00051000953 how teacher talk facilitates student learning in english for academic purposes classes

00051000953 how teacher talk facilitates student learning in english for academic purposes classes 00051000953 how teacher talk facilitates student learning in english for academic purposes classes

INTRODUCTION

Rationale for the study

English language teaching (ELT) is a complex process influenced by numerous interrelated factors Classroom interaction plays a vital role in effective language acquisition, especially within the context of the popular communicative language teaching approach Teacher talk is a crucial component of classroom interaction, as it significantly impacts student engagement and language development Focusing on optimizing teacher talk can enhance the overall quality of ELT and promote better learner outcomes.

According to Nunan (1991), teacher talk is essential for both classroom organization and the language acquisition process It plays a fundamental role in facilitating effective language learning by guiding students and shaping their learning environment As a key component of language instruction, teacher talk significantly impacts learners' ability to acquire new language skills and achieve communicative competence.

Effective teacher talk is crucial for creating a communicative and supportive classroom environment that enhances students' language skills Teachers’ spoken interactions significantly influence student participation and engagement (Incecay, 2010) To be impactful, teacher talk should facilitate opportunities for meaningful interaction between teachers and students It is essential that teacher talk encourages student involvement, fostering a classroom atmosphere where learners feel motivated to participate actively in discussions and activities.

Recent developments in Vietnamese EFL and EAP contexts strongly emphasize the importance of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) as the primary instructional approach This methodology aims to enhance learners' communicative competence in English, addressing the needs of students in real-life communication scenarios (Nguyen) Adopting CLT in Vietnamese language education can significantly improve learners' speaking and listening skills, making them more proficient and confident in using English effectively.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emphasizes the importance of using English for meaningful interaction, encouraging students to actively participate in authentic communication Teachers adopting a facilitative role are essential, as they model language through teacher talk, scaffold learning to support student development, and create immersive opportunities for real-world language use This approach enhances learners' communicative competence and promotes engaging, contextually relevant language practice.

Vietnamese English language classrooms have traditionally been dominated by teacher-centered approaches, emphasizing rote memorization, grammar-translation methods, and limited student participation (Le & Barnard, 2019) Such teacher dominance can hinder student engagement and language development by restricting opportunities for meaningful input and output (Ellis, 2008) Therefore, examining teacher talk in Vietnamese EFL classrooms is crucial to transforming traditional teaching practices and aligning them with the communicative language teaching (CLT) approach.

Recent studies highlight that a significant portion of classroom time is dedicated to teacher talk, which has been criticized for negatively impacting students’ language development (Chaudron, 1988; Cook, 2001; Walsh, 2002; Davies, 2011) However, focusing solely on the quantity of teacher talk does not fully capture the quality of instruction in EFL classrooms; effective teaching requires attention to both the amount and quality of teacher talk to better support students' language practice and improvement Moreover, the existing literature emphasizes little on the quality aspect of teacher talk, particularly within the context of Vietnam, underscoring a gap in research that this article aims to address.

This study investigates the impact of various teacher talk strategies on student learning in Vietnamese EFL classrooms, aiming to contribute to the existing literature on teacher talk in ELT It specifically explores both general EFL teaching practices and the English for Academic Purposes (EAP) context, which is crucial for preparing students for academic success Additionally, the research offers valuable insights for novice English language teachers seeking effective strategies to enhance their verbal communication and classroom management.

Research aims and research questions

This study aims to identify effective teacher talk strategies that enhance student learning in EAP (English for Academic Purposes) classes It seeks to contribute to the existing literature by examining typical teacher talk patterns and their impact on student engagement and understanding in a university-level EAP course at the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education Additionally, the research aims to help teachers evaluate and refine their talk to better support student learning outcomes in the classroom.

To achieve the aims mentioned above, this study attempts to address the following questions:

1 What are the teacher talk patterns observable in class?

2 How do specific teacher talk strategies facilitate student learning in these EAP classes?

3 What are students’ attitudes towards the impact of teacher talk on their learning?

Scope of the study

This study aims to analyze classroom interaction and identify common teacher talk patterns by employing a theoretical framework adapted from Flint Despite numerous existing frameworks for analyzing teacher talk, this research focuses specifically on evaluating teacher speech within the scope of a minor thesis The purpose is to better understand the characteristics of teacher talk and its impact on classroom dynamics, contributing to effective teaching strategies and enhanced student learning outcomes.

Language interaction) system of Moskowitz (1971, as cited in Brown, 2001)

The Flint system is significant because it provides a clear classification and detailed description of various teacher talk strategies used in the classroom This framework helps educators understand how to optimize their language and communication methods to enhance language acquisition effectively By analyzing different teacher talk strategies through the Flint system, teachers can promote active student engagement and create a more interactive learning environment, ultimately improving language learning outcomes.

This study was conducted with a third-year EFL class consisting of 25 students and one teacher at the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education in a public university in Hanoi The participants used the "English for Academic Purposes" course book, developed by the faculty members for the corresponding course.

Data were collected through classroom observations, audio recordings, student questionnaires, and interviews, providing comprehensive insights into the teaching environment The data were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative methods to examine the impact of teacher talk on student learning outcomes This approach enabled a thorough understanding of how instructional language influences student engagement and academic performance.

Significance of the study

This study aims to enrich the understanding of teacher talk in Vietnam's EFL context by analyzing verbal strategies and their impact on student learning, especially as the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach gains prominence Its findings will offer valuable insights into how teacher talk influences students' cognitive engagement and participation during lessons Additionally, the research provides practical tools for teachers to evaluate and improve their verbal behaviors, fostering more effective communication techniques that support student involvement By highlighting the significance of language choices, this study encourages teachers to adopt more intentional speaking practices, ultimately enhancing the quality of English language instruction in Vietnamese classrooms.

Organization of the study

The study is comprised of five chapters: introduction; literature review; methodology; findings and discussions and conclusion

Chapter 1 is the introduction presenting the rationale, aims and research questions, scope and organization of the study

Chapter 2 concerns the literature review that mentions theoretical issues related to the nature of teacher talk together with its roles and a theoretical framework about its classification, and different aspects of teacher’s questions and feedback

Chapter 3 explains the methodology of the study, including the context where the study is conducted, the participants, the instruments used to collect data, and the procedures of data collection and analysis

Chapter 4 presents the findings and discussion, which aims at describing and summarizing the analysis of data in detail and providing a thorough discussion and interpretations of the study’s results Besides, some comparisons with previous studies’ findings are also highlighted in this chapter

Chapter 5 is the conclusion of the study; it provides a summary of the answer to the research questions Furthermore, the limitations as well as some recommendations for future research are also provided in this section

LITERATURE REVIEW

Teacher talk

Teacher talk, as defined by the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, refers to the variety of language used by teachers during instruction (Richards & Schmidt, 2002) It encompasses the language that dominates classroom interactions, including conveying information, giving directions, explaining activities, checking students’ understanding, and managing learner behavior This type of classroom language plays a crucial role in effective teaching and influences student learning outcomes.

& Brazil, 1982, as cited in Yanfen & Runmeiqin, 2010)

Ellis (2008) defines teacher talk as the specialized language teachers use when communicating with second language (L2) learners, tailored to their proficiency levels to ensure comprehensibility Teachers often adjust both the linguistic form and function of their speech to facilitate effective classroom communication To better engage language learners, teachers tend to simplify their speech, resulting in unique features that encompass modifications across phonological, grammatical, lexical, and discourse elements.

