Luận văn uet it sophomores' english learning strategies for reading skills

Language learning strategies for reading skills 12.1, Direct learning strategies 12.1.1.. It wishes to achieve the three primary aims 6 to know IT sophomors: reading skills ii to exp

UET IT SOPHOMORES’ ENGLISH LEARNING

STRATEGIES FOR READING SKILLS: AN

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

NGHTEN CUU CHIEN LUQC HOC TIENG ANH DANH CHO KY NANG

DOC CUA SINH VIEN NAM THỨ HAI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HOC CONG NGHỆ,

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HA NỘI

M.A THESIS

MINOR THESIS

FIELD: METHODOLOGY CODE: 601410

HANOT - 2010

ĐỖ HÀ LAN

UET IT SOPHOMORES?ENGLISH LEARNING

STRATEGIES FOR READING SKILLS: AN

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

NGHIÊN CỨU CHIẾN LUOC HOC TIENG ANH DANH CHO KY NANG

BOC CUA SINH VIEN NAM THU HAI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC CÔNG NGHẸ,

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HA NOI

HANOT - 2010

4, Methods of the study

Scope of the stndy

a Significance: of the sindy

Design of the study

PART TWO - DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1 —LITERATURE REVIEW

LLL, Language learning strategies

LLL Definitions of language learning stralegies

„

1.1.2 Features of language learning strategies

L1.3 Importance of language learning strategies

1.1.4 ‘Types of langnage leaming strategies

1.2 Language learning strategies for reading skills

12.1, Direct learning strategies

12.1.1 Memory strategies 1.2.1.2, Cognitive sirategies 42.13 Compensation strategies 1.2.2 Indirect learning strategies

1.2.2} Metacognitive strategies

12.2.2 Affective strategies 7.2.2.3 Social strategies

111 ‘The setting of the study

ta

.

1121.2 Research approach

4121.3 Data collection

11.2.2 Data analysis

H2.2.4 Awareness and attitudes towards English learning strategies

for reading skills

11.222 Learning strategies for reading skills used hy sophomores of 1

TLL Raising students" awarcniess

IIL2 Sclecting strategies

LLL3 Integrating strategies into reading syllabus

TILA, Focusing on indireel stralcgios

PART I - INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale

English is a computsory subject lo students of Information Tochnology Faculiy OT Faculty), University of Engineering and Technology (UET), Vietnam National University

(VNU) Any student who wants to earn an IT’ degree needs to take four English courses

with 14 credils Though the required level of English courses is only pre-intermediate, a lot

of students find it hard to pass the courses, not to mention to have high grades, It is even more surprising to find that the majority of students attending information ‘Technology Faculty, Universily of Bngincering and Technology have loan English for at toast three

‘years at high school before going to college One of their problems with learning this language is that all they have tried to do is memorization instead of having appropriate

English leming siralc 2 strategies are nol only essential lo siudenls whil

lcaming English al college but also useful for their own sclf-study ones Uicy graduate, It is

no doubt that Information Technology students need English tor their future jobs

Among all the English skills Information Technology students learn at college, reading skills is the one thal is paid much allention within the course syllabus TT students spend more lem 8 quariar of their tite in class lowning roading skills among all the language skills and elements Reading skills also accounts for 50% of the grades students may get in English exams Reading skills is also the skills that [f students use the most after graduation, Bosides, il is widely belicved among (cachers that knowledge is immense (IT is

an ever-changmg, field) and thus, there is no pout in trying to teach students everything, More importantly, teachers should motivate them to leam and teach them how to Ieam so that they can study by themselves and for themsclves Accordingly, during the teaching and learning process, special emphasis is placed on creating a positive leaming environment, developing students’ autonomy and creativity, teaching stady skills, and building shuekmts? confidence Thal is why teachars al English {or Taformution Technology Dirision, English Faculty, University of Languages and International Studies wish to introduce students with English leaming strategies for reading skills But before inlroducing those skitts, it is necessary to investigals what IT sludonts alroady know and

what they do not This exploratory research is done for that intention

Technology have already used It wishes to achieve the three primary aims

6) to know IT sophomors:

reading skills

ii) to explore the learning strategies that sophomores of IT" Faculty have already used in

awareness and allilude lowards Finglish learning

their roading process

Gii) to propose some suggestions to the teachers on integrating the introduction and practice of English learning strategies for reading skills into the syllabus

3 Research questions

The exploratory research is intended to answer the following questions

() Resoarch question 1: What ars the attitudes of Information Tcelmolagy sophomores, University of Enginccring and Teclmology, towards English learning stralogiss for reading skills?

