Positions, frequency, and types of topic sentences within paragraphs in ielts academic reading texts = vị trí, tần suất, và phân loại các câu chủ Đề trong Đoạn văn thuộc các bài Đọc ielts
Introduction
Rationale for the study
Research on topic sentences and their significance in reading comprehension has been largely overlooked in recent EFL/ESL studies, although this was not always the case In the 1970s and 1980s, there was a notable increase in research focusing on the role of topic sentences in understanding reading texts (Baumann & Serra, 1984; O’Hear et al., 1987; Popken, 1987; Smith & Chase).
Braddock’s (1974) groundbreaking research challenged the traditional view that topic sentences are consistently placed at the beginning of expository paragraphs His study revealed that the position of topic sentences can vary, sparking significant debate in academic writing theory D’Angelo further highlighted the importance of this finding, emphasizing its implications for understanding paragraph coherence and structure.
In 1986, Braddock’s findings marked a significant shift, suggesting that the traditional concept of topic sentences was becoming obsolete Although these studies primarily focused on native language reading and overlooked EFL/ESL learners, their insights laid a foundational groundwork for current research on topic sentences in reading comprehension (Baumann & Serra, 1984; Popken, 1987, 1988; Smith & Chase, 1991) However, since 1990, there has been a notable decline in reading-oriented research on topic sentences, with the focus shifting predominantly toward automated summarization, where the role of topic sentences is often incidental (Chin-Yew Lin, 1997; Lin & Hovy, 1997; McCarthy et al., 2008).
Recent studies have explored the rhetorical organization of writing texts created by non-native English users, providing insights into their writing patterns (Chen, 2011; Hsiung, 2014; Liu) However, these studies primarily focus on topic sentences and do not offer significant implications for teaching reading skills in ESL/EFL contexts.
Research focused solely on topic sentences and reading comprehension faces significant methodological challenges, which undermine the reliability of their findings These flawed methodologies cast doubt on the validity of the conclusions drawn, highlighting the need for more rigorous approaches in this area of study (Smith, 2008; see section 2.3 for a detailed critique of Smith's work).
A significant gap in current research on topic sentences is the lack of analysis regarding the reading texts used in language assessment, despite empirical evidence showing the importance of topic sentence identification as a key skill for effective reading comprehension Surveys reveal that IELTS instructors prioritize teaching students how to identify and utilize topic sentences to enhance their performance on the IELTS Reading test (Rodgers, 2009; Zhang & Hope) This highlights the critical role of understanding topic sentences in standardized language exams and underscores the need for further investigation into text-based assessment practices.
Current research suggests that the significance of topic sentences in texts related to language assessment is not fully understood due to the lack of comprehensive studies on their nature Students often hesitate to use topic sentences to identify key information within paragraphs, indicating a disconnect between students’ perceptions and teachers’ views on their importance (Rodgers, 2009) Consequently, a thorough examination of topic sentences in IELTS reading texts is essential to validate the widely accepted but unverified assumptions about their role.
Research questions
Based on the literature, this study aims to explore three main questions on topic sentences:
1 What is the proportion of paragraphs in IELTS Academic reading texts that feature topic sentences?
2 What is the position of topic sentences in IELTS Academic reading texts?
3 What type of topic sentences (ideal/naturalistic) can be found in IELTS reading texts?
Scope of the study
As the breadth of language proficiency assessment is broad, this study’s sole focus will be on IELTS Academic reading texts There are two main reasons for the choice First, IELTS is the single most popular English proficiency test in the world (British Council, n.d.), and it also exerts a significant influence on both students and teachers alike Therefore, an examination of topic sentence use in this test could prove informative and relevant to a larger audience, thereby facilitating more novel research in this field Furthermore, this study also attempts to substantiate the concerns raised by Rodgers (2009), which is to date the only study to survey the attitudes of teachers towards topic sentence use in reading texts In this paper, Rodgers, citing Smith’s (2008) study, was extremely critical of the view that topic sentences in IELTS Academic reading texts are situated at the beginning of a paragraph The study also completely rejects sampling of the first sentence as a valid reading strategy for main idea comprehension, concluding it to be entirely ―inadequate‖ However, this conclusion was drawn from Smith’s
A 2009 study analyzed authentic IELTS Academic Reading texts to validate Rodgers’ claims, addressing concerns that non-IELTS reading materials may differ significantly from those used in official testing By examining real IELTS texts, the research aims to provide more accurate insights into their properties and alignment with test standards, enhancing understanding of IELTS reading comprehension.
4 research aims to provide a comprehensive account of topic sentences in IELTS Academic Reading texts.