From the definitions above, it can be seen that teacher talk in English classrooms is recognized as one distinguished variety of the English language

7 with its own distinct characteristic that greatly depends on the requirements of the participants as well as the goal of teaching

Teacher talk plays a crucial role throughout various stages of a lesson, including classroom management, delivering instructions, and engaging with students through questions and responses Its primary purposes are to foster communication by encouraging learners to practice the target language and to promote meaningful interaction between students and teachers As such, teacher talk can be categorized as communication-based or interaction-based, with a focus on oral communication within the language classroom.

The role of Teacher talk

Teacher talk plays a crucial role in EFL classrooms, directly impacting both classroom management and language acquisition According to Nunan (1991), it is essential for effectively organizing and managing the learning environment, as teachers rely on their spoken language to implement lesson plans successfully Moreover, teacher talk serves as the primary source of comprehensible target language input for learners, making it vital for language acquisition.

According to Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories, a substantial amount of input is essential for successful language learning, as learning cannot occur without exposure to the target language In non-supportive environments, such as classroom settings where the second language is learned as a foreign language, instruction often becomes the primary or sole source of target language input, highlighting the critical role of input in language acquisition.

1996, p 340) That instruction is the teacher's instruction or in other words, teacher talk

According to Ellis (2008), the success of a subject or language lesson largely depends on the type of language used by the teacher and the nature of interactions within the classroom Effective instructional language and meaningful teacher-student interactions are crucial for achieving positive learning outcomes Creating an engaging and interactive classroom environment can significantly enhance students' understanding and language development Therefore, teachers should focus on employing appropriate language and fostering dynamic classroom interactions to promote successful learning experiences.

Teacher talk in the EFL classroom serves three key functions: organizing and managing class activities to enhance interaction; providing valuable target language input for learners; and making this input comprehensible to create optimal learning conditions This is particularly crucial in English for Academic Purposes classes, where students need exposure to complex and abstract academic concepts, and teacher guidance plays a vital role in supporting effective language acquisition.

Teacher talk is essential in language education as it serves as the primary medium for implementing teaching plans and achieving learning objectives Throughout the teaching process, educators continuously deliver knowledge, provide clear instructions, facilitate activities, assess students’ understanding, and manage classroom behavior to enhance learning outcomes.

Excessive teacher talk can negatively impact classroom dynamics by limiting students' opportunities to participate and speak Therefore, it is essential to consider not only the quantity of teacher talk but also its quality when analyzing teacher-student interactions Balancing teacher talk with student engagement enhances effective communication and promotes a more active learning environment.

To analyze classroom interaction and teacher talk effectively, two prominent frameworks are widely utilized: the Flanders Interaction Analysis Category System (FIAC), developed by Flanders in 1970, and the FLint (Foreign Language Interaction) system, proposed by Moskowitz in 1971 These frameworks provide essential insights into classroom communication patterns, making them valuable tools for researchers and educators seeking to enhance teaching effectiveness and student engagement.

Teacher talk categories

The teacher talk strategies are outlined within the interaction framework proposed by Flanders (1970, as cited in Richards, 2003), providing a systematic method for observing and analyzing classroom interactions This model enables teachers to reflect on the types of verbal interactions they use and analyze student responses, helping them understand the impact of their behaviors on student learning By using this framework, educators can make informed decisions to enhance classroom communication and improve learning outcomes.

Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) is an analysis of teacher and student talk which includes the following teacher talk categories:

Table 1: FIAC category system (Flanders, 1970, as cited in Richards, 2003)

1 Accepts feeling: accepts and clarifies an attitude or the feeling tone of a pupil in a nonthreatening manner Feelings may be positive or negative Predicting and recalling feelings are included

2 Praises or encourages: praises or encourages pupil action or behavior Jokes that release tension, but not at the expenses of another individual; nodding head, or saying “um hm?” or “go on” are included

3 Accepts or uses ideas of students: Clarifying, building, or developing ideas suggested by a pupil Teacher extensions of pupil ideas are included but as the teacher brings more of his own ideas into play, shift to category five

4 Asks questions: asking a question about content or procedure, based on teacher ideas, with the intent that a pupil will answer

5 Lecturing: giving facts or opinions about content or procedures; expressing his own ideas, giving his own explanation, or citing an authority other than a pupil

6 Giving directions: reactions, commands, or orders to which a pupil is expected to comply

7 Criticizing or justifying authority: Statements intended to change pupil behavior from non-acceptable to

FIAC category system acceptable pattern; bawling someone out; stating why the teacher is doing what he is doing; extreme self-reference Student talk

8 Student talk response Talk by pupils in response to teacher Teacher initiates the contact or solicits students’ statement or structures the situation Freedom to express own ideas is limited

9 Student talk initiation Talk by students which they initiate Expressing own ideas; initiating a new topic; freedom to develop opinions and a line of thought, like asking thoughtful questions; going beyond the existing structure

10 Pauses, short periods of silence and periods of confusion in which communication cannot be understood by the observer

The FIAC system categorizes classroom interactions into ten types, primarily focusing on verbal exchanges Seven categories involve teacher talk, reflecting their dominant role in classroom communication Student talk accounts for approximately 20% of interactions, encouraging active student participation The remaining categories include periods of silence or confusion, which are essential for understanding classroom dynamics On average, teachers engage in about 68% of the talk, while students contribute roughly 20%, highlighting the teacher-centered nature of most classroom environments.

12 percent silence and confusion” (Flanders, 1970, p 101)

Teacher talk is classified into seven categories, which are divided into two main groups: indirect and direct influence, reflecting the level of student autonomy allowed by the teacher's verbal behavior Indirect influence encourages student participation in class activities and promotes interaction with both the teacher and peers, fostering a more engaging learning environment In contrast, direct influence limits student involvement and reduces opportunities to practice the target language during class The categories under indirect influence include various teaching strategies that enhance student engagement and communicative competence Implementing these approaches can significantly improve language learning outcomes by increasing student interaction and active participation.

3) accepting or using students’ ideas and

Regarding student talk, there are two categories:

This system was utilized to analyze the connection between teachers' interactional patterns and students' attitudes towards them By understanding this relationship, teachers can adapt their language to improve communication effectiveness in the classroom These insights enable educators to foster a more positive learning environment and strengthen student engagement through targeted interaction strategies.

The FLint (Foreign Language Interaction System), proposed by Moskowitz (1971, as cited in Brown, 2001), is a well-established classroom interaction analysis model designed to classify and analyze various types of teacher talk in language learning environments This framework shares many similarities with the FIAC system while providing additional elaboration on specific interaction categories.

In Flint, categories numbered 1-10 closely correspond to the 10 FIAC categories, with slight differences in their naming conventions (see Table 2) Additionally, there are seven categories of teacher talk, organized into two sub-categories: direct influence and indirect influence Direct influence pertains to specific ways teachers actively shape student learning and engagement.

3) uses ideas of students and

However, compared to FIAC, this model further developed four more features of teacher talk – the use of jokes in category 2) praises or encourages,

The verbatim repetition of students’ responses in category 3) reflects their ideas, while the correction of students’ mistakes in category 5) focuses on providing accurate information Additionally, the criticism of students’ responses in category 7) aims to address and critique students’ behavior, contributing to their overall learning and development.

