04051001918 the use of self assessment in english speaking instruction to promote learner autonomy in a university in hanoi 04051001918 the use of self assessment in english speaking instruction to promote learner autonomy in a university in hanoi
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the problem and the rationale for the study
Over the past decades, Vietnam has focused on transforming English language education at the tertiary level, with a redefined goal of promoting learner autonomy (LA), which is understood as students taking charge of their learning with teacher support Current education policies officially declare that higher education should enhance students’ activeness and autonomy in learning.
In contemporary education, students are expected to actively construct knowledge, marking a shift from passive information reception This active learning approach is crucial as it fosters critical thinking and creativity, essential skills for success in the 21st century.
To promote student autonomy, Vietnamese universities have adopted credit-based systems, yet the development of learner autonomy (LA) faces obstacles A key barrier is the traditional perception of teachers as authority figures, fostering high power distance and hindering learner-centered pedagogy This reinforces the teacher's central role and students' reliance, impeding the implementation of LA.
In foreign language classrooms, traditional practices often lead to student passivity, particularly due to summative assessment methods where teachers hold ultimate evaluative power To foster greater learner responsibility, it's essential to shift authority from teacher to student in both instruction and assessment.
Self-assessment (SA), as a formative assessment component, enhances learning achievement (LA) by engaging students in evaluating their performance against predetermined standards, as noted by Hart (1999) and Rivers (2001) This method improves learning outcomes by enabling students to monitor their learning process.
Harris (1997) notes the potential impact of self-assessment (SA) on language acquisition (LA), yet Tran (2019) points out that SA is underutilized due to teachers' limited knowledge of effective implementation Furthermore, the institution in this study does not incorporate SA into its English course curriculum.
While self-assessment (SA) has garnered research interest, studies predominantly focus on Western countries, with limited attention to Asian countries, including Vietnam Existing research primarily examines the consistency of students' SA with teachers’ judgements and the relationship between SA and students’ achievement A smaller body of literature explores the association between SA and self-regulated learning, particularly in English writing contexts.
This research, "The use of self-assessment in English speaking instruction to promote learner autonomy in a university in Hanoi," investigates the impacts of self-assessment on learner autonomy.
This article explores the potential impact of self-assessment (SA) interventions on language acquisition (LA), specifically within English-speaking instruction in higher education, serving as a valuable resource for English language teachers and educators aiming to enhance LA through SA implementation.
Aims of the study
This research investigates the use of Self-Assessment (SA) in English classes to promote Learner Autonomy (LA), addressing challenges faced by teachers and students during SA implementation, and proposing solutions to establish an effective SA model for English language learning and teaching.
Research question
The aims above were demonstrated in this major research question:
In what ways do self-assessment interventions have an impact on learner autonomy in an English speaking class at a university in Hanoi?
Scope of the study
This study focuses on self-assessment (SA) interventions within an English-speaking class, specifically addressing speaking skills The speaking assignments mirrored part 2 of the IELTS speaking test, with the SA checklist adapted from IELTS speaking band descriptors Therefore, the findings are specific to this context and may not generalize to SA based on other speaking tests or language skills like reading, listening, and writing.
The study focused on university students progressing from IELTS band 5.0 to 5.5, limiting the generalizability of self-assessment's impact on language acquisition to other age groups and proficiency levels.
Significance of the study
This study aims to benefit English language learners, teachers, and researchers by implementing self-assessment (SA) in English speaking classes to enhance language acquisition (LA).
In the first place, the research project offered students a chance to practice self-assessing their speaking performance and reflect on the perceived influence of
SA on their LA This was expected to assist students in monitoring and directing their own learning process more efficiently
By examining how students use self-assessment (SA) and its effect on their learning autonomy (LA), educators can refine SA models to enhance LA, offering practical guidelines for English language teachers to integrate SA into their programs, thereby improving student independence and learning outcomes.
This study offers updated insights into the relationship between self-assessment (SA) and learner autonomy (LA) in English language teaching, providing valuable information for researchers While the action research doesn't generalize the effectiveness of SA across all English speaking classes, it serves as a foundation for future large-scale investigations.
Method of the study
This study adopted a qualitative approach, utilizing an action research design and employing LA logs and semi-structured interviews as key instruments to ensure data validity and reliability through varied sources The methodology chapter provides a detailed rationale for the action research approach, along with the procedures for data collection and analysis.
Structure of the thesis
This research report consists of five main parts as follows:
Chapter 1 – Introduction – states the rationale, the aims of the study, the research question, the scope, the significance, the method as well as the organisation of the study
Chapter 2 – Literature Review – provides the theoretical basis for the study and the review of previous studies related to the topic
Chapter 3 – Methodology – describes the research approach, research design, research setting and participants, as well as methods of data collection and analysis Chapter 4 – Findings and Discussion – presents, analyses, and discusses the research findings
Chapter 5 – Conclusion – presents the summary of the main issues discussed in the paper, acknowledges the limitations of the research, and provides pedagogical recommendations as well as suggestions for further studies
Following the chapters are the References and Appendices
LITERATURE REVIEW
Language assessment
Assessment, as defined by Brookhart and Nitko (2020), is a data collection process crucial for informing decisions about students, curricula, programs, and educational policy This encompasses various methods, from formal tests and examinations to practical, oral, and classroom-based assessments (Gipps, 2002), highlighting its significant role in language learning and teaching.
