04051001888 a study of some discourse features of reading texts in the textbook tieng anh 6 04051001888 a study of some discourse features of reading texts in the textbook tieng anh 6
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Language teachers in Vietnam are increasingly recognizing the vital importance of linguistics in their professional growth As a result, they are actively engaging in research to gain a deeper understanding of language and its principles, with a particular focus on "discourse analysis."
Language instructors should possess a strong understanding of discourse study to enhance their teaching materials and engage students in activities that develop language skills and competence However, many high school teachers remain unfamiliar with this approach, often favoring traditional methods that prioritize grammar translation While these conventional techniques can be somewhat effective, they may not align with the new textbook series published by Felix, which requires a more modern teaching strategy.
In recent years, many educators have recognized the need for innovative teaching methods, leading them to explore the impact of discourse analysis on their instructional practices This approach allows teachers to critically assess new textbooks and enhance teaching effectiveness By incorporating discourse analysis, educators aim to help students grasp new concepts and utilize language in diverse ways, ultimately fostering a deeper understanding of the material.
By utilizing discourse analysis, Vietnamese teachers can adapt their teaching methods to meet the diverse needs of students at various stages, effectively integrating both traditional and modern materials to enhance skill development This approach not only broadens the scope of teachers' research but also enriches students' knowledge, leading to a deeper understanding of the content delivered in the classroom and improving the overall teaching and learning experience.
As a secondary school English teacher, I recognize the complexities of teaching this captivating subject and the challenges it presents in the learning process Many students struggle with text interpretation and comprehension, hindering their academic progress This realization has motivated me to explore effective solutions, leading me to recommend discourse analysis as a valuable theoretical framework for evaluating the new English textbooks.
This paper explores the discourse features in the reading texts of the Vietnamese new English 6 textbook for secondary school students Reading texts, as complex written discourses, require an understanding of their components to enhance learners' comprehension and interpretation For language teachers, recognizing the elements of written discourse, particularly in terms of Grammatical and Lexical Cohesion, can significantly improve the teaching and learning process of reading and writing The research findings aim to enrich teachers' knowledge of discourse analysis and support its application in practical English teaching.
Aims of the study
This study aims to examine some discourse features in the reading texts in the textbook “Tieng Anh 6” To achieve this, several specific objectives are set as follows:
- To figure out the dominant discourse features at word features in the reading texts in the textbook “Tieng Anh 6”
- To figure out the dominant discourse features at sentence features in the reading texts in the textbook “Tieng Anh 6”
- To figure out the dominant cohesion features in the reading texts in the textbook “Tieng Anh 6”
Research questions
- What are the dominant discourse features at word features and sentence features in the reading texts in the textbook “Tieng Anh 6”?
- What are the dominant cohesion features in the reading texts in the textbook “Tieng Anh 6”?
Significance of the study
Theoretically the research contributes to the study of discourse analysis in general and in particular show the association between discourse analysis and language teaching pedagogy
This study highlights the distinct levels of conceptualization related to discourse features To enhance understanding, it is structured into two main sections: an analysis of grammatical cohesion and an examination of lexical cohesion within the reading texts of the textbook "Tieng Anh 6," along with a concise textual analysis of the textbook itself.
“Tieng Anh 6” is also presented
This research enhances the understanding of coherence devices in reading texts within textbooks, revealing key concepts and linguistic elements related to discourse features Additionally, it aids lower secondary school teachers in grasping discourse analysis and its application in evaluating teaching materials, facilitating a shift from traditional teaching methods to a more communicative approach.
Scope of the study
The study focuses on the discourse features of the reading texts in the text book “Tieng Anh 6”
This study focuses on the discourse features at both the word and sentence levels, as well as the cohesion characteristics of the reading texts found in the "Tieng Anh 6" textbook, despite the extensive research on linguistic and discourse features in written texts.
