures have been criticized for reproducing patterns of Western privilege and power (Jackson, 2014) For instance, if the Indians in Peter Pan (1953) are portrayed as primitive, savage, and villainous, the Orientals in Lady and the Tramp (1955) are illustrated as mischievous, hideous, and troublesome

Movies during the Disney Renaissance continue to showcase cultural proximity

- a fundamental factor in consuming foreign cultures, according to the preference for self recognition and closeness Aladdin (1992) serves as a typical case since the titular character somehow has a European look To be specific, Aladdin's complexion is paler, and he asks Jasmine to call him “Al”, an anglicized name, instead of his Arabic name (Murguía, 2018) Besides, Aladdin speaks an American accent, grows no beards, smiles stunningly revealing white teeth like an American star, has neat hair, and an athletic body (Bourenane, 2020) While the protagonists are westernized, the cultural confusion between West Asia and South Asia is presented in the film (Addison, 1993) The movie

is supposedly set in Arabia, yet many references to India and adjacent countries can be found For instance, audiences view a Taj Mahal-like palace, a Bengal tiger whose

Hindi name means king, a nabob (a rich Indian man), pyramids, a shah (an Iranian ruler), and a lunar new year celebration (Addison, 1993) Researchers have criticized this hotchpotch of the Eastern world through Disney’s filter, which reinforces the Orientalist assumption that all “Other” cultures are replaceable and not unique (Addison, 1993; Anjirbag, 2020)

Perpetuating this practice, the animated movie Mulan (1998) portrays the cultural hybrid among Chinese, Western and Japanese identity (Zhao et al., 2020) Despite many correct Chinese depictions, the film integrates Japanese elements from time to time, which include Mulan’s father’s Chonmage hairstyle, Mulan’s dress and make-up at the match-maker scene, a child’s doll in a destroyed village, and cherry blossoms (Hálová, 2019; Zhao et al., 2020; Zhen, 2021) Furthermore, the film presents cultural appropriation as the Chinese legend of Mulan was intentionally decontextualized and restructured to make it universal (Anjirbag, 2018) Disney version

of Mulan is westernized as it accentuates a sense of individuality in the protagonist, and includes a love interest along with a magical talking animal companion (Yin, 2011; Zhen, 2021) Through her relentless pursuit of self-realization, Mulan ultimately discovers the meaning of life through hard work, which embodies the role model for the American-style liberal worldview (Zhen, 2021) Regarding Mushu the dragon, he

is Americanized to a funny lizard who serves as Mulan’s assistant in comparison with the solemn and revered dragon in Chinese mythologies (Zhen, 2021)

Recent films such as Frozen (2013) and Moana (2016) also provoke controversy Abate (2019) argues that even supporting characters in Frozen are all white Besides completely negating people of color from the pictures, the film whitewashes the Sámi, a Scandinavian indigenous people Abate (2019) takes the character Kristoff as an example, as his outfit and reindeer-pulled sleigh are closely

linked to Sámi culture Kristoff, however, appears as a blonde-haired white man According to Abate (2019), what is more troubling is Disney racializes Olaf with American blackface minstrelsy, propagating racial stereotypes, and white supremacy

In the case of Moana, Dittmer (2021) highlights issues of cultural homogenization as well as a stereotypical representation of Pacific Islanders Cultural homogenization, a subset of cultural globalization, refers to the process through which

a diverse variety of cultural symbols – not only tangible commodities but also behaviors, ideas, and values – are popularized and disseminated (Jennings, 2010) Specifically, according to O’Connor (2005), cultural homogenization occurs when a powerful foreign culture modifies or assimilates local cultures Polynesia dominates the Pacific Islands depicted in Moana, in which such portrayals provide an overly simplified picture of the Pacific Islands, with Polynesia at the focus (Diaz, as cited in Dittmer, 2021) According to Diaz, demigod Maui's claim to be "the most important demigod in the whole Oceania" is a good example of this issue Due to Maui's limited prominence as a demigod across the Pacific in reality, Disney's version streamlines and unifies Pacific religious beliefs Moreover, the character Maui’s representation is argued to be dumped down from the original Polynesian legends While the demigod is

an epic hero in Polynesia's myth as an adolescent who is a well-dressed, attractive, and witty prankster, Maui in Disney is portrayed as a huge, comic relief buffoon who feeds into stereotypical ideas about Polynesians as being obese (Anjirbag, 2018)

