Luận văn an investigation into how to use linking words in the development of speaking and writing skills for the ielts examination

- to compare the frequencies of different semantic categories of linking words ocounreness in TELTS writing task 1, IELTS wailing Task 2 and TEILTS speaking task with a view to clarifyin

LY QUYNH TRANG

AN INVESTIGATION INTO HOW TO USE LINKING

WORDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEAKING AND WRITING SKILLS FOR THE IELTS EXAMINATION

(Nghién ciru vé việc sử dụng từ nỗi trong việc phát triển

kỹ năng nói và viết phục vụ loại hình thi IELTS)

M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Linguistics Code: 60.22.15

IIANOI - 2016

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOT

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST - GRADUATE STUDIES

LY QUYNH TRANG

AN INVESTIGATION INTO HOW TO USE LINKING

WORDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEAKING AND WRITING SKILLS FOR THE IELTS EXAMINATION

(Nghiên cứu về việc sử dụng từ nối trong việc phat triển

kỹ năng nói và viết phục vụ loại hình thi IELTS)

MLA MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Linguistics

Code: G0.22.15

Supervisor: Assoc.Prof.Dr.V6 Dai Quang

HANOI - 2010

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13.4 Semantic calegories oflinking wotds co LS ma

1.4.2 IELTS writing test and writing assessment criteria 22 1.4.3 LELTTS speaking test and speaking assessment criteria 24

CHAPTER2: FINDIXG§ AXD DISCUSSIONS 77 2.1 Fieqneney oflinking words in IELTS Sposking and Wriling 27 2.2 Distribution of semantic cafsgories esneneoreeeeee 2Ể

CHAPTER 3 PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

3.1 Infertms ofeehersnee and cohesioninlEL/[S wriling « 36

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EAP: English for Acadcmic Purpose

ESL: English as Second Language

TDP: International Development Program

IELTS; International English Language Testing System

D-B-R: Point — Explanation - Examples

Th: Task 1

T2: Task 2

Table 3: Additional Linking Words

Table 4: Transitional Linking Words

‘Table 5: Summation Linking Words

Table 6: Appositive Linking Words

‘Table 7: Cause and Result Linking Words

Table 8: Inferantial Linking Words

Table 9: Contrasting Lánking Wordi

‘Table 10: LEL'Y'S Speaking Vormat

Table 11; Froqueney of linking words

‘Table 12: Semantic categories Distribution in 11

Table 13: Semantic categories Distribution in T2

Table 14; Semantic categories Distribution in Speaking

‘Table 15: Cautious Language

INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale

Language is fimetioned as means to maintain and set up social relations, people in all circumstances get involved in cxpressing their fecling, attitudes and opinions, Therefore, nowadays, when globalization is a worldwide tendency and especially after Vietnam joined WTO, Vietnarnese find Tnglish - the inlernational language more important and necessary

to leam than ever before, Over the decades, there have been a growing number of English learners wishing to stady at tertiary level in English speaking countries As a result, many English as Second Language (SL) students are enrolled in Linglish for Academie Purposes (EAP) courses which provide the opporlunily to acquire csscntial skills for their prospective studies in Englishmedium universities (ie, courses taught in English at universities in Anglophone or non-Anglophone countries) Besides acquiting academic skills, EAP courses have other aims, such as to support non-native English spcaker students to go through English language tests such as the International English Language Testing Systems (IDITS), which is widely recognized as a langnage requirement for entering universities maindy in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand and many other countries around the world Academic essay-writing and speaking are two of the four skills which international students mmst acquire both for their prospective studies in English-mediated tmiversity courses and for ohizining the requiring score in the writing and speaking section of the IELTS,

Linking words arc crucial in writing and spcaking in that they help readers / listeners recognize the relationships between ideas and follow the thread of messages that the writer wanls lo convey By connecting individual clauses, sentences and paragraphs into a single theme, linking words make obvious and visible the writers / speakers’ “line of thought”

However, during my process of teaching IKL1'S for my students, 1 come to realize that the

students lack the adequate linguistic knowledge ta convey their idcas when wriling or speaking and they have difficulties in choosing a link word that appropriately expresses the logical relations between ideas and thus the whole message of their text is vague, unlogical and meoberent As a result, this obstacle affect their ISLS band score and limit

their opportunities of further study.

effort or spent sufficient time comprehend the use of linking words Concequently, these lwo sections should deserve more atlention to be sludied and discussed because of the greal

importance of lingking words and the increasing popularity of IELTS in Vietnam,

in conclusion, stom all the considered reasons, J find it necessary and useful to carry out a study on kinking words and their application in ILLT'S writing and speaking Í do hope that English learners and T myself would be more clear about the use af fink words lo express

our icads courcetly and cfifcctively

2 Aims of the study

This study is targoted al prosonting an investigalion in the use of linkitys words in IELTS

writing and speaking it atrernpts:

- to provide a systematic and comprehensive overview of cohesion and inking words

as one type of cohesive device

- to compare the frequencies of different semantic categories of linking words ocounreness in TELTS writing task 1, IELTS wailing Task 2 and TEILTS speaking task with a view to clarifying the typical categories for each task

- to suggest some implications for teaching and Icarning linking words in order to express our ideas precisely and comprehensibly as well as to improve students’ IRLTS band score

3 Scupe of the study

Within the limited time and knowledge, it is not my ambition to mention all issues of discourse analysis, The study is mainly focused on the use of linking words as one type of cohesive device at clausal and sentence Jevels in the two skills tested in IELTS academic module: writing and speaking within seven main categories in I5 sample answers, that is

Listing, Transition, Summation, Appasition, Cause / Result, Inference and Contrasting

Finally, the study will not try to propose all possible solutions to cohesion teaching and

some implicalion which is expected to help English us

learning but only sugg

general and IELTS examinees employ linking words more precisely and effectively

4 Significance of the study

In terms of theoretical significance, the study brings with it the task to verify the

correctness and significance if linguistic theory by working on IEL1'S speaking and writing samples It is hoped to improve the existing ideas on linking words to satisfy the individuals’ questions

in terms of practical significanec, this research gives out some applications such as

combining linguitis theory and practice in analyzing Hnglish spoken and written discourse

of IELTS in addition, the study suggest some implication for English teachers and leamers

to gain offective use of linking words in expressing ideas and then they would be able to

raise their IELTS band score as well as ther English competence

5.1 Approaches

So as lo achieve the objectives of the study, we have lo follow both qualitative and quantitative approaches, which are strategic methods in the study However, quantitative approach is exploited most of the time to search for the frequency of linking words occurrence and their semantic calegories distribution in the two skills TELTS speaking and writing Qualitative study is also usefid for us to work out if there are links among clauses and sentences in IEIL1'S speaking and writing answers, and how we can apply the discourse analysis of inking words in 15 samples to improve the TRILTS writing and spoaking

cohesive and coherence band score

The rescarch questions cxplored in this study arc as follows:

1 What are the occurrence frequencies of linking words in IELTS Speaking and Writing? is there any difference between speaking and writing T'1 and 12?

2 What are the most common semantic categories of linking words used in

writing Tl and T2 and speaking?

3 What are the possible implications of the study?

analysis and grammar to build up the Iheoretienl background for ths rescarch The study takes the theory of discourse analysis as a base on which the most noticeable cohesive devices of IELTS writing and speaking samples are examined

Then, the paper will be based on reviewing ITL-TS Preparation and Practice materiats in order to collect and classify linking words for description, armilysis and induction

Besides, the tackling methods arc statistic (getting Ihe statistics from IELTS speaking and writing samples); analytical (examining in detail the statistics and also analyzing the data obtained) and synthetical (drawing striking features from the analysis)

Also, we apply inductive reasoning to move from less general to more general statements Thal is from typical cxamples of the use of linking words in TELTS samples, we process and analyze these data and then draw out pedagogical implications for English teachers

and learners

5.2.2 Data collection

Population is all members of any well-defined class of people, events ar objects On the other hand, it is the large group from which the goneralization is made as a mamber of people who has at least the same characteristic The population of this study is all IELTS writing and Speaking sample answers in effective and popular series for TRITS

Preperation and Practice which ineluds Cambridge Practice Tests for FETS 1-7, KAPLAN IELTS, 10] Hints for IELTS, 202 Hints for IELTS, IELTS Practice Tests 1 -2, IELTS Test Builder 1-2, New Insight into LELT'S, IELTS Graduation, Focusing on IELTS speaking and listening; Writing and Reading

A sample is a portion of population Iltal is observed The sample of this sindy is 15 sample answers (five writing task 1 answers, five task 2 answers and five speaking answers) which are chosen on linking words employment basis, that is to say, 1 extract the answers whose occurrence of linking words is of high frequency and these samples have lo be model

answers written by IELTS exarniners or candidates who achieved IELTS band score 7 and

higher ‘Therefore, the tectmique applied here is purposive random sampling According to

ction conducted based on the

Wiersma (1991:265) “purposive sampling is the

characteristics of the units (sites or individual) relevant to the research problems”

15 IELTS written and spoken discourses are picked out based on the samples choosing method mentioned above Moreover, for IELTS writing, there are two tasks: Task 1 and

stions so Lhe sarnples cho should also

Task 2 amd cach task have different types of qu

ensue tus diversity, In Task 1, examinees are given questions containing some visual information such as graphs (tables, lines, bars, pie charts) and diagrams, ixaminees are expected to writs a short, description oCinformation presented in the visuat data Therefore