Significance of the study
This pioneering study addresses the overlooked and misunderstood role of topic sentences in language assessment texts, challenging the common belief that they are typically located at the beginning of a paragraph The findings provide empirical evidence that can help teachers make informed decisions about incorporating topic sentences into their instruction, moving away from unverified assumptions By grounding reading strategies in this research, educators can enhance the effectiveness of ESL/EFL reading instruction and develop more empirically based classroom practices Additionally, the study offers specific recommendations on how to adapt teaching methods regarding topic sentences, particularly within the context of IELTS and other language assessments Importantly, this research expands the current literature by focusing on non-native readers, addressing gaps in existing studies that mainly concern native speakers or lack consideration of the reader's perspective.
Organization
The Literature Review section outlines the fundamental aspects of the study and critically examines existing research on topic sentences, establishing a connection to the current study The Methodology section defines the research scope and provides a detailed explanation of the analytical framework used In the Results and Discussion section, key findings are presented alongside relevant recommendations, culminating in a comprehensive conclusion that summarizes the study's insights.
Literature review
Topic sentences defined
The concept of the topic sentence traces back to Alexander Bain’s 1876 work, "English Composition and Rhetoric: A Manual," where he outlined the idea that a paragraph is composed of sentences sharing a common purpose—explaining a specific aspect of a broader issue Bain suggested that the first sentence should act as a pointer, indicating the paragraph’s main subject, a notion further developed by 19th-century rhetoricians who emphasized that the topic sentence serves as a unifying idea all other sentences develop, ensuring coherence and preventing disjointedness This central role of the topic sentence has persisted into modern definitions; for instance, Crystal (2011) describes it as the sentence that contains the paragraph’s theme, mirroring Brown & Miller’s (2013) characterization of it as "whatever a chunk of text is about," both emphasizing its function in establishing the core focus.
As these definitions have largely been uncontested and consistently applied throughout studies pertaining to topic sentences, they are used as the definition used throughout this study.
Types of topic sentences
Recent scholarship has also revealed one other important, but less well- established and less explored, aspect of topic sentences: the types of topic sentences used by writers Braddock (1974) was the first person to outline a sketch of this aspect of topic sentences In his seminal study on the positions and types of topic sentences, Braddock devised a novel way of identifying topic sentences, which involves the construction of an artificial topic sentence that encapsulates the main idea in each paragraph In other words, the person conducting the analysis will read a paragraph and use their best judgement to create a topic sentence that is
1) separated from the text itself; 2) best describes the main idea of that paragraph and 3) best describes the original intention of the author This constructed topic sentence comes in four different forms The first may be a direct quote from a sentence in the paragraph This is done if that quoted sentence is incontrovertibly deemed to have fully reflected the main idea of a paragraph, and cannot be further modified without changing the original intention of the author Braddock termed these ―simple topic sentences‖ An example is provided below:
A bill was introduced in Congress to strengthen regulations on the rapidly expanding mail-order gun industry Usually, such tragic events like the Dallas shooting would accelerate the passage of firearm restrictions, similar to how the news of Thalidomide-induced birth defects prompted stricter drug laws in 1962 However, Congress failed to act, highlighting the powerful influence of the gun lobby and their ability to block firearm regulation efforts.
Braddock's artificial topic sentence is a direct quotation of the opening sentence, "At the same time," highlighting its significance He believed that no other sentence could encapsulate the paragraph's main idea as effectively as the first, making it the best choice for a clear and coherent topic sentence This approach emphasizes the importance of reinforcing key ideas for improved paragraph structure and clarity.
Delayed-completion topic sentences differ from direct quotations by having fragmented components that appear in separate parts of a paragraph These sentences involve joining disparate sentence parts from different sections to create a cohesive and unique topic sentence This technique enhances coherence by connecting ideas across different segments, making it a useful tool for complex writing Understanding how to craft delayed-completion sentences improves overall paragraph structure and clarity, contributing to more engaging and well-organized content.
Two existing statutes were enacted in response to gangsterism during the prohibition era to address gun trafficking However, due to limited coverage, difficulties in proving violations, and other structural issues, these laws have had minimal impact on curbing the growing gun traffic trend.
Braddock identified that no single sentence best captures the main idea of the paragraph Instead, he combined the first three words of the initial sentence, "Two existing statutes," with the final clause of the second sentence, "they have had a negligible impact on increasing gun traffic," to create an effective topic sentence The resulting sentence, "Two existing statutes had a negligible impact on increasing gun traffic," clearly summarizes the paragraph’s main point.
Assembled topic sentences represent an advanced form of delayed-completion sentences, where key parts of the main idea are scattered across multiple sentences within a paragraph This technique requires readers to actively piece together these fragments to understand the overall message Unlike delayed completion, which consolidates the topic sentence in two sentences, assembled topic sentences distribute essential information throughout the text, increasing complexity This approach challenges readers to carefully analyze the paragraph to "assemble" the core idea, making it an even more extreme form of delayed completion.