Throughout Disney’s animated movies, from early to recent ones, the Mouse company has generated various problematic representations that reinforce Western hegemony First, indigenous peoples tend to be depicted as savages and villains Second, any elements could be subject to westernization, including characters’ appearances, history, and legends Third, non-Western regional cultures seem to be

interchangeable and intermingled Fourth, the studio might oversimplify native cultures

in the way it depicts people as joyful, naive, and carefree

2.2.2 A brief history of how Disney princesses were depicted until Raya and the Last

Dragon

It took Disney eighty-four years since its first animated film, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), to eventually produce its first Southeast Asian princess with the release of Raya and the Last Dragon in 2021 This, in one way or another, demonstrates a tendency towards a lack of diversity in Disney moving pictures On the one hand, Abate (2019) mentions that Disney's practice of rarely presenting protagonists from racial and ethnic minorities is questionable In contrast to the underrepresentation of minorities, white protagonists are prominent in Disney fairytale movies such as Cinderella (1950), Sleeping Beauty (1959), The Little Mermaid (1989), Beauty and the Beast (1991), and Tangled (2010)

On the other hand, Disney’s attempt to depict princesses-of-color in recognition

of globalization has not been met with universal acclaim Lacroix (2004) observed that colored female protagonists are portrayed as much more athletic and courageous, and their exotic and sexual attributes are accentuated Pocahontas’s (1995) representation

as a mature woman with a short dress revealing her bare shoulder demonstrates this tendency Therefore, Lacroix argues that women of other ethnicities are characterized

as sexual objects, whereas those of European lineage symbolize innocent graceful beauties Although another progress – The Princess and the Frog (2009) – was praised for Disney's portrayal of the first black princess, Tiana is only spotted as a human for a brief time and mostly as a frog (Abate, 2019)

In summary, non-white princesses have been underrepresented compared to the large number of white ones If depicted, princesses-of-color are inclined to be

exoticized, belonging to another group as opposed to European princesses Colored female protagonists might be brave, erotic, or stay an animal

2.2.3 Depictions of Southeast Asian cultures in films

Since the 1900s and until recently, Asians in the American entertainment industry have suffered from discriminating stereotypes and severe underrepresentation Asians are either refused roles or cast in clichéd roles, which hinders their visibility to the general public (Paner, 2018) In a narrower sense, Disney has endeavored to involve Asian cultures in its films, such as Mulan (of Chinese origin) and Moana (of Polynesian origin) Notwithstanding these efforts, the absence of Southeast Asian depictions by powerful media conglomerates such as Disney proves how seriously Southeast Asian cultures are underrepresented The corollary is a dearth of studies on Southeast Asian cultural representations in animated films While Raya and the Last Dragon serves as the first movie to include Southeast Asian cultural elements, I detected no studies in the database that systematically analyze Raya and the Last Dragon

2.2.4 Contextual information of the film Raya and the Last Dragon

The movie, directed by Don Hall and Carlos López Estrada and written by Qui Nguyen and Adele Lim, was released on March 5, 2021 Raya and the Last Dragon is set in an imagined place at an unidentified time in history According to Koeppel (2021), a Disney News Contributor, to ensure the cultural authenticity of the region, the studio formed the Southeast Asia Story Trust, which consists of experts from a wide range of fields, including visual anthropology, linguistics, botany, choreography, architecture, and martial arts The film crew visited Laos, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Singapore in the early stages of the production in search of novel ideas and inspiration

The synopsis of the movie goes as follows: Ages ago, people and dragons lived

in peace in Kumandra, a fictional land However, when an evil entity, the Druun, attacked the land by turning any creature into stones, the dragons made the ultimate sacrifice in order to save humankind, leaving behind the dragon gem People battled to possess the gemstone, which led to the division of Kumandra into five lands that form the shape of a dragon: Heart, Fang, Spine, Talon, and Tail Then, half a century later, the same evil plague is revived after the gem is shattered This time, Raya, a solitary warrior, is on a mission to seek the revered Last Dragon with the hope to reunite the divided land and its separated people Raya will discover along the way that to save the world, people must come together and trust each other