I chose three samples of describing graphs and two samples of describing diagram to investigate the use of linking words As for Task 2, there are three main types of questions: argumentative essay, discursive essay and account essay and 30 I chose two samples of

argumentative type, two samples of discursive type and onc sampic of account type

hl To introduce an additional idea or reinfereernent Lthl

b To show temporal relation (simultancous or chronological | L2b

b, To introduce a restatement or explanation Ls

Table 1; Semantic categories codes of Linking words

The next step is to number the sentences in each sample answer and then read through the

answers to find the link between sentences and work out the employment of linking words

in terms of sermantic function uscd And thus we have Lo tabulate fiz asc of Hnking words

for each text, that is, each text will be analyzed using a table that is divided into four

columns: No, Sentence No, Cohesive itent and Semantic categary Attention is focused on

the frequencies of tinking words occurred in those samples

6 Design ofthe study

‘The study is designed in the following parts:

INTRODUCTION

‘This part introduces rationale for choosing the topic, aims, scopes, significance, mncthodology and organization of the sluxty

DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 1: Literature review is the theoretical foundation of cohesion, ling wards, IELTS writing and TELTS sepcaking on which the study is based and set up

Chapter 2: Findings and Discussions provides a summary of major findings of the low

and high frequencies of different kinds of linking words and some comparisons between JEL'S writing task 1 and task 2 and IELTS speaking

Chapter 3: Pedagogical implications of the study gives suggestions for imepoving cohence and coheston in speaking and writing in general English and IELTS examination CONCLUSION,

‘This part summarises major findings of the study, gives concluding remarks and suggestions for further study

Discourse analysis is a rapidly growing and evolving Geld Current rescarch in this ñcld now flows from mmmerous academic disciplines that are very different fom one another Included, of course, are the disciplines in which models for understanding, and methods for analyzing, discourse first developed, such as linguistics, anthropology, and philosophy Given this disciplinary diversity, it is no surprise that the farms “discourse” and “discourse analysis” have different meanings to scholars in different fields

So abundant are definitions of discourse that many Linguistics books on the subject now open wilh a survey of definitions In their collection of classie papers in discourse analysis, for example, Jaworski and Coupland (1999; 1-3) include ton definitions from a wide range

of sources, They all, however, fall into the three main categories noted above: (1) anything beyond the senlence, (2) language use, and (3) @ broader range of sociat practice thai includes nonlinguistic and nonspecific instances of language

Text and discourse analysis is one arca of linguistics, the systematic Study of language

‘The best way to understand what text and discourse analysis is about is to compare it with another area of linguistics: grammar

Granumar (or ayntax, a8 it is sometimes called) deals mainly with the structure of individual sontences For instance, thc rules of English grammar tell us that if some English words are combined as in example (1) below, they form an acceptable English sentence:

(D Ifyou want advice or practical help with health matters, ask you fantily doctor,

district nurse or health visitor

The rules of grammar icll us thal ifwe cornbine these words differently, as in (2), thuy do

not form an acceptable English sentence:

(2) Visitor health or nurse district, doctor family your ask, maiters health with help

practical or advice want you if

Grammar, then, is basically about how words combine to form sentences, Some people think that grammar is about how ta write and speak property, so that ‘correct grarnmnar would have us say things like ‘Whom do you want? rather than TPho đo you want®, But grammar in linguistics does not try to lay down how people should speak and write; it tries

to describe how people actually do speak and write

that may be Jonger thin onc text and discourse analysis is about how sentences combine to form texts Take these three

sentences

technology Which ix why the computer equipment used in schaols has to be

designed and built to a standard above and beyond the normal call of duty A

standard that's set by Research Machines

Combined in this way, the three sentences fit together to make an acceptable text, It may not be a vary interesting or exciting text, but it is certainly all right As with the individual sentones in (1) it docsnt break any rules or sound wrong or give the impression that whoever wrote it hasn't learned English properly Now Jet's combine the sentences differently:

4 Which is why the computer equipment used in schools has to be designed

and huilt to a standard ahove and beyond the normal call af dutv? It's practically

impossible to restrain children when they get to grips with technology A standard

that's set by Research Machines

Now the sentences don't fit together in a sensible way There's nothing wrong with the individual seutences (just as in (2) there is nothing wrong with the individuat words), It's the way the sentences are combined which is wrong