Following President Kennedy's assassination, it was revealed that Lee Harvey Oswald purchased his 6.5-mm Italian carbine from a Chicago mail-order house using an assumed name The rifle was shipped without any questions asked, raising significant questions about security and investigative procedures.
A Hidell was asked to receive mail at a post office box in Dallas, a common practice in the mail-order gun trade This was a routine transaction, as approximately one million guns are sold annually through similar mail-order methods.
President Kennedy was recently shot, highlighting the dangers associated with the widespread availability of mail-order guns Braddock's analysis emphasizes that this tragic event underscores how one of the million guns sold annually through mail-order businesses can be misused The connection between President Kennedy’s assassination and the accessibility of firearms underscores the urgent need for stricter regulation of gun sales.
The article discusses the recent shooting incident, highlighting how the rifle played a significant role It emphasizes that one million guns are sold each year through the mail-order business, illustrating the widespread availability of firearms This information is assembled from different sections of the text to create a comprehensive overview of gun-related issues.
Inferred topic sentences represent the implicit main ideas within a paragraph, requiring readers to interpret the underlying meaning Readers must analyze the text to grasp these subtle cues and then formulate a clear, concise topic sentence that captures the essential message Understanding inferred topic sentences enhances comprehension and allows writers to create more cohesive and engaging content Recognizing these implicit ideas is crucial for effective communication and improves SEO by emphasizing clear and relevant main points.
Most common ailments can be effectively managed with simple medications, which are more affordable than elaborate treatments However, even prescription pills contribute significantly to healthcare expenses Between 1929 and 1956, prescription sales skyrocketed from $140 million to $1.47 billion annually, with the average cost per prescription increasing from 85 cents to higher prices, reflecting the rising costs in the healthcare industry.
$2.62 Citing the findings of the Kefauver Committee, Professor Harris makes a strong case for more—and more stringent—regulation of the pharmaceutical industry by the government
Braddock determined that none of the original four sentences effectively captured the paragraph's main idea, and combining them did not produce a coherent topic sentence As a result, he chose to create a new, inferred topic sentence that accurately reflects the core message The resulting statement is: "Prescription drug costs have risen."
Topic sentences: their frequency and position
2.3.1 Topic sentences’ frequency of appearance
Research on the frequency of topic sentence occurrence is limited and lacks comprehensive insights Existing studies mainly focus on expository texts, but inconsistent findings reveal variability in the use of topic sentences within this genre Notably, Braddock’s work highlights the irregularity of topic sentence placement, emphasizing the need for further investigation into their role in enhancing text coherence and readability.
(1976) influential study on topic sentences concluded that, among 24 expository texts examined, only a mere 13% contain explicitly stated topic sentences This conclusion was supported by Baumann and Serra’s (1984) similar study on topicality in children’s textbooks, which saw the proportion of paragraphs with topic sentences standing at only 28% McCarthy’s (2008) conclusions are more optimistic, concluding that of the 207 expository texts examined, 114 (55%) contained a topic sentence Popken’s (1987, 1988) series of studies on the frequency of topic sentences found that 54% of all paragraphs in academic articles of different disciplines contain topic sentences, and an almost identical proportion (55%) could also be seen in scientific research articles of varying disciplines (Popken, 1988) Smith’s (2009) recent research vindicated Popken’s claims and concluded that 95% of all paragraphs in academic texts examined contain topic sentences
2.3.2 Position of a topic sentence in a paragraph
Research on the placement of topic sentences within paragraphs reveals that they are not always positioned at the beginning, contrary to common beliefs among IELTS educators While many teach that a topic sentence typically appears in the first sentence of a paragraph (Rodgers, 2009), Braddock’s (1974) study of 25 expository magazine articles found only 13% of topic sentences are initially placed at the beginning This finding was reinforced by Baumann and Serra (1984), who analyzed children’s textbooks and determined that just 27% of topic sentences appear at the paragraph's start These studies have significantly influenced literacy research, demonstrating that the location of topic sentences varies across texts.
1992), and were claimed by D’Angelo (1986) as the nail in the coffin for the age- old wisdom so commonly held by teachers and coursebooks that topic sentences are paragraph-initial
Despite their significant influence, these two foundational studies have not been empirically replicated in subsequent research A comprehensive review of studies analyzing the positioning of topic sentences—using natural language processing and systemic functional analysis—consistently shows that most topic sentences appear at the beginning of a paragraph, as evidenced in Table 2 The earliest research on this topic was Baxendale (1958), which analyzed 200 paragraphs and found that 85% confirmed the convention of placing the topic sentence at the start Two decades later, O’Hear conducted a survey of four college-level sociology textbooks, further supporting the prominence of initial paragraph position for topic sentences.