Method of the study
A mixed method approach was employed to uncover the discourse features of the reading texts in "Tieng Anh 6." The quantitative research method facilitated an in-depth analysis of the collected data, while the qualitative method aimed to support and explain the statistical findings.
Design of the study
This research is composed of five main chapters
Chapter 1, the Introduction, present briefly the rationale, the aims, the scope, and the methods of the study as well as the organization of the study
Chapter 2 is Literature review which provides a brief review of the relevant concepts to the study as well as the review of previous studies
Chapter 3 is Methodology chapter, elaborating the adoption of research method, the process of collecting and analysing data and the formation of a conceptual framework
Chapter 4 represents the research findings and discussion This chapter focuses on the analysis of of the grammatical and lexical cohesion of the reading texts in the text book “Tieng Anh 6”
Chapter 5 is the Conclusion In this part, a summary of the key findings, learning and teaching implications, limitation, and recommendations for further studies are presented
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical background
Discourse is a system of thought and communication that shapes our understanding of the world, encompassing various forms of interaction beyond mere conversation Paul-Michel (2001) emphasizes that discourse involves the exchange of linguistic information, which is crucial for dynamic semantics, where the meanings of expressions are linked to their capacity to alter discourse contexts Brown and Yule (1989) describe discourse as a dynamic process where language serves as a tool for communication, allowing speakers and writers to convey meaning and fulfill their intentions Additionally, Gee (2011) characterizes discourse as a distinctive way of expressing oneself, highlighting that the use of language reflects one's identity in different contexts Understanding the purpose behind our communication is essential for making sense of our expressions and actions.
Discourse refers to a unit of language that is larger than a sentence, encompassing coherent units such as arguments or narratives According to Longman (1977), discourse arises when language is utilized in communication between individuals It is important to note that communication lacking competent linguistic speech is not classified as discourse, regardless of its success.
Johnstone (2002) expanded the definition of discourse to encompass both written and sign language By using linguistically proficient speech, a speaker aligns themselves with the cultural norms, values, and symbols of a specific society.
Hasan (1976) and Fitzgerald (1988) emphasize that discourse is a coherent unit of language that extends beyond a single sentence, encompassing forms such as sermons, arguments, jokes, or narratives Discourse can range from casual conversations to extensive novels or legal cases Cook highlights that the essence of discourse lies not in strict adherence to rules, but in its ability to communicate effectively and be recognized as coherent by its audience Crystal (1989) aligns with Fitzgerald, asserting that discourse consists of meaningful, unified, and purposeful language stretches While discourse often includes well-formed grammatical sentences, it is not limited to them; grammatical errors may occur without compromising the overall meaning Discourse utilizes grammatical rules as a resource, adhering to them when necessary and deviating when appropriate.
In conclusion, most linguists agree on the definition of discourse, highlighting two key aspects: its structure and function This study views discourse as a linguistic entity that extends beyond a single sentence, embodying a system of thought It encompasses various linguistic properties and is influenced by specific social contexts.
Courthart (1977/1985) emphasized that a primary objective of discourse analysis is to identify the principles that govern the creation of coherent discourse and to outline the structure of conversations that emerge from these principles.
Discourse structure is essential for organizing communication into coherent units, ensuring cohesion within the text It encompasses various forms that text producers utilize to achieve text cohesion Recent studies by Halliday and Hasan have further explored the intricacies of discourse structure.
Research by Rumelhart, Kintsch, and others has identified several discourse factors that influence text readability Readers anticipate narratives to adhere to a specific story grammar, which outlines the necessary elements and their sequence, including setting, initiating events, attempts, and consequences Additionally, they expect cohesive relationships between ideas to be indicated by linguistic markers such as pronouns, definite articles, and conjunctions While current text analysis methods remain incomplete and unverified for establishing universal readability measures, they do offer valuable insights into the challenges readers face with various texts.