The FLint system offers an enhanced feature called choral student talk, which reflects students’ responses to teachers in category 8: Student response, specific It also distinguishes between various question types, including close-ended and open-ended questions, by categorizing student responses into (8) Student response, specific, and (9) Student response – open-ended or student-initiated Additionally, the system records classroom behaviors such as silence during audiovisual activities and moments of confusion, whether work-related or non-work-related, categorized under 10: Silence or confusion, providing a comprehensive view of student engagement and interaction during lessons.

The FLint system enhances classroom analysis by integrating three additional features—laughter, native language use, and nonverbal gestures—that complement the nine core categories of teacher and student interactions During classroom observations, these elements are frequently observed alongside various activities, highlighting their significant role in effective communication and engagement Incorporating these features into teacher-student dynamics enriches understanding of classroom behaviors and supports more nuanced instructional strategies.

The FLint model was chosen for this research because it offers a comprehensive classification of teacher verbal behaviors in foreign language classrooms Unlike the FIAC system, which was developed for general classroom interactions, FLint is specifically designed for second language learning environments, making it more applicable for analyzing teacher talk in EFL settings This targeted focus ensures a better understanding of how verbal interactions facilitate student comprehension, engagement, and language acquisition in EFL classrooms.

For the purpose of this study, the FLint system was adapted to highlight two key aspects of teacher talk observed in class: Giving feedback and Asking

The article discusses 13 key questions categorized into two main groups: "Giving Feedback" and "Asking Questions." Categories 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7 from FLint are grouped under "Giving Feedback," highlighting their role in providing constructive and formative responses in the classroom Meanwhile, category 4 is classified separately under "Asking Questions," which includes both convergent (closed-ended) and divergent (open-ended) questions These different types of questions serve distinct pedagogical functions, facilitating diverse classroom interactions to promote student understanding and engagement.

This study adapts the FLint system to focus on how teacher talk strategies, such as questioning and feedback, influence student learning in EFL classrooms The adapted theoretical framework allows for a targeted analysis of teacher verbal behaviors that promote student engagement and understanding By aligning with the research objectives, this approach ensures an effective exploration of how specific teacher talk techniques impact language acquisition Overall, the study highlights the critical role of questioning and feedback in enhancing student learning outcomes in EFL settings.

Thus, a theoretical framework for analyzing teacher talk patterns was adapted from Flint as follows,

Table 2: The theoretical framework for analyzing teacher talk (adapted from FLint)

1 Deals with feelings: in a non-threatening way, accepting, discussing, referring to or communicating understanding of past, present, or future feelings students

Student learning

In the field of language teaching, learning is understood through multiple perspectives, with this study focusing on two key aspects: students' cognitive processes and their active participation in the classroom.

A traditional, cognitive-focused approach to learning emphasizes the importance of absorbing and retaining new knowledge for future application According to Ellis (2008), cognitive development in language learning involves acquiring vocabulary and structures that students can retrieve and use in meaningful contexts Teacher talk plays a crucial role in presenting new linguistic content, helping students mentally organize and incorporate it into their language repertoire By carefully selecting and explaining new vocabulary and grammar, teachers support students’ understanding, retention, and application of language concepts, facilitating effective language acquisition.

Learning as students’ involvement in the classroom

Learning is best understood as an active process that heavily relies on student engagement in classroom interactions According to Nunan, effective learning occurs through students’ active participation in classroom activities, emphasizing the importance of interactive engagement for meaningful learning experiences.

Effective language learning occurs when students engage in meaningful practice within communicative contexts, emphasizing the importance of authentic interactions for language acquisition (Nunan, 1991) According to Walsh (2011), purposeful teacher talk creates an engaging environment by encouraging student participation through questioning, prompting, and feedback, which fosters confidence and fluency Promoting active involvement in discussions and interactions with peers and learning materials supports a student-centered approach that enhances language proficiency Overall, engaging teaching strategies facilitate dynamic learning experiences critical for successful language development.

Both cognitive and participatory approaches highlight the importance of teacher talk in fostering an environment where students can effectively process new information These approaches emphasize that active student engagement and meaningful interaction, guided by strategic teacher communication, are essential for improving language proficiency Ultimately, the role of teacher talk is crucial in encouraging students to actively use the language and develop their skills.

English for Academic Purposes context

The English for Academic Purposes (EAP) context is a specialized domain within English language teaching that focuses on equipping learners with the specific language skills necessary for success in academic settings Teacher talk plays a crucial role in facilitating the acquisition of academic language and skills, which are distinct from general communicative abilities EAP students need exposure to subject-specific vocabulary, advanced grammatical structures, and discourse conventions used in academic writing and speaking (Hyland, 2006).

In ELF classrooms in general and EAP in particular, as mentioned above,

25 teacher talk serves multiple functions, including providing input, modeling academic discourse, and scaffolding learning Moreover, according to Walsh

(2011), teacher talk in the EAP context should also balance two primary goals: maximizing exposure to academic English and fostering active student engagement

In EAP contexts, balancing direct and indirect teacher talk is essential for effective communication Direct teacher talk, like providing explicit explanations and instructions, plays a crucial role in introducing new academic concepts and clarifying complex ideas Conversely, indirect teacher talk, such as asking open-ended questions and fostering student discussion, is vital for engaging learners and promoting critical thinking Achieving the right mix of both strategies enhances comprehension and encourages active participation in academic settings.

In Vietnam, integrating English for Academic Purposes (EAP) into higher education curricula is increasingly important amid the push for internationalization and academic mobility (Nguyen, 2020) Traditional teacher-centered approaches, which rely heavily on direct teacher talk, can restrict students' opportunities to practice academic discourse To enhance learning outcomes, Vietnamese EAP instructors need to adopt a balanced teaching strategy that combines direct instruction with interactional scaffolding, promoting both comprehension and critical engagement with academic content.

Related studies

Most studies focus on examining excessive teacher talking time (TTT) and its features in language classrooms, highlighting potential negative impacts Excessive TTT can limit students' opportunities to speak, hindering their active participation (Davies, 2011; Walsh, 2002) For example, Setiawati (2012) investigated four teachers and 18 primary students to identify the specific features of teacher talk used in classroom interactions.

Research indicates that teacher talk constitutes the majority of classroom interaction, significantly impacting students’ language learning experiences Data collected through field notes, video recordings, and questionnaires reveal that students desire more opportunities to participate actively in class discussions The study emphasizes the importance for teachers to monitor and reduce excessive talk, creating more chances for students to practice the target language and enhance their speaking skills Ultimately, increasing student participation can lead to more effective language acquisition and improved classroom engagement.

Previous research has primarily highlighted the negative impact of the traditional Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF) pattern in language classrooms The IRF pattern tends to promote a teacher-centered approach, where the teacher controls interactions and provides feedback based on set criteria, which can limit students' active participation and meaningful communication opportunities Scholars like Sinclair & Brazil (1982) and Seedhouse (1996) argue that this dominance by the teacher can hinder students' development of autonomy, making them passive recipients rather than active contributors in their language learning process.

Walsh (2002) emphasizes the teacher's dominant role in initiating discussions, guiding student interactions, and asking questions with known answers, which limits EFL students' opportunities for language input He argues that teachers primarily control classroom activities, including topic selection, content, and procedures For example, Pujiastuti's 2013 study investigates the types of teacher talk and student talk, highlighting the teacher's role in shaping language learning in Early Years Language (EYL) classrooms.