Research across multiple studies consistently shows that the majority of topic sentences are placed at the beginning of paragraphs, enhancing readability and coherence Specifically, et al (1987) found that 50% of texts examined feature topic sentences at the start of each paragraph Similarly, Smith and Chase (1991) observed that 66% of 1,044 textbook paragraphs contain topic sentences in the initial position Lin and Hovy’s (1997) analysis of 13,000 newspaper articles revealed that topic sentences most frequently appear at the beginning, with the second most common position being second-to-last Additionally, Khodra et al (2011) and Hsiung (2014) reported that approximately 75% of topic sentences in research articles and student essays are situated at the paragraph's beginning, underscoring the importance of placing main ideas upfront for effective communication.
The most extensive criticism of Braddock’s findings could be seen in Smith’s
Smith’s 2008 study aimed to replicate Braddock’s findings but concluded that topic sentences are located in paragraph-initial positions in 66% of cases, challenging Braddock’s original results However, a major flaw in Smith’s analysis lies in his decision to ignore individual paragraphs and instead analyze “discourse blocks,” grouping multiple paragraphs to account for stylistic differences While this approach was intended to focus on shared discursive functions, it fundamentally undermines the comparison, as Braddock’s research examines individual paragraphs exclusively; Smith’s divergence in methodology introduces a significant inconsistency that questions the validity of his conclusions.
Current scholarship generally supports the traditional view that topic sentences are more frequently located at the beginning of paragraphs, although Smith's analysis raises questions about the generalizability of this conclusion However, Smith has not definitively demonstrated that the topic sentence of a discourse block is the same as that of individual paragraphs, which limits the applicability of his findings Most research focuses on individual paragraphs rather than discourse blocks, and Smith's oversight of topic sentences within paragraphs may render his conclusions less relevant to practitioners and students Consequently, while Smith’s work provides valuable insights, it should not be considered a definitive or authoritative reexamination of existing studies on topic sentences.
For a general overview of the literature on topic sentences, see Table 2 below
Table 2 Summarization of studies on the position of topic sentences
Study Text genre/text type investigated
Braddock, 1974 Newspaper columns/expository texts
Children’s textbooks 62% initial, 25% middle, 13% end
Newspaper articles No specific percentages given
Position most likely to contain topic sentence: first sentence of a paragraph
Second most likely: second-to-last sentence of a paragraph
Liu, 2007 Student essays American students: 58% initial, 4% middle, 4% end
Chinese students: 60% initial, 5% middle, 8% end for Chinese
Smith, 2008 Essays 66% initial, 18% middle, 11% end Chen, 2011 Student essays 80% initial, 12% middle, 6% end
Research confirms that topic sentences typically appear at the beginning of paragraphs (McCarthy et al., 2008; Nation, 1984), but the extent of this practice's prevalence among English language teachers remains unclear Rodgers (2009) provides the only empirical evidence supporting this view, revealing that 13 out of 17 IELTS teachers prefer teaching students to skim by reading the beginning of paragraphs, making it the most common skimming method Similarly, analysis of nine IELTS coursebooks shows that seven recommend readers start by reading the first sentence of a paragraph, highlighting the widespread instructional emphasis on this approach in both teaching practices and educational resources.
Table 3 List of textbooks listing "Read the first sentence of the paragraph" as a skimming technique, adapted from Rodgers (2009)
Textbook Includes ―read the first sentence of the paragraph‖ as a technique?
Focus on IELTS (O’Connell, 2002) Yes
Focus on Academic Skills for IELTS
High Impact IELTS (Bourne, 2004) Yes
IELTS Express (Humphreys et al.,
IELTS Foundation (Roberts et al.,
Step up to IELTS (Jakeman &
Methodology
Sampling
This research analyzes all 24 reading texts from the Cambridge University Press IELTS 15 and IELTS 16 Academic Student’s Books The study provides insights into the structure and content of these IELTS reading materials to enhance exam preparation strategies By examining these texts, the research aims to identify key patterns and themes relevant for IELTS candidates The analysis also supports the development of targeted SEO strategies for IELTS educational content, ensuring better visibility and resource accessibility for learners Overall, these findings contribute to a deeper understanding of academic reading passages in popular IELTS preparation books.
The materials in the collection, published in 2020 and 2021 (see Table 8 for details), are selected because they represent the most recent authentic IELTS test texts available, ensuring a comprehensive and up-to-date resource for students These texts closely mimic the actual IELTS reading tasks, following the same design process as genuine tests and have been rigorously tested with real students under exam conditions, ensuring their relevance and validity for preparation purposes.
In 2020, the reading texts were identified as a highly reliable resource for the task at hand, enabling a more representative cross-section of IELTS test materials Utilizing these resources allows for a comprehensive analysis of authentic IELTS reading passages However, due to time constraints and the effort required for analysis, the study focused solely on the two most recent volumes, examining only the 24 reading texts contained within these editions.