Discourse functions are a topic of diverse opinions Brown and Yule (1983) argue that discourse analysis extends beyond formal language forms to include language functions They identify the transactional function, which conveys propositional content, aligning with the representative function in Buhler (1934), the referential in Jakobson (1960), the ideational in Halliday (1970), and the descriptive in Lyons (1977) These scholars agree that while language serves various functions, its primary purpose is to communicate factual information Additionally, the interactional function expresses social relations and personal attitudes, corresponding to the expressive, emotive, interpersonal, and social-expressive functions identified by these linguists This branch of study emerged from the understanding that language often serves to establish relationships rather than merely transmit information, as seen in cultural greeting rituals that reveal social roles rather than information exchange.
Termed differently, the language functions proposed by these scholars share their nature of exchanging information and exchanging interpersonal relations and attitudes between the language users
Discourse analysis is defined by most linguists as the study of language beyond sentence boundaries, focusing on the formal devices that connect sentences (Allen & Corder, 1974) Cook (1989) emphasizes that the transient features of discourse help us understand meaning and sentence order Language learners must engage with real-world language use, prompting teachers to consider the role of idealized language in developing this skill Celce & Olshtain (2000) describe discourse analysis as the study of language in use, extending beyond sentences and examining the relationship between language and its context Michael (2000) notes that discourse analysts investigate various forms of written and spoken language, while another definition highlights discourse analysis as a broad term for approaches analyzing language use in significant semiotic events The focus of discourse analysis includes discourse, writing, conversation, and communicative events (Harry, 2012).
“discourse analysis is not only study language use “beyond the sentence boundary”, but also prefer to analyze “naturally occurring” language use, and not invented examples
James (2011) emphasizes that discourse analysis is not solely reliant on all physical features present in a conversation, nor on those that may hold significance in different contexts or analyses The determination of relevance in what is included in a transcript is ultimately a theoretical judgment, shaped by the analyst's understanding of language, context, and interaction Consequently, a transcript is considered a theoretical construct that is integral to the analysis rather than an independent entity.
According to Fine (1988), discourse analysis examines language beyond the sentence level, focusing on both conversation and written text to identify patterns It involves determining the units of larger language stretches, recognizing the linguistic markers that signal these units, and understanding the processes that facilitate the production and comprehension of extended language forms.
Discourse analysis is a crucial concept in linguistics and applied linguistics, interpreted variably by scholars across various disciplines It fundamentally refers to the examination of language use in specific contexts beyond mere sentences (Schiffrin, Tannen, & Hamilton, 2008) Additionally, the linguistic analysis of discourses involves studying social interactional structures influenced by diverse sociological classifications or discourse communities (Brown & Yule).
Textual analysis can be defined as the investigation and deconstruction of spoken or written texts to understand their purpose and the effects they have on readers This process involves a qualitative analysis of the semantic structures within the organization of the text, revealing how language functions and influences perception.
Discourse analysis examines the relationship between language and its context, evolving from various disciplines such as linguistics, semiotics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology during the 1960s and early 1970s This field focuses on the practical use of language, analyzing both written texts and spoken data, and adopts a different approach compared to traditional grammar studies.
Review of previous studies
In the field of discourse features, a vast number of studies have been conducted to examine the effect of discourse features on learners‟ reading text
A study by Van (2010) highlighted the significance of generic structure and cohesion in defining discourse genres The research involved 60 students in Botswana over an 8-week intervention, utilizing questionnaires and pre- and post-tests Findings indicated that students struggled with reading comprehension, which impeded their learning progress To address these challenges, the researcher focused on teaching discourse features to enhance students' understanding.
This study analyzes the key discourse features of 16 reading texts from the Vietnamese English 9 textbook, aiming to provide valuable implications for English teaching and learning It emphasizes the necessity for both teachers and students to recognize the crucial role of cohesive devices and common discourse markers found in the textbook The researcher highlights the significance of cohesive devices, particularly collocation and reference, as essential elements that enhance the quality of reading texts.