The study observed a classroom interaction involving one teacher and 15 primary students, highlighting that the teacher's talk aligned with Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC), including giving directions, lecturing, asking questions, incorporating students' ideas, praising, criticizing behavior, and accepting feelings Student talk was characterized by responses and initiated interactions, but overall, teacher talk was dominant, with teachers mainly controlling the classroom interactions These findings emphasize the teacher's central role in shaping classroom communication dynamics and suggest a need to promote more balanced student engagement for effective learning.

A recent study by Bui and Cao (2023) in the Vietnamese EFL context examined the purpose, frequency, and duration of teacher talk in English speaking lessons The research found that teachers dominated lesson time, primarily using talk for instructions, feedback, and classroom management This dominance was seen to hinder student participation, as students' interaction was limited by their short, simple responses like “yes.”

“no”, “watch tv”, “in the yard”

Research by Pham and Hoang (2017) explored teachers and students' perceptions of how teacher talk influences learning in a Vietnamese university, revealing a gap between teacher practices and student needs Although students preferred more formal and technical language, teachers aimed to reduce jargon and lecture more informally to foster a closer relationship and prevent boredom Additionally, students expressed a desire for teacher talk to be bilingual to enhance understanding and engagement.

28 comprehensibility among students of different levels in class They even suggest that teachers pay attention to students' facial expressions to adjust their talk, thereby facilitating optimal learning conditions

Research indicates that teachers utilize various types of teacher talk, which constitutes the majority of classroom interaction time In EFL settings, the quality of teacher talk is crucial for promoting authentic target language input and effective learning However, each classroom’s unique characteristics—such as cultural background, class size, and the language proficiency of teachers and students—significantly influence the amount and quality of both teacher and student talk Therefore, teacher talk is highly context-specific and warrants further investigation to optimize language learning outcomes.

Research on teacher talk quality in Vietnam remains limited, with few studies exploring its influence on students’ language learning (Incecay, 2010) This study aims to analyze different types of teacher talk and their impact on students’ learning outcomes within the Vietnamese EFL context By doing so, it seeks to contribute to the existing literature on teacher talk and enhance understanding of effective teaching practices in Vietnam.

METHODOLOGY

Research setting

This study was conducted at the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education in a reputable public university in Hanoi, Vietnam, which has a history of over 60 years and is renowned for its specialization in foreign language education As a leading institution in Vietnam, the faculty has been a primary contributor of English language teachers across primary, secondary, and tertiary education levels With small class sizes of no more than 25 students, the faculty ensures personalized and effective language instruction The teaching staff are highly qualified and experienced, maintaining a strong reputation for excellence in language education.

English for Academic Purposes is a mandatory course designed to enhance students' proficiency in four key language skills: Listening, Reading, Speaking, and Writing, along with essential linguistic components such as vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation The course content covers four major academic disciplines: Social Science, focusing on higher education methods, criminology, and overcoming challenges; Business, including advertising, critical thinking, marketing, and consumer behavior; Sociology; and other related fields This comprehensive program aims to equip students with the necessary language skills to succeed in academic and professional settings.

This course explores the fields of Science, focusing on families, relationships, and effective science communication, as well as Technological Science, including IT in education and business, nanotechnology, innovation, and invention It aims to equip students with essential communicative language skills and other targeted competencies to enhance their understanding and application of scientific concepts By integrating these disciplines, the program prepares students for careers that require both scientific knowledge and advanced communication abilities.

Research design

This study employed a case study approach to examine teacher talk patterns and their impact on student learning, highlighting the classroom as a unique and restricted environment that requires in-depth analysis This method allows for a detailed understanding of the complexities and specificities of the phenomenon, especially when existing theories fall short in addressing the issue (Creswell, 2012) By focusing on a small number of individuals, the study captures natural classroom interactions without interference, utilizing a descriptive method to observe phenomena as they naturally occur without manipulation or researcher intervention (Creswell, 2012).

This study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative data to achieve comprehensive research objectives Qualitative data, including words, phrases, and sentences from audio recordings of four consecutive class sessions, student interviews, and open-ended questionnaire responses, were collected and analyzed to provide rich, descriptive insights Complementing this, quantitative data obtained through closed-ended questionnaire items and observation sheets enabled precise measurement of variables Integrating these methods allows for more accurate and in-depth interpretation of the study’s findings, enhancing the overall validity and reliability of the results.

Participants

The research was conducted at an EFL class of one teacher and 25 third- year students majoring in English language at Faculty of English Language

This article explores teacher education at a public university in Hanoi, Vietnam, emphasizing the expertise of a senior English teacher with a decade of experience teaching adult learners The educator holds a master's degree in TESOL and demonstrates advanced English proficiency at the C1 level, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Her extensive teaching background and specialized qualifications highlight the university's commitment to delivering high-quality English teacher training programs.

The students are juniors with English proficiency levels ranging from B2 (upper-intermediate) to C1 (advanced), sharing similar language learning experiences They participated in a compulsory course designed to enhance their English skills, providing a uniform basis for analyzing their language development.

At this university, the "English for Academic Purposes" course is tailored specifically for students at an advanced level The course utilizes the textbook "English for Academic Purposes," which has been carefully designed by faculty teachers to enhance students' academic English skills This specialized program aims to improve students' proficiency in academic reading, writing, listening, and speaking to ensure they succeed in their academic pursuits.

Finally, the teacher and students of this class were informed of the purpose and focus of the research, and they all voluntarily agreed to participate in the study.

Data collection instruments

3.4.1 Classroom observation and audio-recording

This study observed and audio-recorded four consecutive lessons over four weeks, focusing on developing reading and listening skills related to environmental issues and business, to analyze teacher talk patterns An observation sheet, grounded in theoretical frameworks, documented the frequency of various teacher and student behaviors during the lessons, capturing factual classroom interactions The sheet was organized into four main columns: Category, Time, Teacher’s Behavior, and Students’ Behavior The Category section was divided into three parts: Teacher Talk, Student Talk, and Silence or Confusion, each containing specific numbered categories to systematically analyze classroom communication patterns.

The structured observation form includes columns for recording the timing of each interaction, with the Time column noting when each event occurs Additionally, the Teacher’s Behavior and Students’ Behavior columns are designed to systematically document specific verbal and nonverbal actions observed during lessons This organized approach enables thorough analysis of classroom interactions, grounded in a solid theoretical framework, thereby enhancing the accuracy and depth of educational research.

The observation sheet and audio transcription were carefully compared and analyzed within the theoretical framework to ensure accurate and valid conclusions This process identified the most dominant teacher talk patterns and examined their impact on student learning, providing valuable insights into effective instructional practices.

This study investigates learners' preferences for teacher talk strategies and their evaluations of classroom verbal behaviors A customized questionnaire, adapted from Richards & Lockhart (1996), was employed to gather students' perspectives on teachers' verbal interactions The adaptation involved refining the original items to align with the study's specific objectives and theoretical framework, ensuring reliable results Comprising 22 items in English, including 18 Likert-scale questions, the questionnaire prompts students to indicate their level of agreement with statements about teacher talk during classroom activities.

The study analyzed students' perceptions of teacher talk features by asking them to strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree with various categories outlined in the theoretical framework Additionally, open-ended questions (Questions 19 to 22) were included to gather detailed student comments on three key aspects of teacher talk: giving instructions, posing questions, and providing feedback.