In grammar we say that a sentence such as (2) that docsn't work is ungrammatical

One of the key issues in text and discourse analysis is to find exactly what it is that makes some texts hang together while other texts are incoherent

we say (hat a lex Tike (4) that docsn't, work is

If we look at examples (3) and (4), it's not hard to see what is wrong with (4) Most

cond senlcnee of (3) refer

us the feeling (hal we are in the aiddle of a lext and (hal we have missed the begimming, while example (3) can stand on its own,

‘Another thing that makes example (3) coherent is the way the words it standard mn the third sentence refer back to the same words in the previous sentence When the sentences are rearranged in exampl: (4) this linking of words docsn'L work, because another sentence

gcts in the way

We can see fiom these examples that a coherent text has certain words and expressions in

it which link the sentences together Expressions like whieh is why, and the use of

repetition, arc known as cohesive devices, thoy arv like the gluc which holds di (ferent parls

of a text together Cohesive devices are only onc factor in making a text coherent, bul they are a good place to start the study of text and discourse because they are quite easy to

identify Just as important in making texts coherent are the intentions, expectations and

background knowledge of the text producer (Ihe speaker or writer) and the text reeciver (the hearer or reader)

1.2 Cohesion versus coherence

1.2.1 Cohesion

There are many definitions of the term “cohesion” defined by linguists, According to

‘Nunan (1993:116), cohesion is the formal links that mark various types of inter-clause and inter-scntence relationships within discousc, A simple definition is given by Yule

(1985.190), he deÑnes cohesion as ties and connection which exist within the text

Similarly, Talliday and Tlasan (1976-4) explain thal the concept of cohesion is a sammantic unit one which reférs to relation of meaning that exists within a text and that defines it as text

Halliday and Hasan (1976: 4) add that this echesion occurs when the interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another The one presupposes the other,

1

in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded, except by recourse fo it When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up and the two elements, the presupposing clerncrt

and presupposed element, are thereby at least potentially integrated into text

Halliday and Hasan (1976-5) fiuther explain that cohesion is pat of the system of a language ‘The potential for cohesion lies in the systematic resources of reference, ellipsis,

and so on that arc tuilt inlo language itself) The actuslization of cohesion in any gi instance, however, depends not merely on the selection of some option from within these resources, but also on the presence of some other elements which resolve the presupposition that this sels up A cohesive relation is sel up only if the same word or a word related to it has occured previously Thus cohesion lies in the relation sct up between two elements in the text

It is worth quoting the definition of cohesion fom the Longman Dietionary of Applied

Linguislies: cohesion is the grammatical and / or lexical relationships between the different,

elements of a text This may be the relationship between different senicnees or between

different parts ofa sentence

In conclusion, cohesion is basically used to refer to the range of possibilities that exist for linking something with what has gone before, as the verb “cohere”, “sticking together”

mean

1.2.2 Types of cohesion

In Halliday and Hassan’s point of view (1976: 5), cohesion is expressed partly through the granmnar and parlly Ihrough the vocabulary We can therefore reer to lexical cohesion and

grammatical cohesion The former involves repetition, synonymy, antonymy and

collocation The latter inchide four major grammatical means: reference, substitution,

ellipsis and conjunctions

llowever, cohesion and coherence are interrelated Cohesion is seen as one way 8 of

indiealing coherence but it would be a mislake to identify it with cohercnee, and assume

that there is one-to-one correspondence between them

1.3 Linking words

1.3.1 The notion of linking words

Linking words are vital to the success of any essay They are the bread and butter of writing They are the glue that holds essays together We can think of bricks building a house without mortar, we will scc that linking words hold the same importance, and thus

we need those words and phrases to join sentences and thoughts together in @ coherent

fashion

Linking words, for Me Carthy (1991: 46), do not set off a search backward or forward for their referents but they do presuppose a textual sequence, and signal a relationship between segments of the discourse

Cook (1989; 21} states that link words are words and phrases which explicitly draw attention to the study of relationship which exists between one sentence or clause and another white in Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar tinking words arc defined as amt umbrella term for any word that joins two linguistic units

As regards to the term “link words”, it is ncecssary to note that there are many other words

or phrases which may be used to reter to this kind of discoursal cohesion and coherence Alice Oshima and Ann Hogue used the term trumsition signals in the book titled “Writing Academic Linglish* — which show how ons idea is related to the next so as to achieve

paragraph coherena:

Michael Swan, the author of Practical English Usage” prefers the term discourse markers

to refer to any word or expression which shows the connection between what is being said and the rest of discourse

Besides, there is another term connectors which is used by Sylvia Chalker in her book

“Guide te Linking words” — one of series of COBUILD ENGLISI] GUIDES Linking

13

words or connectors deal with the words or phrases that link one sentence or one clause

with another, showing {he connections

Tn conclusion, it would sound agreeable Lo use the termi linking words lo refer to every kind

of lexical items which serve as linking markers to link ideas in English discourse