In his 1977 study, "Discourse Analysis for University Students," Kintsch utilized questionnaires and interviews to investigate the impact of discourse features on students' reading abilities The findings indicated that these features enhance students' accuracy in answering comprehension questions Additionally, the instruction fosters a positive attitude towards reading and equips students with the skills to independently utilize a diverse range of discourse features.
Previous studies on discourse features, both within Vietnam and internationally, highlight the significance of analyzing these features in the context of teaching and learning from textbooks.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research question
The study was conducted to find out the answers to the following research questions:
1 What are some dominant discourse features at word features and sentence features in the reading texts in the textbook “Tieng Anh 6”?
2 What are some dominant cohesion features in the reading texts in the textbook “Tieng Anh 6”?
Research Method
This study utilized a mixed research method for data analysis, incorporating quantitative techniques to identify the frequency of common discourse features in the reading texts of the textbook "Tieng Anh 6." The research process involved several stages: initially, the reading texts were thoroughly reviewed and coded Subsequently, each sentence was analyzed at three levels: word features, sentence features, and cohesion features Specific discourse features outlined in the analytical framework were examined and quantified to determine their occurrence and frequency.
The qualitative research method was employed to provide justifications for the common discourse features observed This approach was based on Fairclough's three-tier model, which includes description (text), interpretation (discourse practice), and explanation (social-cultural practice).
The article focuses on identifying common discourse features in the reading texts of the textbook “Tieng Anh 6” and provides justifications for their occurrence It examines three aspects of social practice—contents, relations, and subjects—and their structural effects on knowledge, belief, social relationships, and identities The significance of textual features is highlighted when placed in social interaction and real contexts An analysis of discourse processes is essential to understand their reliance on shared and background knowledge This explanation stage portrays discourse as embedded in social processes, revealing the social determinants of discourse production and interpretation, along with their social effects, as noted by Fairclough (2001).
Discourse functions as a social practice within a broader social process, influenced by social structures It plays a crucial role in either sustaining or transforming these structures through its cumulative reproductive effects.
The purposive sampling method was employed to select data for analysis, utilizing reading texts gathered from the textbook "Tieng Anh 6," published by the Education Publishing House of Vietnam.
Analytical framework
In this study, discourse analysis focuses on examining individual grammatical and lexical elements within clauses and sentences, as well as the grammatical and lexical connections between these elements throughout the discourse.
To achieve the first research objective of identifying dominant discourse features at the word level, the researcher examined words through three perspectives: word composition, part of speech, and word meaning Analyzing word composition provides insights into the types of words prevalent in the text and the intentions of textbook designers For grade 6 students, it is assumed that the vocabulary consists mainly of simple words, necessitating empirical evidence to support this claim Additionally, understanding the part of speech is crucial for contextual word analysis, as it reveals how words function as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, thereby justifying their frequency of use.
To achieve the second research objective of identifying discourse features at the sentence level, the researcher analyzed sentence formation, functions, and the predominant tenses and aspects used Understanding the types of sentences in the texts is essential for enhancing the teaching and learning of reading materials for both teachers and students.
The study aims to identify the dominant cohesion features in the reading texts of the selected textbook, drawing on Hasan's (1976) framework The analysis focuses on both grammatical and lexical cohesion Four key grammatical features are examined: reference, ellipsis, substitution, and conjunction, all of which establish links within the texts and enhance comprehension Additionally, the research explores lexical cohesion to further understand the text's coherence.
The five key features of vocabulary include repetition, synonyms, antonyms, hyponymy, and collocation By exploring these elements, teachers, learners, and researchers can enhance their comprehension and knowledge of vocabulary within selected reading texts.