(i) Research question 2: What are Lnglish learning strategies for reading skills that Informution Technology suphornores, University of Engincering and Technology, have already used?

4 Methods of the study

In view of the exploratory nature of the study, the source which is used to collect the data

is fiom a survey conducted on sophomores of Information Technology Kaculty, University

of Engineering and ‘Technology, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, who are currently in

alludes:

their third terra of tgarning Fnglish al collage, lo investigals studonls? awareness,

towards English learning strategies for reading skills, as well as the strategies they have been using so far ‘Yherefore, this exploratory takes a quantitative approach Besides online goneral guide interviews are also donc on some randomly selecled subjects to know the underlying reasons for their attitudinal and behavioral answers in the survey

Basing on the resuits obtained, the researcher will propose some suggestions on integrating the inlroduction and practice of those stratogics mo the reading syllabus

5, Scope of the study

The present study operates within the following scape:

@ English learning strategies for reading skills include both direct strategies (which involve the English language in the reading process) and indirect ones (which support the

(ii) Even thongh the students in the Faculty of Information ‘fechnology, University of

Enginocring and Technology have lo allend four scmostors of Engtish, the subjects ghoson for this research are in the their third semester As the students have experienced two semesters learning English at college and have developed self-study competence, their responses will bolter reflect the reality Tho study will, therefore, have more practicat

implications as well as applicable suggestions

6, Significance of the study

Despite the fact that the research only explores the learning strategies for reading skills that students have becn using, its significance is remarkable

‘Theoretically, it touches upon the issue of leaming strategies which is normally overlooked

in the process of learning and teaching in Vietnam while self-stuty is presenlly having great impacts on the society, especially in education, and is currently drawing lots of

attention from educators and ELT professional Particularly, it is carried out in the context

ofa university — an academic institution where learners are supposed la make full use of self:study competence and teachers are increasingly encouraged to play the role of a facilitator Practically, its tesults are hoped to provide teachers with a picture of students’ learning strategies therefore, teachers of English for Information Technology Division, English Faculty, University of Languages and Taternational Studics eam base on tới to integrate the introduction and practice of English learning strategies into the teaching syllabus

7 Design of the study

‘This study consists of three parts: introduction, development, and conclusion

The introduction presents the rationale, purpose, research questions, scope, significance,

and «lasign of the study

The development comprises three chapters

- Chapter III is centered around the author’ suggestions on integrating the introduction and practice of English learning strategies inlo the learning and teaching syllabus for sludsnis

of Information Technology Faculty, University of Engineering and Technology

‘The conolusion, apart from summarizing the main issues so far touched upon in the study, proposes dircetions for future rascarch

PART II - DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I- THEORETICAT BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY L1 Language karning strategies

L.1.1, Defluitions of language learning strategies

Over the past thirty years, there has been a growing amount of research into leaning strategies Whal is considered by many to be the pioneering work in the fiskd of language learning strategies was carried out in the mid seventies of the twentieth century by such researchers as Rubin (1975) or Stem (1975) However, despite the current interest in

learning slylzs and strategies, investigations into the offeel of leaner stralegy Lraining are

relatively uncommon, and results are rather mixed That is why, the language learning strategy field continues ta be characterized by “no consensus” (O’Malley et al., 1985.22) and tha concep! of language Icarning strategies ilself remains “fiwxy” (Ellis, 1994:529) Tn oller words, up lo now, there is no consensus on the definition of the lerm "language learning strategies."