1.3.2 Types of linking words

As classified by Alice Oshima and Ann Togue (2005: 42), linking words can be of four groups by grammatical function: sentence connectors, coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions and others (including prepositions, determiners and all the like)

According to Oxford Dictionary of Linglish Grammar, linking words include coordinating conjunctions (c.g, and, bul), subordinaling conjunctions (c.g although, because, when) and comjunets (c.g in addition, morcover, meanwhile, nevertheless) Conjuncts are sometimes called linking adjuncts ot linking adverb(ial)s, This way of categorization is the one which we choose lo follow during the investigation af the use of linking words in IELTS speaking and writing,

1.3.3 Conjuncts and Conjunctions

It is essential for us to make clear about the relationship between conjumcts and conjunctions (subordinators and coordinators) because sometimes they arc overlapped by zach other These two types have both similarities and ditferences Both of them can in a general sense be termed linkers because they share the same semantic linking function

However they arc also casily realized by the syntactic distinctions bolwecn thom Firstly,

this is general true when conjunctions are restricted to clause-initial position

E.g: John plays the guitar, and his sister plavs the piano

*John plays the guitar: hiy sister and plays ihe piano

But it is not truc for most conjuncts They are more flexible and can occur in different positions: initial, medial or final positions

E.g: John plays the guitar; his sister, moreover, plays the piano

Does she still live in Rome then?

Secondly, coordinated clauses are sequentially fixed in relation to the previous clause and

therefore cannot be Lransposed without producing unacceplable sonlenees or at teas!

changing the relationship of the clauses

E.g: They ave living in London or they are on holiday there

*0r they ara on holiday in London, they are living there

This is also true for conjuncts

Eg: Thave done all the homework So I can go out with pou

*§o 7 can go oul with you I have done all the homework

Bul this is not iruc for most suborlinators

Eg: Although Mary wanted it, John gave it away

John gave it away although Mary wanted it

‘The third difterence is that coordinators are not preceded by a conjunction but conjuncts as well as subordinators can usually be preceded by conjunctions

F.g: Thave done all the homework, and so Ï can go out with yor

+He was unhappy about it, and but he did what he was told

Fourthly, coordinators such as and, or and but allow ellipsis of the subject of the clause they introduce if the subject is co-referential with that of the preceding linked clause However it does not apply to most conjunets

E.g: Imay see you tomorrow or (2) may phone you later w the day

*He went to bed late, nevertheless (he) felt tired

Another difference is that coordinators like avd and or can link subordinate clauses but it is not possible for conjuncts

£.g: L wonder whether yau should go and see him or whether it is better ta write to

hina

15

1.3.4 Semantic categories of linking words

In both written and spoken discourse, our goal is to convey information clearly and concisely, if not to convert Ihe reađor and / or lislencr lo our way of thinking Linking words help us to achieve these goals by cstablishing logical connections between sentences, paragraphs, and sections of your papers Effeetively constructing each linking words oflen depends upon our abilily to identify words or phrases thal will indicate for the reader the kind of logical relationships we want to convey A variety of logical relationship holding between discourses can be marked by linking words owing to their diffrent

Meaning / function Sentence Connectors Coordinators | Subordinators

To Enumerate First(ly), second(ly), third(ly)

One , two, three Next, then, last, lastly, finally For one thing, for another thing

To begin with / To start wilh

In the first place, In the second

b Addition

‘Table 2: Knumerative Linking Words

The relationship of addition is used to introduce contimation and is often conveyed by two

classes of additive linking words: reinforcing and equative words Reinforcing words

simply mark the next unit of discourse as being added to the previous one; equative words

show oxplicilly an indication [hal Ihe socơnd ilom is

the items in the table below

nilar to the first The:

cover

Meaning / function Sentence Connectors Coordinators | Suhordinafors

To introduce an| Also, besides, fimthermore, moreover | and

additional idea In addition, above all, again, what is

more, in particular Another — noun Anadditional + noun

To introduce an|Simlariy, Hkewnse, also, equally | And, As, just as

aguative correspondingly Both and

Inthe same way, by the same token not only but

Table 3: Additional Linking Words

1.3.4.2 Transition

‘Transition by nature is a turn to a new stage m the sequence of thought, This class can be

divided into two sub-categories: discoursal and temporal linking words

4 Discoursal words

Discoursat words serve to shift attention to another topic, a new ineident in the story, anew

point in the argument, a new role or allitude being taken on by the writer / spzaker and so

on The new topic is not incompatible with what is linked to but rather it is signaled as only

loosely connected or unconnected

b.— Temporal words

Temporal linking words are used as signal for marking the transition to a temporally

related event or to clarify chronological order

As for, with regard to

‘Talking of speaking of

chronological order” | jroanwile, meantime while, until, as

soon as Next, last, finally

Summation is a process to generalize or sum up what has boon discussed or said carlicr

Summative words introduce an item that embraces the preceding ones so they are often

used to mark summation.