This questionnaire was employed with the aim to grant useful understanding of the influences of teacher talk on student learning in class

After statistical analysis of the recorded materials, the results were compared with the questionnaire data to ensure a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of teacher talk, thereby increasing the study's validity A total of 25 students completed the questionnaire, and all responses were deemed valid and included in the statistical analysis, reinforcing the reliability of the findings.

According to Cresswell (2012), interviews provide researchers with valuable insights that cannot be obtained through observation alone They allow participants to share detailed personal information, while interviewers can ask targeted questions to extract specific data essential for the study.

To better understand students' perceptions of teacher talk, two focus groups of 10 students (5 males and 5 females) who attended all four observed lessons participated in 30-minute semi-structured interviews This approach was chosen because it accommodated participants’ limited availability for individual interviews and encouraged more detailed discussions Additionally, focus group interviews provided a safe and open environment where students could openly share their views without feeling inhibited by the presence of the opposite gender, leading to more candid and insightful responses.

To ensure equal participation in the focus group and gather diverse perspectives, the researcher acted as a neutral facilitator, moderating discussions and encouraging all members to contribute By fostering an open and supportive environment, the facilitator invited quieter participants to share their views, preventing dominance by a few vocal members, and promoting balanced and inclusive discussions.

34 participants Furthermore, at the start of each session, participants were also informed about the objectives of the interviews and encouraged to respect differing points of view

The interview focused on students' in-depth justification of their responses to four open-ended questions in the questionnaire Based on their answers, additional follow-up questions were developed to explore students’ expectations regarding teacher talk patterns These questions aimed to identify ways teachers can adjust their communication styles to better meet students' needs and enhance their learning experience in the classroom.

The interview was conducted in Vietnamese, allowing students to freely and accurately express their thoughts and feelings To ensure accurate data collection, the researcher also audio recorded the session for later analysis and reporting.

During the research process, classroom interactions and interviews were audio-recorded with prior consent from teachers and students, ensuring ethical data collection All participants agreed to the recordings, understanding they would be used exclusively for research purposes and kept confidential This transparent approach fostered a supportive environment, promoting student comfort and ethical integrity in the study.

Data collection procedures

To enhance trustworthiness and reduce biases, the researcher employed data triangulation by collecting information from multiple sources and different time points, including class observations, audio recordings, a questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews (Mathison, 1988).

The study was conducted in 4 steps First, observations and audio- recordings of four 100-minute lessons were conducted to create a database for

During classroom observations, the researcher recorded 35 different teacher talk patterns by noting the specific category each instance belonged to when the teacher spoke Additionally, the researcher documented students’ reactions following each type of teacher talk to assess its impact To ensure unbiased data collection, the researcher discreetly observed from a corner at the back of the classroom, avoiding participation in activities that could influence teacher or student behavior.

A comprehensive English questionnaire was developed to gather students’ feedback on their preferences and evaluations of various teacher talk categories outlined in the theoretical framework The first 19 statements employed a Likert scale, allowing students to express their level of agreement with options such as “strongly agree,” “agree,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree.” Additionally, students responded to four open-ended questions with short written answers, providing in-depth insights into their perceptions of teacher talk.

In the next step, 2 focus group interviews of 10 students were conducted to better understand students’ opinions and expectations of teacher talk.

Data analysis methods

This study employed both quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods to thoroughly investigate teacher talk patterns The research process involved multiple steps, including identifying specific teacher communication styles and examining their effects on student learning outcomes The findings offer valuable insights into how different instructional approaches influence student engagement and academic success, emphasizing the importance of effective teacher talk in the classroom.

The initial step involved calculating tallies on the observation sheet to quantify the frequency of each teacher talk category This quantitative analysis provided a foundational understanding of the prevalence of different teacher talk acts, offering valuable insights into classroom communication patterns.

The audio recordings were transcribed and analyzed to complement the data collected from the observation sheet, focusing on the frequency of each teacher talk strategy The researcher first transcribed the recordings, then coded the categories according to the theoretical framework, ensuring a thorough and accurate analysis of the teacher's communicative practices.

36 counted the presence of each teacher talk category, which was subsequently analyzed via Microsoft Excel to calculate the percentage of all present teacher talk acts in class

The study analyzed student responses to evaluate teacher talk behavior by organizing and computing questionnaire results using Microsoft Excel, which determined response percentages for each item This quantitative data was complemented by a qualitative assessment of students' perceptions and expectations regarding specific teacher talk strategies, providing a comprehensive understanding of effective teaching communication.

The student interview data was analyzed through a rigorous five-step qualitative content analysis process, including transcribing, coding for themes, identifying patterns, interpreting findings, and drawing conclusions (Dornyei, 2007, pp 246-247) This approach aimed to deepen understanding of how teacher talk influences student learning and to explore students' expectations regarding teachers’ verbal behaviors in class The coding system was developed based on the most prominent teacher talk strategies identified in the literature review, specifically focusing on teachers’ questioning techniques and feedback methods.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Teacher talk patterns

The researcher identified teacher talk patterns by counting both teacher and student talk within each category of the theoretical framework Percentages for each talk category were then calculated to determine their proportion in the classroom, allowing for an overall overview of talk types This analysis enabled the researcher to measure the balance between indirect and direct teacher talk, ultimately revealing the dominant patterns of teacher communication in the classroom setting.

The study found that most categories of indirect teacher talk and direct teacher talk were present in class except for category 1 – Deal with feeling

Indirect teacher talk, which includes praising, encouraging students, using students’ ideas, and asking questions, plays a more prominent role in the classroom compared to direct teacher talk In contrast, direct teacher talk involves giving information, providing directions, and addressing students’ behavior and responses Overall, indirect teacher talk was observed to outweigh direct teacher talk by approximately 28%, highlighting its significance in fostering a supportive learning environment.

4.1.1 The quantitative analysis of teacher talk

In order to calculate the proportion of teacher talk, the total count of all talk categories, as outlined in the theoretical framework, must be initially identified

The theoretical framework identifies seven categories that represent teacher talk, encompassing various verbal behaviors exhibited in the classroom In addition, categories 8 and 9 focus on student talk, highlighting students’ active verbal participation during lessons Lastly, category 10 captures moments of silence or confusion, reflecting periods of pause or uncertainty amidst class activities.

The distribution of talk in four observed lessons is presented in Table 4

Table 4: The distribution of talk in four observed classes

Indirect teacher talk Direct teacher talk Student talk

1 Deal with feelings 6 Give Direction

2 Praises or encourages 7 Criticizing students’ behavior and response

3 Uses ideas of students 8 Student response, specific

5 Give information 10 Silence or confusion

The analysis in Table 4 revealed that the total counts of teacher talk, student talk, and silence were 849, 290, and 51 respectively, bringing the overall talk count to 1,190 Notably, all categories of teacher talk outlined in the theoretical framework were observed in the classroom, with some categories appearing more frequently than others.

39 employed more frequently than the others Specifically, the most dominant ones are 3-Using ideas of students (15.97%), 4-Asking questions (24.11%), 5-

Give information (12.98%), and the least common one is 7 Criticizing students’ behavior and response (0.32%)

The study examined the presence of talk across all categories, with a particular focus on teacher talk categories According to the theoretical framework, teacher talk was classified into two main groups: indirect influence and direct influence The subsequent sections will detail the proportion of both indirect and direct teacher talk, highlighting their roles in language learning environments.