Karly on, ‘Tarone (1983) defined language learning strategies as "an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language." (p 13) In # helpful

survey arlicl:, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) dofined loaring siralsgiss broadly as

"behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning" which are "intended to influence the learner's encoiing process” (p 315) Mayer (1988) more specifically defined

learning slralegics as "behaviors of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner

processes information" (p 11) Betore that, Rubin (1987) wrote that language learning

strategies ate "strategies which contribute to the development of the language systent

which the learner constructs and affect learning directly." (p 23) They could be any sets

of operations, steps, plans or routines used by learners which aftizct the language learning process In other words, language learning strategies are what learners do to leam and

rogulate their langunge learning,

Wonder and Rribin (1987) pointed out thal language earning strategies have to consider different aspects of the language learning process She identified three areas in particular that language learning strategies refer to: the actual behavior of leamers (what leamers do

to learn a language), strategic knowledge (what learners know about the strategies they usc), and knowledge about aspeets (other than strategics) (p 6) Later, in their study on

Oxford (1990) referred to language learning strategies as "specific actions, behaviors, steps

or techniques students use - often intentionally - to imprave their progress in developing language skills These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval or use

of new language Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability." (p 7) Finally, Nunan (1999) defined thal "language

learning siraleyies are the mental and communicative provesses that learners deplay to

learn a second language." He stated that underlying every language learning task is at least

one stralogy, but in most classrooms, learnors are imaware of the strategies undeslying the learning tasks they are engaged (p 55)

Among all the definitions listed above, the one proposed by Oxford (1990) scoms to be the most comprehensive Tarone's definition (1983) focused too much on the product of language learning strategies, which is linguistic and sociolinguistic competence Rubin (1987), on the other hand, with the assumption that language leaming is like other kinds of

learning, restricted the use of language learning strategies to vocabulary practice (p 23) In

other words, when following Rubin's definition, interactional communication strategies will not be considered as she noted thal “although use of communication strategies may ead to learning, the purpose for their use 1s better communication" (p 26), O'Malley and Chamot (1990) defined language learning strategies basing on psychological approach

‘Nunan (1999) sccmed lo forgel the cmnotional processes that leamers may deploy to learn a second language Only Oxford's definition (L990) emphasized on the processes of language learning as well as the characteristics of language learning strategies To put it another way what Oxford's definition contains is a collcetive description of what individual leamcrs do

to achieve communicative competence in a language in a self-directed fashion, either consciously or unconsciously

Language learning strategies contribute to all parts of the learning acquisition contimmun They are appticabl: tn a wide varicly of langunge learning tasks, ranging fom rather discrctc and isolated tasks such as vocabulary and pronunciation or grammar, to intcerative tasks like oral communication and reading comprehension

1.2 Features of language learning strategics

‘As mentioned before, it can be said that language learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner Io make learning easier, fister, more enjoyable, more self -direcied, more effective and more transferable to new situations According to Oxtord (1990), there are twelve main features of language learning strategies (p 8)

i Language learning strategies contribute to the main goal - that is the

communicative competence li Language lcarning stratogics allow learners to become more sclf-dircoted

iii, Language learning strategies expand the roles of teachers

iv language learning strategies ase problem-oriented,

vy Language learning strategies are specific actions taken by learners

vi Language leaming strategies involve many aspects of the Jeamer, not just the

cognitive

vi, Language leurning strategies support learning both dircetly and indircetly

viii, Language learning strategies are not always observable,

it Language learning strategies are often conscious

x Lamguge leurning strategies can be taught

xi Language learning strategies are flexible

xii Language learning strategies are influenced by a variety of factors

1.1.3 Importance of language learning strategies

Though rescarchers have formally discovered and named language lcarning stratagics only recently, such strategies have actually been used tor thousands of years Knowledge of language learning strategies is important Lenry Adams used to say "Shey know enough who know how to Icam." (as cited in Oxford, 1990, p 135) TL moans that the groater awareness learners have of what underlies their language learning process, leaning will be more effzctive Oxford (1990) stated two main reasons for the importance of strategies

Firslly, strategies “are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for

developing commumicative competence." Secondly, “learners who have developed

appropriate language learning strategies have greater self-canfidence and learn more

effectively” (p 1) All Ue main features of language leaning strategies which were

presented above have cleaily proved those ideas, Furthermore, researches conducted by

experimenting with different strategies, can lead to more effective learning (p 60)