From the abovementioned point of view, the following analytical framework has been set for our analysis as follows:
Table 1: An analytical framework for readings texts in Tieng Anh 6
Simple Compound Complex Sentence function
Statement Question Command exclamation Verb tense and aspect
References, Ellipsis, Substitution, Conjunction, Tense and aspect, Lexical cohesion
Repetition, Synonyms, Antonyms, Hyponymy Collocation
Data collection and analysis
3.4.1 Data collection and its context
A total number of 12 reading texts collected from the textbook “tieng Anh 6” were examined in this study
"Tieng Anh 6" is the introductory textbook in a four-level series designed for Vietnamese lower secondary school students learning English as a foreign language It adheres to the systematic, cyclical, and theme-based syllabus sanctioned by the Ministry of Education and Training in October 2011, emphasizing language use—encompassing pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar—to enhance the four essential language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
The Student's Book comprises 12 main units, each containing eight sections designed for seven 45-minute classroom lessons These units are richly illustrated and cross-curricular, focusing on providing students with motivation and memorable, joyful learning experiences Each unit begins with clear learning objectives that outline the key language and skills to be taught.
Each unit consists of seven sections: "Getting Started," "A Closer Look 1," "A Closer Look 2," "Culture & Communication," "Skills 1," "Skills 2," and "Looking Back." The "Skills 1" section focuses on reading, aiming to enhance students' reading abilities through texts that align with previously learned vocabulary and structures These texts are designed to be engaging and relevant, introducing important new vocabulary that is practiced in follow-up activities The reading activities in Tiếng Anh 6 help students develop sub-skills like skimming for gist and scanning for details, while also providing opportunities for reading aloud to improve pronunciation and intonation Teachers are encouraged to explain unfamiliar words and teach reading strategies, such as focusing on familiar words and making logical guesses about unknown terms Prior to reading, teachers should prompt students to predict the text's content and identify potential new vocabulary.
Teaching vocabulary is essential for helping students understand, memorize, and use words appropriately in context Lower secondary students often learn English in chunks, combining vocabulary and grammar without analysis, making it vital to provide ample practice and opportunities to recycle and extend their vocabulary and grammar meaningfully Regular exposure to the same words in various contexts reinforces learning Effective vocabulary instruction includes using visual aids, listening and repeating words, explaining meanings through definitions and pictures, and engaging students in diverse spoken or written activities Additionally, teaching grammar equips students with the correct patterns to express their ideas Grade 6 students already possess some grammatical knowledge from primary school, and enhancing their language awareness involves highlighting specific patterns and comparing them with Vietnamese forms when necessary Effective techniques include focusing on new grammatical patterns, providing models for practice, and reinforcing these patterns through varied activities.
In summary, the newly released book showcases substantial enhancements in content, presentation, and its applicability to social practices and real-life scenarios The reading materials included in this book are specifically designed to support the development of students' reading skills.
The research procedures are carried out as follows:
Choosing a research topic involves a comprehensive review of previous studies This process includes selecting relevant materials, such as books, theses, and research articles, in both English and Vietnamese that pertain to the chosen topic.
- Choosing the appropriate approach to the problem
- Collecting the discourse features from the textbook 6 by marking them in the bold type;
- Calculating the frequency of occurrence to decide on the focus of the study, i.e., which discourse features were chosen to be investigated
- Generalizing discourse features in the reading texts at word features, at sentence features, and cohesion features
- Making tables of classifying the level at word features and at sentence features to know the frequency of the pattern of cohesion features in the texts
Vietnamese learners of English often encounter challenges in identifying, performing, and reading the language effectively These issues can hinder their overall language acquisition and fluency To address these problems, it is essential to implement targeted strategies that enhance comprehension and practical usage By focusing on tailored teaching methods and providing additional resources, educators can significantly improve the learning experience for these students.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Findings about word features
Table 2 indicates that the majority of words in the reading texts of the textbook "Tieng Anh 6" are simple, consisting of a single root morpheme Additionally, the number of identified simple words fluctuates with the variation in sentence length.