(2006, p 23) affirms that “assessment frames learning, creates learning activity and orients all aspects of learning behaviours.”
Summative assessment measures learning at the end of a unit, while formative assessment focuses on student development and future growth Formative assessment actively engages students in their learning process, fostering ownership and collaboration with teachers and peers.
Norm-referenced tests compare test-takers' performances, lacking clarity on specific language abilities, while criterion-referenced tests assess performance against defined criteria (Hughes, 2003) Results from norm-referenced tests are reported comparatively.
Criterion-referenced tests evaluate a candidate's performance against predetermined objectives, detailing their capabilities, while norm-referenced tests provide a numerical score and percentile rank, comparing candidates to each other.
2.1.2 Self-assessment in language learning
Self-assessment, a key part of formative assessment, empowers students to evaluate their learning processes and outcomes, as highlighted by Panadero et al (2015) Brown and Harris (2013) further define self-assessment as a student's descriptive and evaluative reflection on their work and academic skills.
In Boud’s definition of SA (2013), students are engaged in not only evaluating their performance but possibly also identifying standards and criteria for the evaluation
Self-assessment (SA) can take the form of standardized questionnaires or open-ended activities like reflective diaries and portfolios Grounded in these definitions, this study views SA as a process where students describe and evaluate their performance against pre-determined criteria.
Self-assessment (SA) empowers students to monitor their progress, fostering active participation in their learning journey SA also encourages reflection, driving continuous improvement and future planning, thus fueling life-long learning However, effective implementation requires careful consideration to ensure favorable outcomes.
• Awareness of the value of SA,
• Access to clear criteria on which to base the assessment,
• A specific task or performance to assess,
• Direct instruction in and assistance with SA,
• Cues regarding when it is appropriate to self-assess,
• Opportunities to revise and improve the task or performance
Teachers should emphasize the importance of self-assessment (SA) to motivate students, construct SA around specific tasks with well-defined criteria, and model SA to deepen understanding and improve success rates.
Teachers play a crucial role in self-assessment (SA), guiding students to enhance their learning and providing opportunities for self-evaluation and refinement, which reinforces the benefits of SA and improves student performance.
Andrade and Valtcheva (2009) streamlined self-assessment (SA) into three core principles: articulating expectations, self-assessing, and revising Initially, teachers define task expectations and evaluation criteria Next, students draft work and compare it against these standards Finally, self-assessment informs revisions to improve their work.
Speaking, a productive skill, involves conveying meaning through systematic verbal utterances (Bailey, 2012; Chaney & Burk, 1998).
9 ability to “use all and any language at their disposal to achieve a communicative purpose” (Harmer, 2007, p 249) Delving into the nature of speaking, Brown
In 2004, a taxonomy for assessment tasks was formulated, distinguishing between micro-skills, which address smaller language components such as phonemes and words, and macro-skills, which encompass larger elements like fluency and discourse, thus providing a comprehensive framework for language assessment.
• Produce differences among English phonemes and allophones
• Produce chunks of language of different lengths
• Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and intonation contours
• Produce reduced forms of words and phrases
• Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) to accomplish pragmatic purposes
• Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery
• Monitor one’s own oral production and use various strategic devices – pauses, fillers, self-corrections, backtracking – to enhance the clarity of the message
• Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms
• Produce speech in natural constituents: inappropriate phrases, pause groups, breath groups, and sentence constituents
• Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms
• Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse
• Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according to situations, participants, and goals
• Use appropriate styles, registers, implicature, redundancies, pragmatic conventions, conversation rules, floor-keeping and floor-yielding, interrupting, and other sociolinguistic features in face-to-face conversations
• Convey links and connections between events and communicate such relations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and feelings, new information and given information, generalisation, and exemplification
• Convey facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues along with verbal language
are vital for effective communication.
According to Luoma (2004), there are several domains that assessors should take into consideration when evaluating one’s speaking performance: pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary, and grammar
Pronunciation, encompassing individual sounds, pitch, volume, speed, pausing, stress, and intonation, is fundamental, and with the rise of the communicative approach, intelligibility and comprehensibility are now the primary goals of pronunciation training, shifting the focus from native-like accents Intelligibility refers to how well a listener understands a speaker, while comprehensibility assesses how easy an individual's pronunciation is to understand.
Another aspect worth mentioning is fluency which, according to Richards
Fluency in language, as defined in 2011, is the natural use of language in meaningful interactions and ongoing communication Fluency gives the impression that speech planning and production are functioning easily and efficiently.
Learner autonomy
Learner autonomy, a concept introduced by Henri Holec in 1981, is defined as the ability to take charge of one's learning, emphasizing the learner's responsibility for various aspects of their educational journey.