A cantion must also be noted though, because, as Skehan (1989) states, "there is always the possihility that the ‘good! language learning strategies are also used hy bad language

learners, but other reasons cause them to be unsuccessful" (p 76) In fact Vann and

Abraham (1990) found evidence that suggests that both ‘good and ‘unsuccessfil' language Jearners can be active users of similar language learning strategies, though il is important

that they also discovered that their unsuccessful loarncrs “appurerdily ducked what are

often called metacognitive strategies which would enable them to assess the task and bring to bear the ne

sary: strategies far its completion" (p 192) Tt appears, then, that a

number and range of language leaming stratcgics arc important if forcign language

teachers are to assist students both in leaming the language and in becoming good

language learners,

L1

'ypes of language learning strafegles

Over the years, a number of researchers have attempted to develop a classification scheme

of language learning slralegies Rubin (1987) classified language learning strategies into

three major kinds: earning straieyies, (interactional) communication strategies, und sovial strategies Learning strategies are further categorized into cognitive and metacognitive strategies Cagnitive strategies include: clarification or verification, guessing ov inductive inferencing, deductive reasuning, practice, memorization, and monitoring Metacognitive

strategies involve a conscious overview of the learning process and making decisions

about planning, monitoring, or evaluating the best way to study Social strategies consist

of questions to fellow students/teachers/native speakers, initiating conversations, and

listening to language media (p 23)

In contrast to Rubin's classification (1987), according to C'Malley and Chamot (1990),

language learning stralegics are differentiated into three primey categorics: cognitive,

metacognitive and sovial mediating Cagritive sirateyies include inferencing, deducing, rehearsal, transfer, imagery, summarizing, organization, and elaboration Metacognitive

strategies include monitoring, selective attention, planning, and evaluation Social mediating strategies include questioning for clarification (p 33}

However, the scherne of language learning strategies provided by Oxford (1990) is the most comprehensive detailed system of six primary stategies classified as direct or indirect (p.37 & p 135) ‘The reason is that Rubin's classifications (1987) were entirely

cmnpirically busel The system she proposzd was bassd on intervicws, classroom observations, diaries which the researcher analyzed and categorized subjectively O'Malley and Chamot's classification (1990) emerged fiom interviews with experts and novices and theorclienl analys

s 0Ÿ roading cømprchensiơn and problem soÌving However, thers slill cxist some overlaps between identified stratcgics Only Oxford (1990) provided a tuly comprehensive overview with a (hierarchical) ordering of language learning strategies Furthermore, the expsrisnce of many teachers indicates that the strategy system which is going to be discussed below is a very uscful way to cxaminc such language learning

strategies (Oxford, 1990, p 22) This is also proved by a recent research conducted by

Usian and Oxford (2002), They conducted @ comparative study of three classification systems used in the field (O"Malley & Chamot, 1990, Oxford, 1990; Rubin, 1981) and

found that the Oxford (1990) system was superior in accounting for the variety of

strategies reported by languags learners

Direct strategies are divided into three main groups: memory strategies, cognitive

strategies and compensation siralegies

# Memory strategies

Memory stratzgics arc kanguage Isarning strategies helping Izarners slorz and ratrieve new information of the target language Memory strategies are subdivided into four main types

* Creating mental linkages strategics include "grouping." "associating or

elaborating,” and “placing new words into the context."

» Applying images and sounds stralegics include "using imaginary," “scmamic

mapping," “using keywords," and "representing sounds in memory.”

© Reviewing well stralegy includes only he stralagy of "structured reviewing."

« Employing action strategies include “using physical response or sensation," and

“using mechanical techniques."

# Practicing stratzgics include “repeating,” “[ormally practicing with sounds and

writing systzms," "rocognizing and using formulas and patterns," "rccombining and

practicing naturalistically.”

« Receiving and sending messages strategies include "getting the idea quickly," and

"ysing resources for receiving and sending messages."

* Analyzing and reasoning stratepizs include “reasoning deductively,” “analyzing expressions,” “analyzing contrastively," "translating," and "transferring."

© Creating structure for iuput and output strategics include "taking notes,”

“summarizing,” and "highlighting."