4.1.2 The proportion of indirect teacher talk

Teacher talk plays a crucial role in fostering student participation by supporting and encouraging their engagement Strategies such as accepting students’ feelings, praising their efforts, incorporating students’ ideas, and posing thoughtful questions help promote their autonomy in the classroom Enhancing student autonomy through effective teacher communication is essential for boosting their motivation and overall learning outcomes.

Indirect Teacher Talk (ITT) is identified by categorizing the teacher’s statements into categories 1, 2, 3, and 4 The total counts of statements in these categories are summed, then multiplied by 100 and divided by the overall number of teacher talk instances (N) This calculation provides a quantifiable measure of ITT, enabling educators to assess their teaching strategies effectively Understanding and analyzing ITT is essential for promoting more student-centered communication in the classroom.

Based on the data in Table 4, the counts for categories 1 through 4 are 0, 97, 198, and 299 respectively, with a total of 1190 talks analyzed The percentage of Interpersonal Talk Time (ITT) can be calculated from these figures, providing insights into the distribution of talk categories within the dataset This statistical overview highlights the prominence of certain talk categories and their contribution to overall communication patterns.

1190 × 100 = 49.91 Among the four ITT categories, the most dominant teacher talk strategy was asking questions, and the least common one was dealing with students’ feelings

4.1.3 The proportion of direct teacher talk

Teacher talk that involves giving information, providing directions, or criticizing student behavior can restrict student participation in the classroom Unlike ITT, which focuses on indirect influence, direct teacher interactions may hinder students' activeness and engagement Such restrictive communication methods are considered unfavorable for students’ active learning and overall classroom development.

Direct Teacher Talk (DTT) is measured by counting teacher statements in categories 5, 6, and 7 These counts are summed, multiplied by 100, and then divided by the total number of teacher utterances (N) This calculation provides a clear percentage indicating the level of direct teacher engagement within classroom interactions Understanding this metric can help educators assess and improve their instructional communication skills for better student engagement.

As shown in Table 4, categories 5, 6, and 7 have tallies of 140, 111, and 4 respectively, contributing to a total talk count of 1,190 Based on these figures, the percentage of DTT (Duration of Talk Time) can be accurately calculated, providing insights into conversational patterns and communication dynamics Understanding these proportions is essential for optimizing dialogue analysis and enhancing related research. -Optimize your article’s SEO with precise, data-driven content rewriting tools—boost clarity and impact today!

1190 × 100 = 21.43 Among the three DTT categories, the most dominant teacher talk pattern was giving information, and the least frequent one was criticizing students’ behavior and response

The analysis revealed that indirect teacher talk (49.91%) significantly exceeds direct teacher talk (21.43%), indicating that the teacher’s verbal behavior enhances student learning outcomes These findings corroborate previous research by Rohmah (2017) and Nisa (2014), which emphasized the positive impact of teacher talk on ESL student learning Additionally, Golombek & Johnson (2017) found that indirect teacher talk promotes a relaxed and supportive classroom environment, encouraging students to take linguistic risks and increasing their confidence in using the target language.

The current study highlights that indirect teacher talk is a common communication pattern in ESL classrooms, effectively guiding students without direct confrontation Conversely, criticizing student behavior was the least used teacher talk pattern, implemented only once per lesson, primarily to redirect noisy students and help them regain focus on classroom activities This indicates that teachers prefer subtle, indirect methods over direct criticism to maintain a positive learning environment.

The study highlights that the most dominant teacher talk strategies are utilizing students’ ideas, asking questions, and providing directions and information, which aligns with Aisyah’s 2016 findings in an Indonesian senior high school EFL class Asking questions was identified as the most frequent strategy, serving as a means for teachers to offer prompts and scaffolding that stimulate critical thinking and problem-solving skills This underscores the importance of indirect teacher talk in enhancing EFL student learning outcomes.

Recent studies challenge previous findings by Sukarni and Ulfah (2015), which indicated that teachers in Indonesian secondary school EFL classes primarily used direct teacher talk through questioning and information delivery, a practice negatively impacting student learning by limiting students’ opportunities to practice the target language Conversely, Brown and Kennedy (2011) highlight the importance of direct teacher talk for effectively conveying explicit language rules and concepts to ESL beginners, underscoring the ongoing debate in ESL pedagogy about balancing direct and indirect communication Advocates of indirect teacher talk argue it fosters communicative competence and supports the principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).

The use of teacher’s questions to facilitate student learning

Teacher questions have been a focal point of research for many years due to their significant role in classroom language learning As highlighted in the literature review, teacher questions constitute a substantial portion of classroom talk and are crucial for facilitating students' language development This section explores the various types of questions teachers utilize, their delivery patterns, and the impact these questions have on students’ language acquisition Additionally, it examines whether the practice of questioning aligns with students’ expectations and effectively enhances their learning experience.

4.2.1 The frequency of question types in class

To understand how teacher questions facilitate student learning, it is essential to analyze the distribution of different question types in the classroom According to Richards and Lockhart (1996), there are three main types: procedural, convergent, and divergent questions Procedural questions primarily focus on classroom management, whereas convergent and divergent questions target the lesson content, promoting student engagement and critical thinking.

Convergent questions prompt students to recall and provide concise, fixed responses based on previously learned information, fostering focused understanding In contrast, divergent questions encourage students to express their own opinions and judgments, promoting critical thinking and diverse perspectives This distinction highlights the importance of using both question types to activate students' cognitive skills and enhance learning effectiveness.

The researcher analyzed the audio transcripts to count the total number of questions asked in each session, categorizing them into three distinct types This analysis enabled the identification of the most common question type across the sessions, providing valuable insights into communication patterns and question distribution.

The frequency of procedural, convergent and divergent questions is presented in the following Table 5

Table 5: The frequency of procedural, convergent and divergent question

Session Total Number of questions

Table 5 indicates that Convergent and Divergent questions were the most prevalent question types in the classroom, each comprising approximately 41% to 47% of all questions These two types were used about 3.5 times more often than Procedural questions, which accounted for only 11% to 17% This balance suggests that the teacher aimed to both assess students’ prior knowledge and promote critical thinking through varied questioning strategies.

Procedural questions primarily serve as classroom management tools, with limited impact on promoting cognitive engagement or language development As shown in Table 5, these questions were used less frequently than convergent and divergent questions, which are more effective in enhancing student comprehension and fostering higher-order thinking skills Consequently, the focus of subsequent sections will be on convergent and divergent questions, given their significant role in enriching students’ language learning experiences.

4.2.2 The impact of convergent questions on student learning

In this study, it was observed that teachers most frequently used convergent questions to evaluate students' understanding of specific lexical items and to facilitate comprehension of the content and tasks within the study material By employing targeted convergent questions, educators effectively guided students through learning activities and clarified key concepts After students provided their responses, the teacher confirmed the answers to ensure clear understanding and reinforce learning outcomes This instructional approach underscores the importance of convergent questioning in enhancing student comprehension and engagement in the classroom.

This article highlights the importance of academic skills, emphasizing their role in student success Notably, convergent questions serve two key functions: assessing understanding and fostering critical thinking For example, observed data demonstrates that these questions effectively gauge students’ knowledge while encouraging deeper engagement with the material Strengthening these skills can enhance overall academic performance, making it essential for educators to incorporate focused strategies that develop students' analytical and comprehension abilities.

(Teacher and students are analyzing a text about the relation between human activities and climate change)

Teacher (T): Now, please read paragraph A – the introduction What do you consider to be the key point made by the author? What is the key point?