Meaning / function Sentence Connectors Coordinators | Suhordinators

To introduce a Allin all, altogether, overall,

conclusion or generally, thus, therefore

summary ‘Yo conclude, to summarize, to sum up

In summary, in conclusion, in sum

Ou the whole, in general All things considered,

Table 5: Summation Linking Words 1.3.4.4 Apposition

Apposition is considered very applicable to the process of information retrieval

Apposition linking words can be used to show that the second unit is to be taken as a

restatement of the first, reformlating the information it expresses in some way or stating it

plicit torms, In sorne có ond unit ofa tox is an example of the provieus:

It is therefore presented as information that is in some sense included in, rather than

exactly equivalent to the previous text

‘An example oft noun

‘To introduce a ‘That is, indeed, ie

restalement or In other words, in fact

Table 6: Appositive

king Words

19

1.3.4.5 Cause and Result

Some linking words are used to indicate the result or consequence or the cause of what was

mentioned or said in the preceding sentences

Toresull in, The result of

Tn consequence, the consequence of

Aninfererwe rom what is implici( in the preceding scrlence ar sontenees can be indicated

by the following infercntial linking words

ed

units, or [hal signal concessive relationships This catcgory, thus, is more clearly divi

into three subcategories, that is replacernent, antithetic and concession

Reformulation and replacement introduce another way of saying the same things

Reformulation is a bit different from replacement in the way that the former indicate a

with an implicit denial of the truth in the previous sentence or introduce a comparison or

contrast without entailing a denial of the validily of whal preceded

Mcaning/ function Sentence Connectors Coordinators | Subordinators

‘Tointroduce Better, rather, More accurately more

replacement prcciscly, In other words

To introduce opposite Conversely, contrastingly, But Whereas

Nevertheless, On the contrary, on the

other hand

by /in contrast, by /in comparison

To introdnce Towever, notwithstanding Although

Regardless oft noun

Al the same time

, the International English Language ‘Testing System, is designed to assess the

language abilily of candidatas who nod Lo study or work whare English is the language of

communication, IELTS is jointly managed by the University of Cambridge ESOL

Examinations (Cambridge ESOL), British Council and IDP: LiLTS Australia ELIS

conforms ta Ihe highest intemationat standards of language asscssmenl IL covers the four

language skills — listening, reading, wriling and spcaking

IELTS is available in two formats Academic and General Training The Academic

Reading and Writing tests assess whether a candidate is ready to study or train in the

medium of Rnglish al an undergraduate or postgraduate level Admission ta undergraduate

and postgraduate courses is based on the results of these tasts The General Training

Reading and Writing tests are not designed to test the full range of formal language skills

required for academic purposes, but emphasize basic survival skills in a broad social and

educational context, General Training is suilable far candidates who are going to English-

speaking, countries to complete their secondary education, to undertake work experience or

training programs not at degree level, or for immigration purposes lo Anstralia, Canada

and New Zcaland Both the Academic and General Training modules cover the four

language skills — listening, reading, writing and speaking, Al candidates take the same

Listening and Spsaking components, There are different Reading and Writing components

for the Acadcnic and General Traiing modules, Both modulus are graded using: cxactly

the same criteria, so there is no difference in the level of English The distinction ites in the

1.4.2 IELTS writing test and writing assessment criteria

‘rhe Writing component takes 60 minutes to complete and consists of two tasks ‘Task 1 requires candidates to write at least 150 words and ‘ask 2 requires candidates to write at least 250 words For both lasks, candidates need lo demonstrate their ability lo wrile 4 response which is appropriate in terms of content, vocabulary and the organization of

a point of view, argament or problem, Candidales arg roquired lo wrile ina formal style for

Doth tasks

Murking and assesyment

Each task is assessed independently The assessment of Task 2 carries more weight in marking than ‘Task 1 Writing responses are assessed by certificated IELTS examiners All IELTS examiners hold relevant teaching qualifications and are recruited as examiners by the lest certlors and approved by Brilish Council or TDP: TELTS Australia

Detaited performance descriptors have heen developed which deseribe written performance at the nine IELTS bands Public versions of these descriptors are available on the IELTS website The descriptors apply to both the Academic and General Training Modules and are based on the following criteria,

Task | responses aro assasscd on:

“Task Achievement

Coherence and Cohesion

Lexical Resource

+Grammatical Range and Accuracy

‘Task 2 responses are assessed om:

“Lask Response

*Coherence and Cohesion

+Lexical Resowree

+Grammatical Range and Accuracy

Coherenve und Cohesion

This criterion is concerned with the overall clarity and fluency of the message: how the response organizes and links information, ideas and language Coherence refers to the linking of ideas through logical sequencing Cohesion refers to the varied and appropriate usc of cohesive devices (for cxample, logical connectors, pronouns and conjunctions) to assist in making the conceptual and referential relationships between and within sentences clear

Lexical Resource

This criterion refers to the range of vocabulary the candidate has used and the accuracy and approptiacy of that use in terms of the specific task

Grammatical Range and Accuracy

This criterion refers to the range and accurate use of the candidate's grammatical resource

as manifostcd in the eandidate’s writing at thc sentence level

Task 1: Task Achievement

This criterion assesscs how appropriately, accuratcly and rofevantly the response fulfils the requirements set out in the task, using the minimum of150 words Academic Writing Task

1 is a wriling task which has a defined mput and a largely predictable output Tl is basically

an information-transfer task which relates narrowly to the factual content of an input

diagram and not to speculated zxplanations that lie outside the given data

Task 2: Task Response

290 words in length Scripts under the required minimum word limit will be penalized

Scores ars reporied in whole and hal bands

1.4.3 TELTS speaking lest and speaking assessment criteria

The Speaking test takes between [1 and 14 minutes and consists of an oral interview between the candidate and an examiner All Speaking tests are recorded, The structure of

the test is summarized below

Examiner introduces hunvherself and confirms

Part 1: Introduction _candidale’s identity

4-5 minutes

and interview Rxarniner interviews candidate using verbak

questions selected from thmiliar topic tiames

Examiner asks candidate to speak for 1 2 minutes | 3 4 minutes

Part 2: Individual ona particular topic hased on written input inthe | (ineluding 1

long form of a candidate task card and content- focused | minute

tum prompts Examiner asks onz or two questions to preparation

Parl 3 Two-way Examiner inviles candidatz to participale in

discussion of a more abstract nature, based on 4 Sminutes

discussion verbal questions thematically linked to Part 2 topic

Table 10; IELTS Speaking Format

Task types

‘There are three parts to the test and each part fillills a specific fimetion in terms of

inleraction patlern, task input and candidate oulpal Tn Part T candidates answer general

questions about themselves, their homes/families, their jobs/studies, their interests, and a Tange of farniliar logic areas This part lasts between four and five minutes

In Parl 2 the candidate is given a verbal prompl on a card and is asked fo talk on a particular topic, The candidate has one minute to prepare before speaking at length, for between one and two minutes ‘'he examiner then asks one or two rounding-off questions

In Part 3 the examiner and candidate engage in a discussion of more abstract issues and concepts which are thematically linked to the topic prompt in Part 2 The discussion lasts between four and five minutes

Marking and assessment

Speaking performances are assessed by ccrtifieated IELTS examiners All IELTS examiners hold relevant teaching qualifications and are recruited as examiners by the test centres and approved by British Council or IDP: IELTS Australia

Detailed performance descriptors have been developed which desoribe spoken porfornemes at the nine TRITS bands Public versions of thasc descriplors ara available on

the IELTS website

Fluency ond Coherence

This criterion rears to the ability to talk with normal levels of continuity, rate and effott and to link ideas and language together to form coherent, connected speech The key indicators of fluency are speech rate and speech continuity ‘The key indicators of coherence arc logical scquencing af sentences, clear marking of stages in a discussion,

range of sentence structures, especially to move elements around for information focus The key indicators of grammatical accnracy are (he nuriber of grammatical exrors ina given amount of speech and the communicative effect of error

Firstly, it is necessary to mention the concept of discourse, discourse analysis versus text

so that we can make it clearer whal toxd and discourse analysis is about

Secondly, the writer finds it essential to review the concept of cohesion as well as

coherence if we aim to study linking words as cohesive devices,

Another important part in this chapter is the notion of linking words and their different grammar fimetions and most importantly, the seven semantic categories which are investigated through the samples

Finally, the chapter includes some general information of IELTS speaking and writing skills which is mainly about the tasks’ format and how they arc marked and assessed

In conclusion, all the thoorics prosented in this chapler aro Tot only for the sake of the

study itself bat to some extent, it is also expected to be used as a reference material to

assist lònglish learners who are having difficulty in using linking words to express their

idcas.