+ Compensation strategies

Compensation strategies enable learners to use the new language for either compensation

or production despite limitations in knowledge Compensation strategies are subdivided

into two main types

* Guessing intelligently in listening and reading strategies include "using linguistie clues," and “using other clues."

# Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing strategies inchide "switching to the mother tongue,” "getting help,” “using mime or gesture,” “avoiding communication

Indirect stralegies are divided into three main groups: metacognitive stralegi

strategies and social strategies

* Arranging and planning your learning stuategies include “finding out about language learning,

of a Innguage task (purposefill listening’ reading’ speaking’ writing,)" "planning for a language task," and "seeking practice opportunities."

organizing," "setting, goals and objectives,” “identifying the purpose

« Ivaluting your leaming siralsgiss inchde “self-monitoring,” and "self

evaluating.”

+ Affective strategies

Affective strategies are strategies through which language learners can gain control over their emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values Affective strategies are classified into

three main types

« Lowering your anxicty strategies include “using progressive relaxation, deep

inealbing, or modilation,” “using musie," and "using Ianghtcr.”

+ Taking your cuotional fzmpcraturc strategics include "listening to your body,"

“using a checklist,” "writing a language learning diary," and “discussing your feelings with

« Asking questions strategies include "asking for clarification or verification,” and

“asking for correction."

© Cooperating with others strategies include "cooperating with peers,” and

“cooperating with proficient users of new language.”

© Empathizing with others strategies include "developing cultural understanding," and "becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings.”

Relationship between direct and indirect strategies

Direct and indirect language learning strategies are said to support and interact with each øther Oxford (1990) compared the relationship beLween direcl and indirect, strategies to thal between the performer and the dircctor in the thealer (p 14) Dircel stralogies are tke the performers in a stage play, working with the language themselves in a variety of specific tasks and situations Indirect strategies for general management of learning can be likened to ths director of the play The performer works oloscly with the ditcetor for the best possible outcome Likewise, the director is an internal guide and support to the performer The functions of both the performer and the director gradually become part of the learners since they accept inercased responsibility for learning, Morcover, it is essential

to note that the direct strategies work best when supported by indirect strategies and vice

‘versa, indirect strategies work best when used in combination with direct strategies

‘To sum up, it is important to remember that any current understanding of language

learning strategies is in iis infancy, and any existing system of strategies is only a proposal

to be tested through practical classroom use and through research, At this stage in the short history of language learning strategy research, there is no complete agreement on exactly whal language learning strategies are; how many strategies exist, how they should be

13

defined, demarcated and categorized, and whether it is - or ever will be - possible to create

a real, scicntifically validated hicrarchy of language learning stralogics Therefor,

classification contlicts are inevitable

1.2 Language learning strategies for reading skills

As mentioned above, in all classification of language learning strategies, the one that Oxford (1990) propo:

strategies for reading skills used in this study follow Oxtord’s points of view

the mast, comprohensi

That is why the English loarning

1.2.1 Direct learning strategies

Grouping

Grouping involves classifying or reclassifying, what language learners read into meaningfial groups to reduce the mumber of unrelated elements or instance, students can group the words by conceptual similarities (ike hol, warm or fire ), or by their fimetions (ike negative prefixes such as un-, in-, dis-, mis-, non- ), This grouping may help language learners betisr understand thsir reading [lowever, this strategy is offen employed in combination with other strategics such as “labeling the groups”, “paying attention”, or

personally significant to themselves Liven though the associations may not make sense to oller people, as long as they are meaningful to Inmguage learners, they are considered

Applying images and sounds

The four learning strategies in this category are extremely helpful in remembering new expressions, thus, they are normally considered good strategies for vocabulary learning As mentioned before, vocabulary cxpansion is uscfal for improving reading: therefore, these strategies are supportive tor developing reading comprehension

Using imagery

This strategy involves excating a mental image of what should be remembered, Language learners can remember a written item in reading by picturing a place where it is located This car be usefid when the Isarners employ scamming skills in reading fit is desired, drawings can be used to make mental images more concrete

Semantic mapping

When semantic mapping, is cmployed, concepts and relationships are arranged on paper to create a semantic map, “a diagram in which the key concepts (stated in words) are highlighted and linked with related concepts via arrows or lines” (Oxford, 1990: 61-62)