Word composition Part of speech
Simple Complex Compound N V Adj Adv
Complex words rank as the second most common type, with 131 instances identified These words consist of a root morpheme combined with a derivational morpheme In the analyzed reading texts, they predominantly appear as singular verbs like "learns" and "studies," or as plural nouns.
The terms "robots" and "gardens" illustrate the combination of a root morpheme with the grammatical morpheme "s" Additionally, derivational forms such as the adjectives "interesting" and "beautiful", as well as the nouns "equipment" and "neighbourhood", further exemplify the diversity of morphemes in language.
Compound words are those comprising two root morphemes In the chosen reading texts, they are mainly compound nouns such as “front yard”, “backyard” or
“playground” in R1; “grandparents” in R2 Some are compound adjectives such as
Students in grade six should primarily concentrate on simple words, as the significant difference in the usage of simple versus complex and compound words can lead to confusion and comprehension challenges.
In the analysis of parts of speech within the selected reading texts, nouns are the most prevalent, with a total of 186 occurrences Verbs follow as the second most common part of speech, appearing 98 times, while adjectives rank third with 52 instances Adverbs are used sparingly, with only 7 occurrences noted.
This finding shows a fact that at grade 6, adverbs are not a focusing point in grammar acquisition.
Findings about sentence features
This paper examines three key features of sentence structure: sentence type, sentence functions, and sentence length The first feature focuses on identifying the various types of sentences used in the texts, while the second emphasizes the communicative functions that these sentences serve.
The predominant sentence structure in grade 6 writing is the simple sentence, with 84 instances observed Complex and compound sentences are equally represented, indicating that the primary emphasis at this educational level is on simple texts While students are expected to understand complex and compound sentences, their usage is minimal compared to simple sentences.
Sentence type Sentence functions Sentence length
Simple Compound Complex Statement Question Command Exclamation
The analysis of communicative functions in sentences reveals that statements are predominant, occurring in 91 instances Commands are utilized in 12 cases, while exclamations appear in 4 situations, with one specific instance noted in unit R6.
However, what comes as a big surprise is that question is used for only one time
The effectiveness of communication using various sentence types raises an important question: can sentences that are not main points still convey meaning? Dismissing questions as unimportant is unfounded, especially since many reading texts primarily consist of narrative and descriptive genres, where questions may be less prevalent.
Regarding the sentence length, it is clear that it varies insignificantly Most of the sentences examined have about 120 words The longest texts R3 and R4 have
On average, sentences contain 159 words, but the R7 case stands out with only 86 words per sentence, roughly half the average length This brevity is attributed to the directive nature of the text, which requires concise and clear language to ensure that instructions are easily understood and effectively followed.
Findings about cohesion features
From data analysis, it is clearly shown that almost all the cases of grammatical cohesion could be found in the reading texts in the textbook Tieng Anh
6 though the frequency of occurrence varied from one reading text to another Table
4 In the following section, we would like to present in detail each of the devices for grammatical cohesion in these reading texts
Table 4: Grammatical Cohesion in Reading Texts in “Tieng Anh 6”
Reference Ellipsis Substitution Conjunction Tense and
Anaphoric Cataphoric Nominal Verbal Clausal Nominal Verbal Clausal Additive Adversativ e Causal Temporal Present Past Future
In both spoken and written communication, it is essential to maintain clarity about the subjects being discussed over multiple sentences After introducing an entity, speakers and writers utilize various expressions to refer back to it These linguistic forms are known as referring expressions.
(1) proper noun, (2) definite noun phrases, (3) indefinite noun phrases, and (3) pronouns
Reference goes beyond merely linking a word or phrase to an object or person; it is a social act where the speaker expects that their chosen term will be understood as intended.
According to McCarthy (1991) and Yule (1996), references can be categorized into two types: anaphoric and cataphoric Anaphoric reference involves the ongoing identification of the same entity as indicated by the antecedent While this assumption often does not affect interpretation, it becomes crucial in instances where a change or effect is described, necessitating a different interpretation of the anaphoric reference.