Walt Disney Animation Studios assembled an all-star voice cast for the film (Ashton, 2021) To begin with, the protagonist, Raya, who is the Guardian of the Dragon Gem, is voiced by Kelly Marie Tran, a Vietnamese American Benja, Raya's adoring father and the chief of Heart, has high hopes for Kumandra's reunification and harmony He is played by Daniel Dae Kim, a South Korean-born actor Third, Awkwafina, a Chinese American, takes on the role of the titular character, Sisu, who is self-deprecating, humorous, and optimistic Gemma Chan, who is also a Chinese descendant, voices Namaari, the main antagonist Virana, who is Namaari's mother and chief of Fang, is voiced by Sandra Oh Oh was born to Korean immigrants Raya's three other companions are Tong (Benedict Wong – a British actor of Chinese descent), Boun (Izaac Wang – a Chinese-Laotian-American child), and Little Noi (Thalia Tran – an American actor of Vietnamese descent) Alan Tudyk, an American, delivers his voice

to Tuk Tuk, a bug-armadillo-pug hybrid and a childhood buddy of Raya's Last, several supporting characters involve the Spine chief (Ross Butler – a Singaporean American

actor), the Tail chief (Patti Harrison – a Vietnamese American actress), and the Talon chief (Lucille Soong – a Chinese American actress)

According to Mendelson (2021), the film was released concurrently in theaters and on the Disney+ streaming service, through a premium subscription called "Premiere Access.” On June 4, 2021, the film was made available to all Disney+ users, without an additional fee Refused by two major cinema chains, the film made $8.6 million in its debut weekend in North America, which was considered underwhelming compared to

"Tom and Jerry" of Warner Bros the previous weekend (Clark, 2021) As of December

6, 2021, statistics from Box Office Mojo (Raya and the Last Dragon, n.d.) have

revealed that the animated movie has brought in $54.7 million domestically and $130.3 million internationally

Although the animated feature did not perform well at the box office, it has garnered generally positive reviews On Rotten Tomatoes, 94 percent of 283 critics granted the film a favorable review, with an average score of 7.70/10 (Clark, 2021) However, this animation has elicited several negative reactions Some Southeast Asian critics have voiced their discontent with the chaotic representation of pieces of genuine cultures, which contributes to the perception of Asian cultures as interchangeable (Nawara, 2021; Romano, 2021) The absence of Disney+ in a large portion of Southeast Asia has increased fans' displeasure (Moon, 2021) The streaming platform is currently accessible only in Indonesia and Singapore

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

This third section details the research procedure to achieve the aims of the study The chapter elaborates on the research method with a combination of two theoretical frameworks Additionally, data collection and data analysis are clarified

of a visual text delivers cultural meaning (G Rose, 2012) To analyze visual elements,

I use Kress and van Leeuwen’s framework since they look at images “within the realm

of the realizations and instantiations of ideology, as means – always – for the articulation of ideological positions” (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, p 14) Regarding linguistic cues, Fairclough’s model of critical discourse analysis (CDA) assists to uncover hidden ideologies, which is a concern of this study It is through a language that could reflect the underlying viewpoints of any culture

3.1.1 Kress and van Leeuwen’s framework of visual grammar

In Kress and van Leeuwen’s framework, the authors explain the way meanings,

or more specifically, connotations are reflected through prominent compositional structures and visual aspects Based on Halliday’s framework in linguistics, Kress and van Leeuwen classify three systems of visual communication: ideational, interpersonal, and textual In the ideational metafunction, the interpreter investigates how a sign refers

to the outside world from a conceptual standpoint The second system, the interpersonal metafunction, reveals the relations between the producer and the receiver Regarding

the textual metafunction, the system shows both internal and external contexts in which the texts are constructed

Interpersonal metafunction

In terms of interpersonal function, Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) consider participants’ relationships They distinguish represented participants (people or things presented on the screen) from interactive participants (people who create or view the product) Moreover, they categorize three relations: relations between viewed participants; relations between viewed and interactive participants; and relations between interactive participants Thanks to the analysis of gaze, social distance, and angles, these relations are exhibited

Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) distinguished two types of gazes, an indirect look between the represented participant and the audience is considered an "offer" gaze,

in which the viewer is not directly involved The "offer" gaze originates from the audience Participants who are both represented and interactive avoid making eye contact The offer image, therefore, may cause a disconnect between the participants portrayed in the image and those who interact with it By contrast, in a “demand” gaze, the portrayed participant creates contact with the viewer through a direct eye-line

vector Through this, a demand gaze image addresses the audience and connects them with the represented characters