Data collection
The 24 reading texts examined in the study will be extracted from volumes 15 and 16 of Cambridge University Press’s collections of official exam papers As the volumes consulted are in pdf format, the reading texts contained therein were converted into raw texts, then transferred into docx files, all of which are numbered for ease of tracking These files were then subject to analysis according to the procedure described below.
Data analysis
This study utilizes a modified version of Nation’s (1984) method for identifying topic sentences, a technique highly recommended for practitioners and students due to its reliability in pinpointing the main idea within a paragraph.
Nation's proposed method begins by intuitively identifying a topic sentence within a paragraph This initial intuition is then validated by classifying the semantic relationships between sentences, as outlined in Table 4 These semantic relationships fall into two categories: equal importance between sentences (labeled as "A=B") and situations where one sentence holds greater semantic importance than another.
To establish coherence within a paragraph, assign a "Weight" column as "A" or "B" to indicate the semantic importance of each sentence This practice helps readers identify the most crucial information conveyed in the paragraph The sentence labeled as "A" typically represents the topic sentence, providing the main idea that guides the overall message Recognizing the topic sentence enhances comprehension by highlighting the primary point of the paragraph Implementing this method ensures clear emphasis on the key ideas, improving readability and SEO effectiveness.
Table 4 Reconstruction of Nation’s list of conjunction relationships (adapted from Nation, 1985)
INCL and, furthermore, besides, also, in addition, similarly
A and B should be considered together
TA when, before, after, subsequently, while, then; firstly, finally, in the first place
A and B actually occurred with this time or sequence relationship
EXPL in other words, that is to say,
AMP to be more specific, thus, therefore, consists of, can be divided into
EXEM for example, such as, thus, for instance
SUM to sum up B summarizes A B
C-E because, since, thus, as a result, so that, in order to, consequently
A is the cause of or reason for B
CON but, although, despite, yet, however, still, on the other hand, nevertheless
B is contrary to the expectation raised by A
EXCL instead, rather than, on the contrary
This article categorizes relationship types using columns that include the name and code of each relationship, common linguistic markers, explanations of the relationship with two example sentences, and the semantic weight indicating the strength of the connection Understanding these relationship types is essential for effective communication and content clarity Recognizing linguistic markers helps in identifying specific relationships within text, enhancing comprehension and coherence The semantic weight demonstrates how strongly two ideas are connected, guiding writers in emphasizing important relationships By analyzing these elements, content creators can improve the precision and effectiveness of their messaging for better audience engagement and SEO performance.
The process of assigning semantic relationships in a sentence takes place across two different steps, summarized below:
For sentence [S] in a paragraph, the weight of the relationship is determined by comparing [S] to:
When analyzing an article, identify the relevant sentences that convey the core message of each paragraph Focus on sentences that provide important information and maintain logical flow Ensure the rewritten paragraph includes keywords for SEO purposes to enhance visibility The goal is to craft a coherent and concise paragraph that accurately reflects the original content's meaning while optimizing for search engines.
(b) the previously-established relationships between [S-n] and sentence(s) preceding it This is now henceforth termed a ―relationship network‖
Every single sentence must be compared against these two criteria Exceptions are made for two cases:
(1) - the first sentence in a paragraph, since that sentence does not have any preceding sentences, meaning that it cannot be compared against criteria (a), and;
(2) - the second sentence in a paragraph As stated, the second sentence of the paragraph must be compared against (b) - meaning the relationship network of the first sentence However, as the first sentence has no previously-established relationship network, this comparison with (b) cannot be done
Determining the location of the topic sentence in a paragraph requires weighing the importance of each sentence When a particular sentence is consistently regarded as the most significant, it serves as the effective topic sentence Conversely, if all sentences hold equal importance, the paragraph lacks a clear topic sentence Identifying the most weighted sentence across the paragraph is essential for understanding its main idea and enhancing content coherence This approach helps in crafting well-structured paragraphs that improve readability and SEO performance.