In all of the reading passages that we collected and analysed, there is presence of anaphoric reference
1 (Presbyterian Ladies’ College Sydney) is a school for girls in Sydney It is a boarding school (R1)
2 Hoi An was great! It's in the suburbs of Da Nang City There are many things I like about it (R2)
3 Ha Long Bay is in Quang Ninh Province It has many islands and caves
4 Dogs are lucky animals Their barking sounds like 'gold‟ (R4)
5 Pele began his career at the age of 15 when he started playing for Santos Football Club (R5)
6 There will be some robots in the house They will help me do the housework, such as cleaning the floors, cooking meals, washing clothes, watering the flowers and feeding the dogs and cats (R6)
7 The children like to see teaching robots These robots can help them study Teaching robots can teach them English, literature, maths, and other subjects They can help children improve their English pronunciation (R8)
It is clearly seen that anaphoric reference helps to the readers to identify the meaning of two expressions in two separate sentences as in examples (1), (2), (3),
Students must understand the connections between various parts of a reading passage, recognizing the relationships among different linguistic expressions This includes mastering the functions of subject, possessive, and object pronouns, which serve as referring expressions in sentences.
There is also a reversal of the antecedent-anaphor pattern sometimes found at the beginning of stories, as in the following example:
8 I turned the corner and almost stepped on it There was a large snake in the middle of the path
The pronoun "it" is initially challenging to interpret until the complete noun phrase appears in the following line, a phenomenon known as cataphora, which is less common than anaphoric reference Analysis of the surveyed reading texts reveals no instances of cataphoric reference, likely because sixth graders, being new to secondary school, require simpler materials that avoid unnecessary complexity.
References are crucial for creating coherence within a text While their frequency may vary, they consistently function as cohesive ties, significantly enhancing the overall clarity and connection in the writing.
Substitution is categorized into three types: nominal, verbal, and clausal, as illustrated in the reading texts of the textbook "Tieng Anh 6." The data indicates that nominal substitution is the most frequently occurring type among the three.
Nominal substitution is the most common type of substitution, encompassing a total of eight cases In this form, the substitute (one/ones) serves as the head of a nominal group and can only replace an item that is also the head of a nominal group.
9 Use reusable water bottles instead of plastic ones (R7)
In the sentence above, the substitute one/ ones presupposed some noun that is to function as Head in the nominal group Ones in (9) is used to substitute for
“water bottles” respectively, which is stated in the preceding part
When discussing nominal substitutions, it is important to differentiate between the use of "one" and "ones" as nominal substitutions and as numerals When used as a numeral, "one" or "ones" acts as a modifier rather than serving as the head of the nominal group.
In addition to the cohesive device “one”, we also could realize the use of
“here” or “there” to substitute a noun phrase in the reading texts
10 You should take a trip on the river, and you must visit the Imperial City
There you can find museums, galleries, and temples (R3)
In English, the verbal substitute "do" acts as the head of a verbal group, replacing the lexical verb and always appearing at the end of the group It transcends sentence boundaries, serving to condense sentences and eliminate redundancy while also linking them through anaphora, similar to the nominal substitute "one/ones." In this context, "do" substitutes for the entire predicate in a subject-predicate analysis, functioning as the predicator.
The selected reading passages lack verbal substitution, primarily because the majority of the collected texts are in essay form rather than conversational dialogue Additionally, the use of "do" as a cohesive device in verbal substitution has not been addressed at this grade level.
Clausal substitution refers to the replacement of an entire clause rather than just a single element within it In this context, the words "so" and "not" serve as substitutes However, our analysis revealed that such substitutes were absent in the selected texts.
In short, substitution is not very popular phenomenon in those chosen texts
Dialogues between characters facilitate the use of verbal and clausal substitution, while nominal substitutes are predominantly found in the narrator's discourse.