• defining the contents and progressions,
• selecting the methods and techniques to be used,
• monitoring the procedure of acquisition properly speaking (rhythm, time, place, etc.),
• evaluating what has been acquired
(Holec, 1981, p 3) According to Benson (2001), LA constitutes the capacity to take control of one’s own learning, which is specified as follows
• a capacity for planning: setting goals, suggesting and negotiating approaches to achieving goals, making decisions, setting realistic time frames;
• a capacity for organising working procedures: finding appropriate materials and data, setting up working groups, allocating functions in their working group, managing time;
Autonomous learners possess the capacity to evaluate procedures and products, including the effectiveness of working procedures, the quality of interactions, and the working atmosphere, as well as the assessment of outcomes against official guidelines While definitions thoroughly specify what autonomous learners can do, they often ignore how they achieve this autonomy The cognitive abilities underlying these skills are not fully covered in some interpretations of autonomous learning.
Learners' beliefs significantly influence the development of autonomous behaviors, either promoting or hindering autonomous language learning Little (1991) examined learner autonomy from a psychological perspective, emphasizing its foundation in mental capacity related to the process and content of one's learning.
Autonomy in learning embodies the capacity for detachment, critical reflection, and independent decision-making, fostering a unique psychological connection between the learner and their educational journey This encompasses both the process and content, enabling a more profound and self-directed learning experience.
Apart from the technical and psychological dimensions of LA, Benson
(2001) introduced the third one – the political element of autonomy which pays attention to the structural conditions enabling learners to control their individual learning and the institutional context
Learner autonomy (LA) is not innate but develops through stages (Miyahara, 2005) Nunan (1997) identifies five autonomy levels: awareness, involvement, intervention, creation, and transcendence, starting with awareness of learning goals.
Learners progress through stages, from selecting goals to modifying content, and eventually creating their own objectives, culminating in relating classroom learning to the real world, thus achieving learner autonomy.
Evaluating learner autonomy (LA) involves assessing measurable behaviors that indicate control over the language learning process Essentially, autonomy can be understood by examining behaviors that demonstrate the degree of control individuals exert over their own learning journey.
Self-evaluation, utilizing tools like logbooks or questionnaires, is highly recommended for a reliable and valid understanding of Language Awareness (LA), especially since external assessment of LA can be perplexing.
Learners' self-evaluations correlate positively with teacher assessments and objective test results, as evidenced by previous correlational research (Dam & Legenhausen, 1999, cited in Paran & Sercu, 2010) This highlights the potential reliability and validity of self-assessment in educational settings (& Sercu, 2010).
Teachers play a crucial role in fostering student autonomy, recognizing it as an acquired ability that can be developed through supportive educational practices By acknowledging this responsibility, educators can effectively guide students in adopting and harnessing self-management skills, essential for academic and personal growth.
In other words, promoting LA is regarded as one major goal of the learning process in addition to developing learners’ linguistic and communicative abilities (Holec,
To foster autonomous learning, teachers should employ diverse instructional techniques that stimulate learning growth and enable learners to direct their own learning process, including approaches like computer-assisted language learning.
Classroom feedback is crucial for autonomous learning, guiding learners in evaluating and modifying their work to facilitate independent and constructive learning However, promoting learning autonomy (LA) faces barriers such as insufficient experience, low incentives, limited proficiency, fragile trust, and traditional teaching practices Cultural factors, particularly in Asian cultures with high-power distance between teachers and students, can also impede the successful implementation of autonomous learning.
Self-assessment and learner autonomy
Self-assessment (SA) is a crucial component of learner autonomy (LA), stimulating reflection and directing learning progress By encouraging learners to judge their abilities, SA regulates learning and enhances self-awareness, fostering LA development SA facilitates the transfer of learning responsibilities, creating an interface between feedback, self-reflection, and autonomous learning, benefiting both learners and instructors.
Effective self-assessment (SA) in learning depends on several variables, including intervention length, score range, and descriptor quality, as noted by Wang (2017) Individual learner characteristics significantly influence SA's impact, with limited domain knowledge and a lack of assessment experience or self-confidence potentially restraining its effectiveness, according to Wang (2017) and Butler (2018).
Review of related studies
Mahdavinia and Ahmadi (2011) found that using self-assessment (SA) portfolios improved learners' ability to monitor their own learning in a university writing course, as evidenced by reflective essays, interviews, and observations The study highlights the potential of SA to foster self-directed learning by enabling students to reflect on their progress and take ownership of their learning process.
In the context of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, Huda et al
In 2020, a qualitative study observing English academic writing classes in a college setting found that self-assessment (SA) effectively stimulated autonomous learning within a virtual environment.
In 2017, Sierra and Frodden proposed five self-assessment (SA) strategies to develop language awareness (LA) for English language learners, including raising awareness, training on self-assessment, negotiating assessment criteria, practicing self-assessment, and encouraging reflection The study also highlighted the crucial role of teachers in facilitating students' self-assessment processes.
Shelton-Strong (2018) found that students perceived self-assessment (SA) as a useful tool for improving speaking skills and taking charge of their learning; however, the study lacked empirical evidence to support these conclusions.
While research exists on self-assessment (SA) and language achievement (LA), there's a gap in literature focusing on Asian contexts like Vietnam Studies in Vietnam primarily explore student attitudes toward SA, with limited evidence linking SA to LA, particularly in speaking skills due to assessment complexities This study investigates the impact of SA on LA in English speaking, aiming to bridge these gaps in the Vietnamese university context.