An illustration of this analysis process in an example text can be seen in 3.3.2
A condensed and simplified version of the process was provided in Figure 1
During the analysis, each sentence in a paragraph is marked using the following coding format:
[SENTENCE #][CODE of relationship, CURRENT TOPIC SENTENCE #]
(the first sentence of each paragraph is always marked with [SENTENCE #], as there are no preceding sentences to compare it against)
Example: when a sentence is marked [2][AMP, 1], this implies:
the current sentence is the second in the paragraph;
the relationship between this sentence and the previous sentence (sentence
1) is an Amplification (AMP) relationship This means that [2] describes
the current topic sentence is sentence 1, as indicated by the ―1‖ following the comma This is because [2] describes [1] in more detail As such, [1] is considered the weightier of the two Therefore, [1] is the current topic sentence in the paragraph Note that this number may change as the paragraph progresses and weightier sentences are found
In cases where all preceding sentences are of equal weight, CURRENT TOPIC SENTENCE is marked as 0 Outlying cases are noted accordingly
However, to be sufficiently rigorous, the many flaws of this method must be addressed The most glaring is Nation’s use of intuition to first identify a topic sentence in a paragraph, only to confirm this intuition through the analysis of the text The reason is apparent: absent a systematic and comprehensive sentence identification process where a text is examined multiple times by a team of trained experts, as employed in McCarthy’s (2008) study, the intuition may prove entirely inaccurate, and thus misrepresentative of the content of the text Furthermore, note that Nation uses this method to confirm a (potentially false) intuitive assessment
In other words, as the stated goal of the analysis process is to confirm and not identify topic sentences, there may be a potential for the analysis to be heavily biased in favor of the existing intuitions, even when the latter may be completely false This is a fatal flaw, and if adopted uncritically, may compromise the reliability of the analysis
This study avoids relying on intuition before analysis, instead immediately assigning each sentence a specific relationship according to the methodology outlined in section 3.2 This approach ensures a systematic and objective analysis process.
The 27 modification revolutionizes the method by using it as the primary approach to identify topic sentences, rather than relying on it solely to confirm pre-existing intuitions This adjustment emphasizes the method’s core function as the main tool for detection, while still requiring these initial intuitions to be validated through comparative analysis of sentences Consequently, the fundamental nature of the method remains unchanged, ensuring accurate and reliable identification of key sentences.
Understanding that the topicality of a sentence is confirmed or disproved through relationships between sentences emphasizes that intuitive identification of a topic sentence is unreliable for analysis Therefore, relying on intuition is eliminated from the analytical process to ensure a more objective and rigorous approach This approach enhances clarity and accuracy in analyzing sentence relationships and identifying main ideas in any text.
The recent update to Nation’s method introduces a new relationship type: Questions (QUE), to address specific analytical challenges Questions do not fit into existing relationship categories, making their explicit inclusion essential for accurate sentence analysis, especially in IELTS Academic Reading texts Additionally, questions often serve as topic sentences, as noted by Abrams (2000), emphasizing the importance of recognizing them for comprehensive text interpretation Their role as problem statements or issue identifiers further highlights their significance, with the analysis weight leaning towards category B, as questions often explore or address specific problems.
Figure 1 Illustration of the steps taken in identifying topic sentences in a paragraph, based on Nation’s (1985) original
This study analyzes the types of topic sentences in the text by examining their lexical and grammatical features It compares these features against McCarthy’s framework to identify common patterns and characteristics, contributing to a deeper understanding of effective topic sentence structures for improved writing clarity and coherence.
Findings and discussion
Findings
4.1.1 Research question 1: Proportion of paragraphs in IELTS texts that feature topic sentences
Table 5 Percentage of total paragraph containing topic sentences
Total paragraph count Paragraphs containing topic sentence
Research indicates that just over 50% of paragraphs in IELTS Academic reading texts contain an explicitly identifiable topic sentence, regardless of their location or type This proportion significantly exceeds earlier studies, such as Braddock’s (1974) controversial 13%, Baumann and Serra’s 28%, as well as Popken’s (1987) and McCarthy’s (2008) estimates of 55% The only exception is Smith’s (2009) study, which reports a notably higher figure of 95%, remaining largely unchallenged in the field.
4.1.2 Research question 2: Topic sentence location in paragraphs
Table 6 Topic sentence location in all topic-sentence-containing (TSC) paragraphs
Research shows that the most common placement of topic sentences in paragraphs is at the beginning, accounting for 60.8% of cases, which aligns with findings from existing studies The initial position is typically where the topic sentence is found, as it sets the main idea for the paragraph For example, in a given paragraph, the topic sentence is identified as the first sentence because it holds the most importance, confirming that most writers place key ideas at the start for clarity and coherence.
Throughout the 1930s, Moore demonstrated little interest in pleasing the British public During this period, he was inspired by Spanish artist Pablo Picasso, whose innovative paintings led him to radically distort the human body At times, Moore appeared to abandon the human figure entirely, with his sketchbooks revealing ideas for abstract sculptures that bore little resemblance to traditional human forms.
Research indicates that only 10.5% of topic sentences appear in the middle of a paragraph, making it the least common position for introducing the main idea This pattern aligns with previous studies (Smith & Chase, 1991; Hsiung, 2014), which also found that topic sentences are most frequently placed at the beginning or end of paragraphs An example highlighted below demonstrates a topic sentence (bolded) positioned in the middle, illustrating its rarity and typical placement in paragraph structure Understanding the optimal placement of topic sentences can improve the clarity and coherence of your writing.