In addition to gazes, the selection of distance can imply various relationships between the portrayed parties and those viewing the representation The closer the scene

is shot to the represented, the more involved and intimate the relationship becomes A long shot represents a lack of involvement in which the represented member is a stranger and the viewer is an outsider

Angles also play a vital role in revealing relationships between participants First, the vertical angles are believed to reveal power If the scenes are shot at eye level,

it shows equality between the viewed and the viewers When the scene is seen from a low angle, the represented have authority over the interactive participant In contrast, if scenes are captured from a high angle, the represented have less control than the interactive participant Second, when it comes to horizontal angles, an oblique angle (from the back or from the side of the characters) presents a detachment between the viewed and the viewer, while a frontal angle implies engagement

to grab the viewer's attention In informational value, researchers examine how the elements are arranged that they connect to one another and to the audience Last, when framing mechanisms are used, items in the image might be linked, grouped, or separated

3.1.2 CDA

CDA arose in the 1970s as a result of an attention shift from simple structural aspects of language to language's function since language connects to society CDA investigates the use of language in its socio-political context and considers “language

as a form of social practice” (Fairclough et al., 2011, p 357) It is the goal of CDA to expose the ideologies underpinning discourse by heeding the connection between language and power (Nguyễn, 2015)

Major principles of CDA

Jorgensen and Phillips (2002) identify five CDA tenets as follows

First, CDA views discourse as a form of social practice Language is a social phenomenon and thus cannot be separated from society (Fairclough, 2001) The term

“social practice” can be understood as human activities that are traditionally organized according to a social structure (Eckert & McConnell-Ginet, 2013) The definition of discourse might vary based on different perspectives In this research paper, the term discourse is viewed as a form of communication through which language is created and perceived in a social context Discourse involves spoken and written texts as well as audio-visual form

Second, discourse both constitutes and is constituted by the social world Discourse is a social practice; therefore, discourse adheres to accepted social norms in depicting reality In this point, discourse is socially constructed in both the what and the how aspects First, discourse is conditioned by other pre-existing discourses Second, how discourse exposes the truth is conditioned by publicly appropriate methods Discourse and other social aspects influence one another (Fairclough, 2001) Discourse aids in shaping and reshaping social structures, resulting in social stability or

social transformation Discourse does not hold absolute power, and is affected by social practices or other discourses

Third, the social setting of the discourse needs to be considered It is only possible to understand a discourse in relation to its historical context or other relevant discourses It is for this reason that text analysis is done as part of a larger discourse interaction and social situation in Fairclough's model (2001) Discourse analysis entails not just examining the content of texts, but also the ways in which those texts, processes, and contexts engage with one another Both the immediate circumstances of the current situation and higher-level institutional and social structures are included in social conditions (Fairclough, 2001) CDA further proposes the concepts of intertextuality and interdiscursivity, which emphasize the significance of understanding texts with regard

to other contemporary texts Unlike any other method, CDA considers numerous aspects that influence the creation and consumption of texts

Fourth, discourse is ideologically driven Ideology can be spread or stifled through the use of discourse Thus, discourse expresses the desires of specific social groups, such as those based on ethnicity, religion, or age This notion applies not only

to widely influential discourse, such as political or mass media discourse, but also to individual language use When communicating, individuals are continually faced with choices They may consciously or unconsciously realize that their linguistic choices reflect their thoughts Practitioners of CDA are concerned with discovering implicit ideologies If some ideals disfavor a particular social group, exposing them might help inform people, which is considered the first step toward liberation

Fifth, CDA is research that takes a firm position CDA is never ambiguous when

it comes to stating its own position or commitment Starting with a specific political viewpoint, critical researchers must seek to unearth the discourse that perpetuates

power imbalances in place CDA, as a result, takes a stand for the marginalized and underprivileged in the discourse This is not to say, nevertheless, that the CDA is a skewed reading CDA strives to do a systematic analysis that reaches conclusions based

on certain language theories and social contextual cues The term “critical” refers to stepping back from data, placing data in social contexts, explicitly taking political positions, as well as an emphasis on self-reflection when investigators conduct research (Wodak & Meyer, 2001)