Summary of the chapter
The study of the key concepts and recent literature on related issues has been carried out in this chapter Particularly, I have attempted to clarify the concepts of
Self-assessment (SA) and language assessment (LA) are crucial in English language teaching, yet research gaps exist in the application of SA in English speaking instruction, particularly in Vietnam, highlighting the need for further study.
METHODOLOGY
Research paradigm
This study adopts a constructivist paradigm to examine the use of self-assessment (SA) in English speaking instruction, focusing on promoting learner autonomy (LA) from the students’ perspectives.
Constructivist research posits that multiple realities exist, shaped by individual experiences and social interactions Reality is manifested through diverse symbol and language systems, molded by human intention Constructivism prioritizes the depth and sophistication of understanding these varied realities over seeking a singular explanation Researchers interpret reality by exploring individual perceptions within specific contexts, making this approach suitable for studies where context and participant factors create diverse impacts.
Qualitative research, an inquiry process rooted in methodological traditions, explores social problems by analyzing words and informants' viewpoints within authentic settings (Creswell & Poth, 2018) Merriam (1998) characterizes qualitative research as an umbrella concept.
“several forms of inquiry that help understand and explain the meaning of social phenomena with as little disruption of the natural setting as possible” (p 5)
Qualitative research excels in exploratory studies, leveraging context to deeply understand human behaviors, but its interpretations are highly situational due to context-specific data analysis.
Research design
Action research, a constructive inquiry involving planning, acting, evaluating, and refining, was employed to investigate the influence of Strategy Awareness (SA) implementation on participants’ autonomy in English speaking instruction within a university English speaking class in Hanoi This approach, commonly used in education, aims to enhance teachers’ pedagogy and practice by establishing knowledge of a specific issue through experiential learning (Koshy, 2010).
This action research, conducted over two 4-week cycles, followed Kemmis and McTaggart’s cyclical model (1988, as cited in Burns, 2010), initiating with a Plan, Action, Observe, Reflect cycle, and continuing with a Revised Plan based on the initial cycle's findings, followed by Action, Observe, and Reflect.
Research setting and participants
English major students at a university in Hanoi participate in a 2-year English language training program targeting CEFR C1 level or IELTS 7.0 The curriculum includes integrated-skills courses in the first year (Fundamental English 1, 2, 3) and IELTS-oriented courses in subsequent semesters, focusing on listening, reading, speaking, and writing skills.
Given the small scale of this research, all participants were selected through convenience sampling, which means that members of the target population were
Participants in the study, selected based on their willingness to participate, included twenty-five sophomores in the first cycle and twenty-four in the second cycle, all enrolled in "English Speaking Skills 1" aiming to improve from IELTS band 5.0 to 5.5 The nine-week course involved 45 hours of direct instruction through two weekly face-to-face meetings, supplemented by self-study.
IELTS Speaking Part 2 is a crucial component of the IELTS speaking test, lasting 3-4 minutes and requiring candidates to deliver an individual long-term talk Test takers receive a card with a specific topic, get one minute for preparation, and then speak for up to two minutes The examiner concludes this section with one or two follow-up questions on the same topic.
IELTS speaking test performance is evaluated using criterion-referenced assessment, focusing on fluency and coherence, lexical resource, grammatical range and accuracy, and pronunciation, each equally weighted Scores are reported in whole and half bands on a scale from 1 to 9, as detailed on the official IELTS website.
Table 3.1 IELTS Speaking Assessment Criteria
Fluency and coherence encompass the ability to speak at a normal rate with appropriate continuity and effort They also involve linking ideas and language to create connected, coherent speech.
The key indicators of fluency are speech rate and speech continuity The key indicators of coherence are logical sequencing of sentences; clear marking of stages in a
20 discussion, narration or argument; and the use of cohesive devices (e.g., connectors, pronouns and conjunctions) within and between sentences
Lexical resource Lexical resource refers to the range of vocabulary the test taker can use and the precision with which meanings and attitudes can be expressed
Vocabulary use is evaluated based on the variety, adequacy, and appropriacy of words, as well as the ability to effectively circumlocute when facing vocabulary gaps Grammatical range and accuracy are also key indicators of language proficiency.
Grammatical range and accuracy refer to the range and the accurate and appropriate use of the test taker's grammatical resource
Grammatical range in speaking is indicated by sentence length and complexity, appropriate use of subordinate clauses, and varied sentence structures for information focus Grammatical accuracy is measured by the number of errors and their impact on communication Pronunciation is the ability to produce comprehensible speech as required by the speaking test.
Key indicators for evaluating speech include the listener's strain, the unintelligibility of speech, and the influence of the test taker's first language, all crucial for effective communication assessment.