Many plants primarily use day length as a key indicator for flowering timing, while others, like daffodils, are highly sensitive to temperature and can bloom early during warm winters The discovery of the dual role of phytochromes explains how plants respond to both light and temperature cues, aligning with the traditional rhyme: "oak before ash, we’ll have a splash; ash before oak, we’re in for a soak," which predicts seasonal changes based on tree flowering patterns.
The second sentence in this paragraph was determine to be the topic sentence
As the paragraph contains only 3 sentences, the topic sentence was classified as being situated in the middle
The only notable anomaly in the data is the high occurrence of topic sentences positioned at the end of paragraphs, accounting for 28.5% This figure is nearly half that of paragraph-initial topic sentences and significantly exceeds expectations based on previous studies Compared to existing research, this percentage is at least 10% higher (Smith & Chase, 1991) and up to 20% higher (Baumann & Serra, 1984; O’Hear et al., 1987; Smith, 2009; Hsiung, 2014) For example, such sentences can be seen in the following instances.
[1] Unfortunately, all of the precautions and intricate design of the underground network did not prevent ancient robbers from finding a way in [2][AMP, 1]
Djoser’s grave goods and even his body were stolen in the past, leaving only a small number of valuables behind, overlooked by thieves Despite this, excavators uncovered enough artifacts throughout the pyramid and its complex to astonish and amaze with their historical significance.
The paragraph's topic sentence is positioned at the end, as it contradicts both [1] and [2], indicating its placement at the conclusion of the paragraph Recognizing the final sentence as the core statement helps identify paragraph structure and enhances SEO by clarifying paragraph flow Understanding the placement of topic sentences improves content readability and search engine understanding Properly structured paragraphs with clear topic sentences are essential for effective content optimization.
Research question 3: Topic sentence type in paragraphs
Table 7 Topic sentence types in all TSC paragraphs
Recent analysis reveals that only 53% of topic sentences lack common markers typically expected in a clear topic sentence, indicating room for improvement in clarity and structure Just 46.5% of topic sentences are ideal, effectively guiding readers through the paragraph's main idea, with a slight margin of 6% Understanding the placement of well-crafted, naturalistic topic sentences is essential for enhancing overall coherence and readability.
Table 8 Topic sentence type in topic-sentence-containing paragraphs, by location in paragraph
The data indicates that the majority of topic sentences are positioned at the beginning of paragraphs, with 32% of ideal sentences and 26% of naturalistic sentences occupying this spot, highlighting a close 6% difference between them This suggests that both sentence types are nearly equally likely to appear as the opening sentence At the end of paragraphs, ideal topic sentences account for 12%, only slightly less than the 16% of naturalistic sentences, reflecting a minor gap Conversely, the middle position is the least common for topic sentences, with just 3% of ideal sentences and under 10% of naturalistic sentences found there, underscoring its relative rarity.
Discussion
4.2.1 A new approach to topic sentence research?
Research indicates that topic sentences are most commonly placed at the beginning of a paragraph, supporting the traditional view held by educators and textbooks The high frequency of explicit topic sentences in IELTS Reading texts suggests that reading just the first two sentences can often provide a sufficient understanding of the paragraph's main idea These findings challenge some earlier claims by scholars like Braddock (1964) and Baumann & Serra (1984), who argued against the paragraph-initial position as a universal rule Overall, the evidence reinforces the importance of initial topic sentences for effective paragraph comprehension.
Caution is essential before drawing definitive conclusions, as initial assumptions were made without considering the distribution of different types of topic sentences The findings reveal an almost equal distribution between ideal and naturalistic topic sentences, a fact that, while seemingly minor, has profound implications for interpreting the results This balanced distribution challenges common assumptions and significantly alters the overall understanding of the topic To fully grasp the importance of this discovery, it is important to analyze the distinct characteristics of each type of topic sentence.
Ideal topic sentences are effective because they contain key linguistic markers such as third-person verbs, pronouns, and hypernyms, which help readers quickly identify the main idea of a paragraph Recognizing these features allows trained readers, including IELTS students, to reliably locate topic sentences within a text Utilizing this understanding of naturalistic topic sentences can improve reading comprehension and enhance test performance by making accurate predictions about paragraph structure.