Students (Ss): It’s about whether human activities are contributing to climate change or not

T (Teacher): OK So it is a yes or a no?

T: Yes Definitely yes So, human’s influence on global climate is discernible What is the meaning of this one?

T: Visible, recognizable Ok, so everyone can see it Right! So the whole paragraph is about human’s influence Ok, next one Now the next question What word in this paragraph suggests that this issue should be taken seriously? What makes it a serious problem?

T: Scientific evidence It’s serious It’s not like in your essay “I firmly believe that…”

No it’s not you, it’s about science So, that’s it

This finding was also in line with the result of Sofyan and Mahmud

(2014), who stated that convergent questions used by the teacher in their research was to know students’ vocabulary knowledge

The teacher enhances students' comprehension of reading material by using convergent questions to guide their understanding of key facts After students provide their answers, the teacher offers additional explanations of reading skills and compares students' responses to promote deeper learning.

46 previous experience in writing, which is of optimal assistance to students’ learning This practice is also indicated as effective in facilitating their learning by all students in class

4.2.3 The impact of divergent questions on student learning

Divergent questions are typically used to stimulate students' background knowledge and encourage critical thinking before engaging with new material Unlike convergent questions, which seek specific answers, divergent questions promote exploration and open-ended discussion An example from observed data illustrates how these questions activate student thinking, fostering deeper understanding and preparation for learning new topics Incorporating divergent questions into lessons can enhance student engagement and facilitate meaningful learning experiences.

(After the lead-in stage, the teacher and students were having a discussion in the pre- reading stage)

T: From your background knowledge, can you tell me whether you agree or disagree with the statement that human activities has been a major cause to the change in climate? You haven’t read anything, just from what you know, can you tell me your idea, yes or no?

T: Yes? In what way? How can our activities affect the change in the world’s climate?

S1: About the temperature, the pollution - air pollution, water pollution, and also land pollution

T: So different types of pollution

T (summarized with students): air, soil, water, light pollution (class laughing)

T: Any other ideas? Pollution is a very big term Try to be more specific

S1: I think everything we do affects the environment

T: Ok, whatever we do will have effect on our climate In a positive or negative way? S1: I think both, because we do some activities to protect the environment However, also do many bad things to the environment

T: OK, so most of the time negative, right? But when we realize we have done enough

47 negative things, we go for positive things Right? Ok, so that’s your idea Now I think we should look at the text to find out more about the question

Divergent questions are effectively used to encourage students' deeper analysis, comparison, and evaluation of ideas presented in learning materials These questions create opportunities for students to express their thoughts freely, fostering greater engagement and active participation in the knowledge acquisition process For example, prompting students with such questions enhances critical thinking and encourages meaningful classroom interactions.

(The teacher and students are analyzing some facts and figures in some research about climate change)

T: So after studying carefully the figures and models in the book, what connections have you made about the comparisons of observed patterns of temperature change and those predicted by models?

Ss: (discussed enthusiastically with their partners next to them)

T: Now the connection You have to read, then process the question first

The use of teacher’s feedback to facilitate student learning

Delivering effective feedback on students' performance is a crucial classroom activity for teachers According to Nunan (1991), positive feedback is substantially more impactful than negative feedback in influencing student behavior The primary purposes of positive feedback are to motivate students and reinforce their learning, fostering a supportive environment that encourages continuous improvement Implementing constructive, encouraging feedback can enhance student engagement and promote academic success.

56 inform students that they have performed correctly, and to increase their motivation through praises, which are presented in category 2 and 3 in the theoretical framework

These following sections attempt to investigate teachers’ feedback patterns, their influence on students’ learning, and how students perceive them

4.3.1 Types of feedback and their frequency

The researcher aimed to determine whether teachers predominantly used positive or negative feedback by analyzing audio transcripts This was achieved by counting instances of Category 2 and 3, which indicate positive feedback, and Category 7, representing negative feedback, within the theoretical framework.

Table 7 presents the count of three giving feedback strategies and the percentage of their use in each lesson

Table 7: The frequency of feedback types in each lesson

Feedback type Positive feedback Negative feedback Session Praise and encouragement

As can be seen, the two chief strategies indicating positive follow-up of the teacher are “Repetition of responses” (ranging from 77% to 80%) and

“Praise and encouragement” (varying between 20% and 23%)

The teacher consistently repeats students’ answers to validate their opinions and effectively summarize their ideas, fostering an encouraging classroom environment Additionally, the teacher provides verbal recognition of students’ good work, boosting their confidence and motivation to participate This approach promotes active student engagement and supports collaborative learning.

“Ok, “Good”, “Right”, “Agree”, etc to boost their confidence, thus eliciting more ideas from them For example,

(The teacher is checking students’ taking notes after the first time of listening)

Key: praise – bold, repetition – underline

T: So number 1, what happened if we did not make any changes to the world?

S1: Putting more pressure on our land, our water

T: Ok, so we put more pressure on our land, our water

S2: activities that damage the environment

T: and damage our environment That’s it

T: Next, number 2 What is the second transformation? The first one is the structural changes and the second one is (cued elicitation)

Encouragement from teachers significantly boosts students' confidence and participation in classroom activities When teachers praise and repeat students’ ideas, students become more willing to speak louder and actively engage, especially during listening exercises According to Yanfen and Yuqin (2010), encouragement involves teacher utterances that inspire hope, courage, and confidence, which students highly value They also highlight that students often hesitate to speak even when they know the correct answer due to fear of making mistakes or embarrassment, leading to reduced classroom interaction To mitigate this, adopting a humanistic approach that emphasizes providing encouragement is recommended Additionally, Nunan (1991) emphasized that supportive feedback is particularly effective in promoting student involvement and language learning.

58 for students with lower self-esteem, as it can alleviate anxiety and foster confidence, making them more inclined to participate openly thanks to teacher’s positive reinforcement

The study reveals that no negative feedback or criticism was observed in classrooms, likely due to teachers’ understanding of its adverse effects in second language learning Research indicates that critical feedback can diminish student motivation and engagement, as highlighted by Lee (2008), who found that students often perceive negative feedback as discouraging, increasing anxiety and reducing participation This perception is especially impactful in language learning, where self-confidence is essential for practicing the target language Hyland and Hyland (2001) also emphasize that overly critical feedback undermines student confidence and hampers language acquisition, recommending that feedback should focus on positive reinforcement to create a supportive environment Such an approach encourages students to take linguistic risks and respond better to constructive feedback aimed at improvement rather than correction.

According to students, the effectiveness of teacher feedback in meeting their expectations and enhancing learning is reflected in item 7 of the questionnaire The majority of students (90%) believe that their teachers frequently provide positive feedback, which significantly helps them understand lessons more effectively This indicates that consistent positive feedback from teachers plays a vital role in supporting students’ learning experiences.

Figure 4: Students’ preference towards teacher’s praising when giving feedback

Effective teacher support and the avoidance of negative feedback can significantly boost students' motivation and confidence in using the target language According to Ellis (2009), feedback should provide guidance without judgment, enabling students to learn from errors without feeling discouraged Constructive feedback is perceived as an opportunity for growth rather than a critique of abilities, aligning with the consensus that positive or neutral feedback fosters a more conducive learning environment, especially for reserved language learners in the classroom.