(Source: https://www.ielts.org/)
Research procedures
In compliance with the principles of effective SA in English language learning proposed by Andrade (2019), the intervention of SA included the following steps:
1 In the first session of the course, students were asked to evaluate their
LA by filling in a LA log (see Appendix A)
2 A training on SA was carried out by the teacher-researcher In particular, the teacher encouraged students to discuss what SA was and what benefits it could generate before introducing the SA checklist (see Appendix B) and modelling its use on a sample answer to an IELTS speaking part 2 question Students, afterwards, worked in groups to practise using the checklist to assess another answer to that question
3 In week 1, students were required to record their answers to one IELTS speaking part 2 question at home and upload their talk to the Flipgrid platform Students then watched their recording carefully, examined the transcript automatically generated on Flipgrid and completed the SA checklist
4 In week 2, students drew on the SA checklist to redo the task; this revised version was also recorded and submitted to Flipgrid Afterwards, they completed the LA log to evaluate their own LA
5 In the next two weeks, steps 3 and 4 were repeated respectively with another IELTS speaking part 2 question
6 During week 5, five students were invited to interviews which aimed to investigate their reflection on the SA practice and its impact on their LA The selection of interviewees was based on their LA logs: student 1 checked quite a lot of sub-criteria and provided rational justifications for her rating; students 8 and 12 showed low autonomy in organising and
22 evaluating; students 21 and 24 did not provide detailed explanations for their judgement
7 All LA logs and interviews in the first cycle were analysed to formulate necessary modifications to the SA practice in cycle 2 To specify, I decided to allow students to select their own prioritised criteria to focus on rather than cover all four criteria of the speaking assessment checklist Training on assessment (similar to the second step of cycle 1) was repeated in weekly classes, and two learning tools, namely the collocation dictionary “ozdic.com” and the grammar checker website
“grammarly.com” were introduced to assist students in assessment practice
8 From week 6 to week 9, students repeated steps 3 and 4 of the first cycle
9 At the end of the course, I carried out interviews with seven students to examine their perspectives on the SA practice in cycle 2 and its influence on their LA Apart from five interviewees from cycle 1, two more students (students 10 and 18) were involved because their LA logs in cycle 2 were noticeably more meticulous than in the previous cycle
10 Data from cycle 2 was analysed and reported, and practical implications were accordingly put forward.
Self-assessment intervention
The speaking assignments in this course utilized the IELTS speaking part 2 format, and the SA checklist was developed based on IELTS speaking band descriptors While the four main criteria remained consistent, the descriptors were simplified and translated into Vietnamese to match students' language level and assessment knowledge Each criterion was further divided into specific sub-criteria for detailed evaluation.
23 required to put a tick next to the sub-criteria their talk could satisfy and provide evidence from their talk to justify their evaluation.
Data collection
In the present study, data were collected via two main instruments, namely
LA log and semi-structured interview To avoid misunderstanding among students, the LA log was presented in Vietnamese while semi-structured interviews were conducted in both Vietnamese and English
The LA Log, designed to help students evaluate their learning autonomy (LA) after self-assessment (SA) interventions, was developed using Benson's LA construct (2001) and Tassinari's Dynamic Autonomy Model (2012), with key adaptations for the study's specific context These adaptations included organizing Tassinari's survey items into Benson's three dimensions of LA—planning, organizing, and evaluating—and removing statements irrelevant to the speaking task The LA Log focused on evaluating LA within the specific speaking task, rather than general language learning as in Tassinari’s original model.
In this research, LA log entries were specifically linked to the speaking assignment, with statements modified to reflect task-oriented goals and resourcefulness, such as setting personal goals and finding appropriate methods and materials for task completion.
The LA log, detailed in Appendix A, was divided into two sections: the first gathered demographic data through open-ended questions, while the second evaluated learning analytics (LA) across three dimensions—planning, organizing, and evaluating—using "I can" statements to assess specific criteria.
24 were required to put a tick next to the criteria they could satisfy and elaborate their judgement by answering follow-up questions
To achieve data triangulation and understand the impact of Self-Assessment (SA) on Learning Analytics (LA), individual interviews were conducted with students at the end of cycles 1 and 2 The interview questions focused on Learning Analytics in connection with the students' learning experiences.
The SA intervention employed pre-formulated protocols to guide participant discussions, but also allowed for improvised questions to uncover unexpected and valuable information, enhancing the depth of the data collected.
Data analysis
Thematic analysis, as defined by Braun and Clarke (2012), was the primary method used to process data from LA logs and interviews in this study, offering a robust approach to understanding human experiences, thoughts, and behaviors.
Thematic analysis is a method used to identify and report patterns in data, requiring both data description and researcher interpretation Data can be analyzed deductively, using pre-existing theories, or inductively, allowing themes to emerge directly from the data.
The thematic analysis of data from LA logs and interviews followed Braun and Clarke’s six-step framework (2006)
1 Firstly, data were transcribed (if needed) and read through so that I could familiarise myself with the collected data and obtain an orientation to analyse the raw data
2 Afterwards, some extracts of the data were scanned thoroughly to generate initial codes, and a coding template was then defined and applied to the entire data I adopted a hybrid system of coding which included both pre-set codes and emergent codes The pre-set codes originated from the conceptual framework of LA and SA as well as the results of relevant studies while the emergent codes were noticed from the data Two types of coding used in this study were descriptive coding and In Vivo coding Descriptive codes are short phrases summarising the topic of a passage of the data whereas In Vivo codes use the participant’s own language in the data record (Saldaủa, 2009)
3 The third step entailed an examination of the coded data to identify potential themes All the relevant coded data extracts were collated within the identified themes, also
4 The identified themes, after being reviewed in relation to the entire data, would be combined, divided, or even discarded
5 For each theme, I then developed a narrative description including how the theme contributed to the research question and what data extracts were illustrative enough to be presented in the report
6 The analysis ended with writing a concise account of how the data were interpreted and related to the research question (Braun & Clarke, 2012) The tables below illustrate how the thematic analysis was applied to participants’ LA logs and interviews
Table 3.2 Examples of Thematic Analysis of Participants’ LA Logs
Example quote Code Type of code
I can speak more fluently and expand my vocabulary
I want to speak fluently like native speakers
Table 3.3 Examples of Thematic Analysis of Participants’ Interviews
Example quote Code Type of code
Struggling to define the right number of objectives and feeling overwhelmed by extensive checklists is a common challenge Advice to cover as much as possible can be puzzling, especially when initial instructions were unclear, leaving many unsure where to begin.