The opposite is true for naturalistic topic sentences These sentences, by their very nature, cannot be intuitively inferred simply based on linguistic features alone Instead, their existence can only be confirmed after a thorough analysis of the paragraph As such, regardless of skill, readers cannot intuitively identify naturalistic sentences as topical with any reasonable accuracy, and their nature as topic sentences can only be confirmed by reading the entirety of the paragraph
To summarize: not every topic sentence is equal in usefulness, since ideal topic sentences can easily be identified by trained readers, whereas naturalistic topic sentences are almost impossible to pinpoint at a simple glance The importance of this conclusion is underscored by the findings for research question 3 As seen in 4.1.3, there are almost as many easy-to-identify ideal topic sentences as there are difficult-to-identify naturalistic sentences, with naturalistic sentences accounting for just over half of all topic sentences This singular fact definitively shows that any strategy that hinges on students to identify topic sentences by sampling a portion of the text is almost entirely ineffective As half of all topic sentences are difficult-to-identify naturalistic sentences, one cannot reliably choose a portion of a paragraph to deduce its main idea by finding a topic sentence This fact is further underscored by the fact that both sentence types, naturalistic and ideal, are nearly equally as likely to contain topic sentences in the initial position Therefore, the findings of this study effectively invalidate any strategy that recommends the sampling of the initial part of a paragraph to identify topic sentences This is so because the sampling process takes surface-level linguistic features as a determiner of topic sentencehood, something which can only be done reliably with ideal topic sentences – meaning nearly half of all topic sentences This conclusion reflects the general level of ambivalence towards this strategy by students in Rodger’s study (2009), as only half of the 14 students responded that ―reading the first sentence in a paragraph‖ is a useful strategy in Reading, as opposed to the almost unanimous response by teachers, as all but 3 of whom endorsed this
Recent insights challenge the traditional view that the main ideas are primarily situated at the beginning of a paragraph Recognizing the diverse types of topic sentences and their varying roles is essential to understanding paragraph coherence Consequently, the assumption that the introductory sentence always contains the core message should be reconsidered, emphasizing the importance of strategic placement of ideas throughout the paragraph for effective communication.
Future research on topic sentence placement should consider both the position and frequency of topic sentences in paragraphs, as focusing solely on one aspect can lead to a skewed and overly simplistic understanding of how readers perceive them Students do not view topic sentences as a single, uniform concept; instead, their usefulness exists on a binary scale Effective identification of topic sentences depends on recognizing stable linguistic features, which distinguishes ideal, easily identifiable topic sentences from more natural, less obvious ones.
Conclusion
Conclusion
Recent research reveals that the role of topic sentences in EFL reading is largely understudied and overlooked, with the traditional strategy of "reading the first sentence to identify the main idea" remaining prevalent without substantial challenge A analysis of 24 IELTS reading texts shows that while topic sentences often appear at the beginning of paragraphs, the presence of two different types of topic sentences undermines this assumption, making initial sentence-based identification unreliable The nearly equal occurrence of naturalistic and ideal topic sentences complicates consistent main idea recognition for students Therefore, the reliance on the first sentence as a marker for the main idea should now be critically reassessed, with a shift towards exploring more consistent and effective methods for identifying the main idea in reading comprehension.
Effective reading strategies in language learning involve integrating top-down, bottom-up, and metacognitive approaches to enhance main idea comprehension (Wilawan, 2012) Given that EFL students often face challenges in understanding texts due to limited lexical resources and grammatical knowledge, emphasizing bottom-up strategies is crucial Incorporating training on cohesive devices and word relationships further supports students in improving their reading comprehension skills, making the course more effective.
Recent research emphasizes that identifying explicitly-stated topic sentences should no longer be the primary focus for main idea comprehension among EFL learners, as this approach can be confusing and inconsistent Instead, learners should develop the ability to form their own implicit topic sentences through global and local comprehension strategies combined with self-monitoring While topic sentences can serve as a last resort for students struggling to identify main ideas, reliance on them should be minimized Educators are encouraged to explore the grammar structures and vocabulary commonly found in effective topic sentences to better aid student detection Overall, the study advocates rethinking traditional teaching approaches, suggesting a multifaceted method of instruction that treats topic sentences as one useful tool among many, rather than a universal solution for main idea understanding.
Limitations and recommendations
The current study has limitations, including the novel method of topic identification, which has not yet been systematically tested or compared to expert assessments This suggests that further validation is necessary to confirm the accuracy and effectiveness of this analytical approach in identifying key topics within the text.
This study examined 24 texts, but the small sample size may not accurately represent the variety of materials featured in the IELTS Reading test future research should utilize exclusive IELTS materials and involve multiple trained experts to ensure more comprehensive and reliable results.
This study aims to improve understanding of topic sentences in IELTS Reading texts, highlighting the need for clearer identification strategies Notably, there is a variation in difficulty levels between IELTS sample tests from 2020 and 2021, with more challenging texts often containing fewer topic sentences, which may impact research outcomes Future research should incorporate stricter text classifications, including difficulty levels, to enhance result consistency Additionally, further studies are necessary to identify specific linguistic markers of effective topic sentences, enabling instructors and students to better apply this knowledge during reading practice.
Appendix
Table 9 Overview of texts and their relevant features