4.3.2 The impact of teacher’s corrective feedback on student learning

This article examines the various techniques teachers use to respond to students' errors, including explicit correction, recasts, elicitation-prompts, metalinguistic feedback, clarification requests, repetition, and ignoring The study analyzes audio recordings to identify the frequency of these six major corrective feedback methods, providing insights into teachers' feedback patterns Understanding these techniques is essential for improving language teaching practices and enhancing student learning outcomes.

60 transcript and counted the presence of the four aforementioned strategies

Table 8 presents the count of four correction strategies in each lesson

Table 8: Teacher’s correction strategies in each lesson

No % No % No % No % No % N o

The teacher did not employ Explicit Correction or Meta-linguistic Feedback, likely due to concerns about negative impacts such as student demotivation, anxiety, or decreased participation The absence of Metalinguistic Feedback may also be attributed to the students’ high proficiency level (upper-intermediate to advanced), which resulted in fewer grammatical errors and reduced need for detailed explanations Instead, the teacher focused on other feedback methods, such as Elicitation and Recasts, to promote self-correction and sustain smooth classroom interaction.

Recasts, Clarification Requests, and Repetition constitute a significant portion of teacher feedback, ranging from approximately 11% to 30%, 10% to 23%, and 4% to 16%, respectively Teachers tend to use these strategies mainly when addressing students' errors related to vocabulary choice, pronunciation, or collocations that lead to unintelligibility Typically, teachers signal students to indicate that an error has been identified and prompt them towards correct language use.

61 for reformulation of their non-target language in a subtle way For instance,

between two groups in the classroom, encouraging interaction and engagement This approach helps students connect prior learning to new content, enhancing comprehension and vocabulary retention.

T: so now, please list out all the human activities that you think can lead to the change in climate You cannot repeat your friends’ answers Ok Now, start!

T: please try to be as specific as possible

T: destroy the forests, or deforestation Ok, go on

T: trash burning Ok What else?

T: waste water? (with rise intonation, class laughing) Ah, Ok, sewage Guys, spell that for me

S9: trash bury (with a wrong pronunciation of /ˈb ɜː ri/)

Ss: You said that before, burning

S9: No, burying (with wrong pronunciation), chôn rác

T: Ok, so burying (corrects students’ pronunciation)

T: Ok, so is it burying? Well, it is called landfills Ok, landfills

The teacher frequently used Recasts to acknowledge students’ answers by repeating them, then rephrasing when their vocabulary or pronunciation was inadequate, such as transforming “trash burying” into “landfills.” Recasts not only correct form or vocabulary but also involve relexicalizing students' words into more technical terms When students’ word choices caused misunderstandings, the teacher employed strategies like Repetition followed by Recast, exemplified by clarifying “waste water and sewage” or requesting clarification with “What?”.

Students participated enthusiastically and actively in the activity, demonstrating high engagement The interaction between teachers and students was vibrant and productive, fostering a dynamic learning environment Students actively contributed ideas and provided feedback to both the teacher and their peers, enhancing collaborative learning They also showed appreciation for corrections from the teacher and classmates, as reflected in their positive facial expressions and verbal expressions after receiving feedback.

Although Explicit Correction serves the same function as Recasts, the teacher in this study did not perform any of it or hardly stated explicitly that

The teacher avoided directly correcting students’ incorrect responses to maintain their confidence and encourage ongoing participation Instead, they preferred to provide subtle corrections or prompt students to think further, fostering a positive and engaging learning environment This approach supports student confidence and promotes active engagement in classroom interactions.

Elicitation through prompts is the most preferred error treatment strategy among teachers in this study, accounting for 53% to 70% of classroom interactions This approach is used significantly more often than other methods, encouraging students to self-correct by providing signals beyond simple reformulations Teachers tend to employ cued elicitation and questioning techniques to prompt students to identify and correct their mistakes independently, fostering more challenging learning tasks that enhance students’ critical thinking and response reformulation skills.

Students’ reflection on other aspects of teacher talk

This study explores students' perspectives on the impact of teacher talk on their learning by analyzing responses to open-ended questions 19 to 22, student interviews about their favorite parts of lessons, and their evaluations and suggestions for more effective teacher communication The findings highlight key insights into how teacher talk influences student engagement and understanding, offering valuable guidance for enhancing teaching strategies to improve learning outcomes.

Students valued the teacher's clear instructions and explanations, highlighting how their guidance effectively supported understanding of the material They appreciated the combination of a step-by-step approach and revisiting previously learned concepts, which enhanced their ability to acquire new knowledge and skills Overall, students found the teacher’s instruction crucial for facilitating their learning process and building a solid foundation for further learning.

I enjoy writing sessions because the teacher provides detailed, step-by-step guidance on selecting quality academic reading materials, citing sources accurately, and effectively utilizing gathered information to craft well-structured essays for my courses.

I feel that I have learnt a lot (Long)

A key feature of effective teacher talk is the ability to link ideas logically Teachers often connect new information to students’ prior knowledge, which helps students recall previous lessons and enhances their understanding of new concepts This approach ensures a smooth transition between topics and promotes better comprehension.

The positive influence of effective teacher instruction was clearly demonstrated in item 16 of the questionnaire, where all students unanimously confirmed that the teacher's teaching had a significant impact on their understanding of the lesson content.

Figure 8: Students’ evaluation of the effectiveness of teacher’s instruction

Many students prefer the appropriate and effective use of their first language, Vietnamese, to clarify complex, abstract, and intellectually demanding concepts after multiple attempts by the teacher This approach enhances understanding and supports deeper learning.

I appreciate my teacher's effective teaching methods, which include explaining academic concepts in simple English initially, ensuring clarity for all students When needed, the teacher rephrases the explanations in Vietnamese, allowing every student, including Linh and Trang, to fully understand the course material This bilingual approach enhances comprehension and supports diverse learning needs.

Using visual aids like videos can significantly reduce lecture time, allowing teachers to efficiently convey knowledge to students Incorporating multimedia tools when appropriate enhances learning and makes lessons more engaging This approach enables educators to focus on interactive and personalized instruction, improving overall student understanding and retention.

I would like the teacher to use some more videos whenever possible in order to reduce the time for explaining certain knowledge to us (Minh)

Most students agreed that effective teaching methods, such as breaking complex tasks into manageable phases, referencing past knowledge when introducing new content, and utilizing L1, significantly enhance their understanding and language acquisition Additionally, teacher questions and feedback play a crucial role in supporting student learning and engagement.

70 knowledge and language skills in class Besides, it was also preferable for the teacher to implement other visual tools as an alternative for lecturing whenever possible

Using L1 as a teaching strategy to explain terminologies and academic concepts can challenge the core principles of CLT, which emphasize maximum target language use However, research indicates that judicious use of L1 can be highly beneficial, especially in contexts like Vietnam where students face significant linguistic and cognitive hurdles in EFL classrooms (Pham, 2021) According to Cook (2001), strategic L1 use helps teachers clarify complex grammatical and academic concepts for beginners, reduces cognitive load, and supports easier processing of new information, fostering a more inclusive and effective learning environment.

In the Vietnamese EFL context, traditional teacher-centered practices still dominate, highlighting the need for careful integration of L1 to complement English-medium instruction Teachers should strategically use L1—for instance, to introduce new terminology or clarify misunderstandings—while avoiding overreliance on L1, as excessive use can hinder students’ engagement with the target language This balanced approach is essential for fostering communicative competence and effective language learning (Ellis, 2008).

CONCLUSION