Insufficient understanding of the assessment criteria
Honestly, I thought there were too many criteria to assess I felt rather overwhelmed and stressed If I set objectives based on all criteria, I’m not sure I can meet all of them
“Too many criteria” In Vivo code
3.7.2 Statistical analysis of data from LA logs
In this research, while primarily guided by a qualitative approach, Learning Autonomy (LA) logs were partially analyzed quantitatively to provide a concrete view of participants' autonomy Students' responses to each item in the LA log were holistically coded, with agreement equaling 1 and disagreement equaling 0, and the percentage of agreement was calculated to identify areas of improvement and those requiring further attention For example, a student's agreement with the statement "I can set my own goals when doing the task" would be assigned 1 point, and the percentage of students' agreement was calculated accordingly.
Summary of the chapter
This chapter elucidates the research methodology underpinning this thesis, detailing the qualitative approach and action research design chosen for this study It comprehensively describes the research setting, participants, and the guidelines governing the SA intervention Furthermore, it outlines the data collection procedures, instruments employed, and the methods utilized for data analysis, ensuring a transparent and replicable research process.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Cycle 1
4.1.1 Overview of participants’ learner autonomy
Students’ perceptions of their autonomy before and during the interventions of SA in cycle 1 are summarised in the table below
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics for LA before and during Cycle 1 (N%)
1 I can set my own goals when doing the task 64% 64% 80%
2 I can arrange the place and time for doing the task 100% 100% 100%
3 I can find appropriate methods and materials to do the task
4 I can recognise what strengths I have to complete the task
5 I can recognise what difficulties prevent me from completing the task
6 I can find ways to overcome those difficulties 32% 44% 44%
7 I can evaluate whether I have achieved my goals 8% 40% 48%
8 I can evaluate whether the methods and materials I used are effective
The analysis of learning autonomy (LA) domains reveals notable improvements in planning, organizing, and evaluating skills Goal setting and identifying effective methods and materials showed the most significant gains Recognizing strengths also improved considerably, alongside evaluating the effectiveness of chosen methods Overcoming difficulties and evaluating performance against goals saw subtle improvements, while basic abilities remained consistent.
4.1.2 Thematic data analysis of cycle 1
THEME 1: Specificity of goals and the critical role of self-assessment checklist
Post-intervention, students' Learning Analytics (LA) logs revealed more specific goals, indicating the positive impacts of Self-Assessment (SA) practices, as students defined objectives related to fluency, grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation, attributing improvements to the SA checklist.
Participants frequently aimed to improve fluency, but they defined this goal more specifically after the self-assessment (SA) intervention, as demonstrated in pre-cycle and post-cycle logs.
I’ll try to speak more fluently like a native speaker (Student 1, pre-cycle log)
My aim is to speak fluently with few pauses and to use linkers correctly
Speak fluently, include enough ideas (Student 12, pre-cycle log)
Keep talking, use examples to expand ideas, use linkers (Student 12, logs 1 and 2)
Following the initial Self-Assessment (SA) intervention, student 1 redefined fluency, emphasizing reduced pauses and the use of appropriate linkers for idea cohesion, while student 12 highlighted idea development as a key indicator of fluent speech; both students maintained these objectives in their subsequent assignments, demonstrating a focused effort to improve specific aspects of their spoken fluency.
Participants increasingly focused on vocabulary expansion after the intervention, with over 90% prioritizing this goal in logs 1 and 2 Initially, the aim was to enrich lexical resources and use high-scoring vocabulary Post-intervention, goals became more specific, including using sports-related vocabulary and collocations, applying teacher-taught collocations, and incorporating phrasal verbs and idioms related to TV and media.
Students strategically employ diverse vocabulary, including collocations, phrasal verbs, and idioms, to showcase their lexical range and potentially enhance their scores, demonstrating a sophisticated understanding of vocabulary's impact.
In two post-cycle logs, the objective of improving pronunciation ranked third in frequency Two examples are extracted below
I’ll try to pronounce clear word stress, especially for 3-syllable words
I’ll speak with natural and attractive intonation (Student 19, log 2)
Students initially aimed for native-like pronunciation but later shifted to accurate word stress and appropriate intonation This indicates a refined understanding of good pronunciation, encompassing both segmental and supra-segmental aspects, moving beyond simply mimicking a native accent.