CHAPTER2: EINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

‘A careful review of some conoepls involving discourse and cohzsion, espeoially linking

words in chapter 1 is the background for the author to build up chapter 2 Chapter 2 aims at

cxploring the Gequency of linking words through the dala collection

2.1 Frequency of linking words in IELTS Speaking and Writing

In finding the frequency of linking words used in IELTS spoken and written texts, some

srl] efforis were made to calculate the mucber of sentences containing linking words and

the tolal manber of scntences ïn 15 tœxls Tho lable below shows the proportion of

sentences containing linking words over the total number of sentences to answer the

question about whether linking words appear often in IEL1'S Speaking and Writing

Table 11: Frequency of linking words

From the table, i is apparent that the amount of sentences containing linking words is very

high, 252 out of the total 465, accounting for 54.2%, This means thal, on average, linking

words of any type occurs in every two sentences, This high ratio of linking words defines

their indispensable role in IL'S speaking and writing answers of high band scores (ftom

7 band and higher) as mentioned in chapter 1 that one of the criteria of IELTS writing and

Another feature that can be seen from the lable is thal Enking words accurred in writing much more frequently than in speaking, 77% compared to 44.8%, This is not surprising since waiting tends to be more formal and more planned than speech, and thus would show

a preference for more commectors A very important aspect of wriling is pre

Wilh regards to writing T and T2, there is muininal disparity in the nse of linking words,

77.4% in comparison with 76.7% because both tasks require appropriate use of cohesive

devices (for example, logical connectors, pronouns and conjunctions)

2.2 Distribution of semantic categaries

Afler # painstaking process of working with the dala chosen, we obtain the occurrence frequency of different semantic categories of lurking words which have been discussed in chapter 1 In this part, the study investigates the distribution of semantic categories of writing T1, writing T2 and speaking

a Writing Task F

At the first glance at the below table, it is obvious that transition takes the largest part 34.48% in which temporal linking words is in the majority, accounting for 29.31% The preference of temporal words in ‘1 could be partly explained by the task requirement, Specifically, TI requires TRI-TS examinees to describe trends and features over a period of time or describing a process so they need to use temporal relation to signal simultaneous or chronological order T'ake the following example as an illustration

- .(2According to the diagram, the first step for the life cycle of a product 1s

product planning and design which is the most significant step for customers as an appearwace ()Secondly suppliers huve to prepare all of the materials which they

~_ „-.4)The second stage involves conducting suitable research (5)Notes are taken

from available literature at the library, and data collected from questionnaires, interviews and surveys (6)Writing the first draft is the third stage (7)First, it is necessary to organize the content of the essay, and produce a brief outline (8)Next,

the draft is written in the acceptable formal academic style, and checked for

appropriate language (Task 1 — essay 5)

- {From then on, the percentage of unemployed workforce in United States

remained roughly the same — ahout 3% until March 99, although there were minor falls and rises in the unemployment rate ‘Task 1 essay 1)

- (GAs for Jupun, the percentage of umenployed fell rapidly by 0.S—0.6% after March 1996, but from summer 1996 and onwards it grew steadily and without any falls to reach $.0% houndary in March 1999 (Task 1— essay 1)

Listing linking words come the third with the occurrence percentage being 15.52% which arc used to introduce cnumeration and additional idcas and thus they help to clarify the

main trends or features described

- DThe first is the manber of Internet users for each country (The second is

the percentage this comprises of the country's population {5)The third is the

travelling Jor business has also increased (Task 1 essay 3)

Right after Listing, the fowith position is of cause / result words with 13.79% of occwrence but the occurrence of result words are more common than causal signals (8.62% versus 5.17%) This situation is duc to the fact thal in T1, cxaminces arc tested to objectively dcscribe the information, report if without the use of opinion, therefore there is little chance for them to explain of the trends given,

Also, the objective characteristic of T'l leads ta minor percentage of apposition (3.45%), summation (1.72%) and inference (3.179%)

b Writing Task 2

‘The distribution of semantic categories of the linking words used in five ‘T2 answers

chosen is presented in Table 13 below

Itis clear from the table that the most common scummic calogory in T2 is cause / resull, accounting for 35.37% with 26.83% preference for resultant words which arc uscd to mark

the conclusions that the writers expect the readers to draw and to connect the waiters ‘claim

to supporting [acs as in the examples below

31

- d)First of all, if plane tickets become more expensive, many people might reconsider their way of travelling (5)Therefore this would certainly encourage more of them to take a train to travel short distances, from a European country to

another, for example (6)As a result of this, air traffic could decrease and new

airport construction could not be needed (Task 2 — essay 1)

* (7)Without teachers it will be impossible to know the basic levels of education, so teachers build students progress socially, intellectually and educationally (8)As a

consequence of this teachers should be valued according to this very essential role

for the society (Task 2 — essay 2)

Table 13: Semantic categories Distribution in T2

The second position is taken by listing category with 21.95% of occurrence When exploring this logical relation, writers spent 9.76% of occurrence introducing additional ideas and 8.54% more enumerating and 3.66% introducing equative relation This