As can be seen from the data, nominal ellipsis is the most popular types with
16 incidences This figure was more than twice as many as the cases of clausal ellipsis Verbal ellipsis was the second most widely seen with 10 cases
Discussion
Discourse features are a broad category We have discussed them above at three main levels including word features, sentence features and cohesion features
The selected reading texts are designed for lower secondary school students, specifically targeting 6th graders and non-English majors at a pre-intermediate level, with average language acquisition and background knowledge Key characteristics of these texts include a variety of simple and logical vocabulary, as well as the frequent use of straightforward words and nouns This approach aims to simplify the content, enhancing comprehension for learners.
Reading texts predominantly feature short and simple sentences, which effectively capture the reader's attention and enhance comprehension This aligns with the needs of sixth graders, who should master simple sentence structures before progressing to more complex forms By avoiding confusing verb tenses, these sentences allow readers to maintain their train of thought Long, elaborate sentences are not the only means of making an impression; short sentences can convey powerful messages with clarity In fact, phrases consisting of three words or fewer can be particularly impactful, providing memorable and motivating messages.
Measuring the difficulty of words and sentences is crucial in textbook design, especially for grade 6 students at the start of secondary school Reading texts must align with their English proficiency and general comprehension skills This necessity underscores the importance of simplicity and clarity in the discourse features at both the word and sentence levels within these texts.
Grammatical and lexical cohesion are essential features of discourse, particularly in the reading texts of the textbook "Tieng Anh 6," as they help sixth-grade students understand the connections between sentences and clauses It is crucial for students to recognize the importance of learning language in relation to one another rather than in isolation This study highlights the significance of cohesion features, which encompass grammatical and lexical cohesion, as they facilitate the linking of appropriate terms and grammatical forms within a text In foreign language teaching, analyzing discourse and its cohesive elements enables learners to master the context and ideological significance of the language, enhancing their understanding of micro-level interactions Discourse embodies semantic coherence and logical structure, allowing its components to complement each other and create a unique aesthetic experience of the language.
Grammatical cohesion, particularly through anaphoric reference, is frequently utilized in essays and reports, as these formats require a focus on specific topics and the expression of the writer's ideas, perspectives, or experiences This necessitates the use of personal references such as "I," "my," "we," and "they" to identify the writer and characters within the text However, students may struggle to grasp the meaning of these references when identical terms are used with varying anaphoric meanings across sentences.
Lexical cohesion is primarily characterized by the use of repetition, which constitutes a significant portion of the text While repetition may not be the most sophisticated method for maintaining content, it simplifies comprehension for students, allowing them to easily identify references without needing to consult earlier sections This approach is particularly beneficial for non-English major students, as it eliminates the need for extensive background knowledge for interpretation Ultimately, repetition serves as an effective tool that helps these students link concepts and events, resulting in a coherent text.
Additive conjunctions play a crucial role in illustrating the sequence of events, actions, or objects They help students understand the meaningful connections between sentences, enhancing their comprehension of the text.
Cohesive devices, including synonyms, superordinate and general words, and collocations, are essential for enhancing the clarity and coherence of texts They contribute to making reading materials more concise and logical, ultimately facilitating better understanding Additionally, these devices expand students' vocabulary related to the main topic, making it easier for them to learn and practice new words.
Textbooks serve as essential mediators between various curricula, bridging the gap between intended and implemented educational goals They transform official objectives into practical guides for teachers, providing daily instructional materials The careful selection of language and cohesive devices is crucial for a textbook's effectiveness, as these elements help both students and teachers appreciate their significance in reading comprehension The thoughtful incorporation of cohesive devices reflects a deliberate strategy to enhance learning experiences for young learners This aligns with Schmidt et al (1997), who emphasized that teachers are adept at adapting materials to meet their students' needs Ultimately, textbooks are the primary educational resources utilized in classrooms, reinforcing the necessity for them to connect the implemented curriculum with the achieved learning outcomes.