Grammar objectives, initially absent in pre-cycle logs, surged to 87.5% and 85% in subsequent logs, demonstrating students' heightened awareness of grammar's importance in speaking assessments, exemplified by accurate tense usage.
Student 14 particularly paid attention to the accurate use of tenses because the first assignment required students to describe a sport they have learned, and the cues involved both present and past tenses
The critical role of the self-assessment checklist
Log data showed specific student goals, while interviews highlighted the crucial role of Self-Assessment (SA) in goal setting Interviewees agreed that the SA checklist, with its defined criteria, guided them in formulating specific objectives for speaking tasks.
In the previous course, frequent speaking tasks lacked clear grading criteria Now, a checklist provides better understanding, enabling clearer and more specific goal setting.
Student 1 explained that her ignorance of the assessment criteria resulted in her confusion in defining goals She once looked up to a native speaker as a standard to strive for, but the SA criteria offered insights into what particular aspects she should aim at to improve her overall speaking ability
After evaluating my initial speaking assignment using a detailed checklist, I've identified key areas for improvement: vocabulary and grammar Consequently, my primary focus for the upcoming assignment will be on strengthening these linguistic skills to enhance overall communication effectiveness.
By self-assessing her own work, student 12 recognised what components of her speaking ability required more attention, and accordingly set her personal goals
In this case, her aims were established on the basis of her previous performance, which implies that SA helps orient students’ learning objectives and processes
THEME 2: The abundance and confusion of self-assessment criteria
SA, in some cases, could deter learners from planning goals due to the overwhelming quantity of SA criteria and students’ confusion about SA criteria
Some interviewees expressed concern that the large number of criteria in the
SA checklist placed pressure on them to establish too many objectives to strive for
Honestly, I thought there were too many criteria to assess I felt rather overwhelmed and stressed If I set objectives for all criteria, I’m not sure I can meet all of them (Student 8, interview)
Students preparing for speaking assessments often feel overwhelmed by the numerous criteria and domains they will be evaluated on, making it crucial to set relevant and achievable objectives However, setting too many goals can be counterproductive, leading to procrastination and hindering the initial steps of preparation.
Students found that SA criteria set a foundation for learning objectives but were overwhelming due to the sheer number of criteria, leading to discouragement in goal setting and task completion, with doubts about achieving all goals.
Students’ confusion about self-assessment criteria
Students’ insufficient understanding of the criteria also resulted in their hesitation to establish goals before doing the task One student frankly shared that:
Cycle 2
4.2.1 Overview of participants’ learner autonomy
Based on data from cycle 1, I implemented the following adaptations to the
To improve students' self-assessment (SA) practice, instruction was modified to allow focus on prioritized criteria alongside more training on the assessment checklist during class meetings Additionally, online tools such as "ozdic.com" and a grammar checker website were introduced to aid students' assessment skills.
“grammarly.com” The table below summarises changes in students’ self-perceived autonomy after the second cycle
Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics for LA before and during Cycle 2 (N$)
Learner Autonomy At the end of Cycle 1
During Cycle 2 Log 3 Log 4 Planning
1 I can set my own goals when doing the task 80% 100% 100%
2 I can arrange the place and time for doing the task
Learner Autonomy At the end of Cycle 1
During Cycle 2 Log 3 Log 4 Organising
3 I can find appropriate methods and materials to do the task
4 I can recognise what strengths I have to complete the task
5 I can recognise what difficulties prevent me from completing the task
6 I can find ways to overcome those difficulties
7 I can evaluate whether I have achieved my goals
8 I can evaluate whether the methods and materials I used are effective
In the second cycle, students' self-rated autonomy generally improved, with most items showing enhancement except for those already at maximum agreement in the first cycle.
4.2.2 Thematic data analysis of cycle 2
The subsequent section would shed light on novel findings emerging in the second cycle and not repeat the themes already identified in the previous cycle
THEME 1: The prioritisation of learning goals and its advantages to learners
Learners prioritize vocabulary expansion (52%), grammatical accuracy (44%), and fluency (29%) when setting their own goals, leading to several benefits.
Prioritizing their own goals empowers students to select the most pressing issues, allowing them to invest time and effort where it matters most.
Improving vocabulary is crucial for expressing ideas effectively and overcoming communication struggles like stuttering A broader vocabulary enables clearer articulation and boosts confidence in expressing thoughts The primary goal was to expand vocabulary to facilitate fluent and precise communication.
Assessing my talk, fluency isn't a significant issue, and I'm confident in my pronunciation I prioritize grammar and vocabulary objectives due to frequent mistakes in these areas.
Students personalized their learning objectives based on self-assessment, identifying areas needing focus One student aimed to expand vocabulary to improve articulation, while another prioritized vocabulary and grammar to overcome obstacles in expression.
Reducing the burden on learners
Encouraging students to prioritise their goals was synonymous with easing their workload, giving rise to a change in students’ attitudes towards the task
Now I focus on two objectives - use conditionals and use collocations with precision and flexibility I feel like the aims are doable (Student 10, interview)
So I think the task is less stressful and laborious I’m more willing to start doing it (Student 24, interview)
Students 10 and 24 were content that they could select their own prioritised objectives and afterwards only focus on the relevant assessment criteria This was believed to reduce the burden of handling too many objectives for one assignment, fuel students’ motivation to carry out the task and enhance their confidence in attaining their personal goals
THEME 1: Learners’ different solutions to their linguistic deficiency
In the second cycle, learners identified linguistic deficiency as a key obstacle in completing tasks and actively sought remedies They utilized recommended tools and independently searched for additional support, demonstrating a proactive approach to overcoming their linguistic challenges.