Fairclough’s three-dimensional model of CDA

Fairclough's (2001) CDA framework emphasizes the connection between discursive and social processes Fairclough recommends three stages for doing CDA: describing the text, interpreting the relationship between the processes of production and consumption, and explaining the relationship between the discursive practices and the current sociocultural circumstances

When first describing the texts, the characteristics of language and other modes

of communication are closely investigated Analysts are recommended to explore every aspect from vocabulary and syntax to the macro-level of text structures Fairclough additionally provided a comprehensive list of questions for textual analysis, which serves as a resource for CDA researchers, who may narrow their focus to a small set of analytical instruments, which are applicable to a specific text or objective

The second step in Fairclough's paradigm, interpretation, concerns the influence

of background assumptions on discourse processes Interpretations are derived from the text's formal elements and the interpreter's resources To put it another way, formal textual aspects (vocabulary, grammar, etc.) operate as "cues" to stimulate interpreters' prior knowledge Deciphering these cues will require interpreters to rely on their background knowledge (to realize any presumption or implication in the text)

Background knowledge refers to interpreters' habitual understanding of language and culture, for instance, the meanings of words or text structures Different decoding mechanisms and specific linguistic patterns shape the entire text for each kind of discourse Furthermore, interpretation takes into account the relationship between transmitter and recipient, and intertextual and situational settings

In the final stage of explanation, scholars perceive discourse as a part of a social system, revealing how social orders drive discourses and how those power relations could be impacted by discourses, being maintained or reformed (Fairclough, 2001) In other words, this step answers whether the discourse challenges or sustains existing power relations Notably, social structures are classified into three levels: societal, institutional, and situational Thus, explanation entails viewing a discourse as a product

of social struggle, embedded inside a matrix of power relations In this analytical step, the work must be placed in a socio-cultural context to disclose possible ideologies

3.2 Data collection

The movie Raya and the Last Dragon was thoroughly watched, examined, and interpreted After that, scenes collected for further analysis were those associated with the cultural aspects defined by Baldwin et al (2014) including “symbols, values, behaviors, artifacts, and other shared aspects” (p 55) In addition, characters’ utterances that accompany the scenes were also collected

For instance, costumes, the garments worn by people in a specific location or time period, are a shared aspect of culture In Southeast Asia, traditional costumes are both diverse and unique Thus, the scenes that portray Raya’s outfits were collected to investigate Accompanied with one of these scenes was the voice-over of young Raya

“Only a monster would choose to wear this outfit on the regular ", which would be used for analysis as well

3.3 Data analysis

Visual and linguistic features of texts were examined in this research The study employed Kress and van Leeuwen's methodology for analyzing visuals to see how certain cultural elements were represented Fairclough recognizes the increasing significance of visual images in his framework, though, he provides no analytical suggestions for this mode Hence, Fairclough’s framework was chiefly utilized to analyze linguistic elements Accordingly, this thesis needed to combine both Fairclough’s model as well as Kress and van Leeuwen's framework to investigate the movie

The steps in the data analysis were not done sequentially, but rather simultaneously to produce major findings and arguments The process involved rewatching the movie as many times as needed I read the screenplay of the movie, paid attention to each animation shot and voice-overs, noted down the participants, the circumstances, how they were represented, and questioned the film's signifiers In order

to decode the underlying meanings, I drew on my background assumptions, particularly about cultural aspects When patterns emerged, I looked for explanations by placing them in the social and historical contexts The findings of the study were presented without mentioning the steps, but rather the arguments found with evidence from analyzing the data

A sample analysis of Raya’s costume on welcoming other tribes

Kress and van Leeuwen’s (2006) visual metafunctions

The ideational metafunction deals with what is represented Upon Heart’s invitation to a united party, Raya’s costume shows formality and is said to be suitable for a princess (Hurley & Shurer, 2021) Her lower garment looks like modern elastic waist pants that are square-patterned and made of silk Besides, her pants are adorned

with some extra cloth on both sides, which seems like dragon’s manes On top, Raya dresses in a green and tightly fitted tunic that has the front nearly reaching her knees and the back almost ankle-length Her dress with raindrop patterns has elbow sleeves (Figure 2) Raya’s dress seems to be inspired by the Áo tấc of the Vietnamese Nevertheless, Raya’s tunic is modified at some points While Vietnamese áo tấc is quite comfortable to wear with both sides split, Raya’s seems to be suffocating with seamless sides