For English language learners, the collocation dictionary "ozdic.com," mentioned frequently in LA logs, is a useful tool for those with lexical knowledge gaps According to interviews, this dictionary helps students with their work.
Ozdic is an invaluable tool for vocabulary brainstorming, ensuring accurate and natural word collocations, a significant improvement over relying on potentially inaccurate translations.
A collocation dictionary is more effective than Google Translate for students, as it presents words in collocations, ensuring sensible and natural word combinations, which is particularly helpful for students with limited lexical resources preparing for presentations.
To overcome the limitations of available tools, students sought support from various sources Some students utilized peer support to address their challenges, while others explored additional materials to supplement their learning For instance, one student reported relying on friends for assistance in articulating ideas in English, highlighting the importance of collaborative learning and resourcefulness in navigating academic difficulties.
I was surfing Tik Tok when I came across the website “Thesaurus” I could look for synonyms there Very useful for paraphrasing (Student 18, interview)
Student 18 thought highly of the dictionary “thesaurus.com” because it offered rich resources of synonyms and antonyms that were particularly useful for paraphrasing In other words, this student showed autonomy in seeking necessary assistance to tackle her difficulty and achieve her aims
On the other hand, nearly half of the participants still took no action against their issues, giving time pressure as an excuse for their delayed action
Students find looking up collocations using resources like Ozdic and Vietnamese-English dictionaries (e.g., TFlat) time-consuming due to the need to cross-reference between English and Vietnamese, impacting study efficiency.
Discussion
Findings from the current study provided interesting insights into the use of
Self-assessment (SA) enhances learner autonomy (LA) in English speaking instruction, positively influencing a learner's perceived level of autonomy Participants significantly improved in setting goals, identifying strengths, and evaluating methods, though challenges remain in overcoming difficulties and evaluating performance against goals.
Self-assessment (SA) positively enhances learning approaches (LA) by raising learners' awareness of goal setting and equipping them with insights into expected outcomes, enabling them to determine specific, relevant objectives, aligning with findings that SA assists in setting future goals Participants' ability to select prioritized goals demonstrates an evolution in self-regulation.
LA from the awareness stage to the involvement stage (Nunan, 1997)
Self-assessment (SA) enhances learners' organizational skills and self-confidence by encouraging them to recognize their strengths Instead of a holistic evaluation, students use a detailed checklist to compare aspects of their performance analytically, boosting their confidence as they realize their potential in specific areas This aligns with research linking SA to a positive self-image and increased confidence.
Motivated learners actively evaluate the effectiveness of learning materials and methods by assessing their workflow and performance, subsequently making necessary modifications to optimize their learning experience This self-assessment and adjustment cycle enhances learner autonomy and promotes a deeper understanding of the subject matter.
To meet objectives, personalized feedback on learning strategies and materials is crucial, aiding learners in evaluating their approach to learning, as highlighted by Gardner (2000).
Learners' autonomy in overcoming difficulties and evaluating their performance showed modest improvement, with students refining their work based on self-evaluation, driving them to seek solutions and improve performance While most still required teacher support, this progress indicates a step forward in learner autonomy, as the ability to act with assistance is an advancement from not knowing where to start.
Despite recognizing weaknesses and receiving resources, many students hesitated to act, aligning with Xu's (2012) assertion that beliefs don't always translate to action Teachers should offer timely encouragement to motivate learners through the challenging transition from pre-action to action (de Saint Léger, 2009).
Self-assessment (SA) holds promise for enhancing learners' awareness of their progress toward goals, yet its successful implementation faces obstacles Key hindrances include learners' lack of assessment experience and limited proficiency levels, which impede the validity of self-assessment outcomes.
Students' self-assessment (SA) should be accompanied by experienced assessors like teachers, aligning with studies emphasizing teachers' role in scaffolding learners' SA (Andrade, 2019; Panadero et al., 2016) Teacher-led training on SA should occur continuously throughout the course Assessing speaking skills is complex (Brantmeier et al., 2012), necessitating systematic training to transfer assessment ability from teachers to learners The implementation of SA may increase teacher workload, contrasting with studies suggesting it reduces workload (Hanrahan & Isaacs, 2001).
Technology, alongside teacher support, offers learners valuable tools for self-evaluation, such as the "ozdic.com" collocation dictionary and grammar checker websites, enhancing their performance analysis capabilities.
Grammarly enhances learners' linguistic abilities and assessment validity, boosting confidence in evaluating their performance and improving work quality Students actively seek additional tools based on personal needs, demonstrating an increasing level of learner autonomy (LA).
Summary of the chapter
The SA intervention positively impacted participants' LA, highlighting the benefits of SA to LA and factors influencing learners' SA and LA Instructors play a crucial role in learners' SA process, and technology enhances the impact of SA on LA Further implications of these findings will be discussed in the following chapter.