15

Using keywords

Combining similar sounds of their mother tongue and images is another way to help learners remember a language ilem in the largel language The only notice once employing this strategy is that the sounds fom their mother tongue do not have to be exact as the sounds ftom the target language, and the interacting images used only have to be porsomally 1

ming fit Representing sounds in memory

Similar Io the previous stralegy, sepresenting sounds in memory involves Tinking the sounds of the new language items with fimiliar words or sounds fiom any language known

to learners Rhymes are the most common example of using this strategy

Reviewing welll

Reviewing is essential in language learning, which any language learner is aware of This strategy is also known as structwed reviewing, which means reviewing at different inlervals, at first close logcther and (hon increasingly far apart

Employing action

Using physical response or sensation

In reading skills, the strategy of using physical response or sensation can be applied for remembering written material English learncrs can act out physically what they read or associate physical sensations with specific words or expressions found in reading passages Using mechcnical techniques

Mechanical techniques with the popular use of flashcards and separate sections of notebooks are helpful to learners in remembering what has been read In reading skills, this strategy is used particularly for remembering useful words arul new expressions

learners can read to predict something, read for main ideas, read far specific details or for

further op king can alsa be intggraled into this reading pro

Recognizing and using formulas and patterns

“Formulas” are defined as “unmmalyved expressions” while “pallorns have at least one slol thal can be filled with an allcrmnative word” (Oxford, 1990: 72) The reeognilion and understanding of those English formulas and pattems which appear in reading passages and tasks help improve leamers’ reading comprehension As a resuit, the earlier English Jeamners can recognize and understand those routine expressions, the more sclf- confident in English learmmg they can feel, ‘Their understanding and fluency are also enhanced

Practicing naturalistically

The ultimate goal of language learning is the ability to actually use the language in actual communication, The strategy of practicing naturalistically in reading skills involves reading various authentic matcrials including newspapers, magazines, books in English sither in print or online, Students can also read menus, advertisements, brochures, catalogues, and pamphlets Sharing those materials with other students is also a beneficial

way lo gel a larger varicly far practice

Recetving and sending messages

Gatting the idea quickly

‘The purpose of this sirategy is to enable students read exactly what they need and take no notice of Ihe test or rogarié it as background information, The wo techniques which are used to get the ideas of a reading include skimming (“searching for the main ideas” (Oxford, 1990: 80)) and scanning (“ssarching for specific details of interest” (Oxford, 1990; 80)), The cffectivencss of this strategy is fluther increased if it is uscd in combination with note-taking strategy However, the overuse of either skimming or scanning may hinder the tearling comprehension in Ihe sense thal leamiers right focus loo much on finding ideas or details without fully understanding the reading For example, such components as irony, or humor in poems or stories might be overlooked if readers use only this strategy in their reading process

17

Using resources for receiving and sending messages

English leamers can use mumerous resources including language learning ones like dictionaries, word lists, grammar and phrase books and other resources like encyclopedias, historical and cultural books to explore the meaning of what they read or to get background information to further understand their readings ‘hose resources may be printed or non-

Analysing expressions

This strategy involves breaking down a new word, a sentence or a paragraph into its component parts to understand them filly Analyzing expression is useful for reading skills

as earners have time for this analysis process, cspccially when it is used in combination

with reasoning deductively strategy

Analyzing vontrastively

Language leamers at their early learning stage tend to analyze language elements to notice the simitarities and differences between the target and the native language This is dome sa naturally that they hardly realize that they are using analyzing contrastively strategy This strategy helps leamers understand more thoroughly their readings However, they need to beware of “false ftiend” or “target language words that sound or look like words in the

Iearners’ own Tangnaze, bul whose meaning is very different” (Oxford, 1990:4)

Translating

Translating is helpful to language learners al tho boginning stage The use of translating strategy in reading skills should be done with great care Though language leamers can use their native fanguage as a base in understanding readings in target language translating

strategy slows down learners’ reading speed Moreover, if students are accustomed to word-by-word transtation, they tay gel wrong interpretation of their readings

Transferring

This stralogy involves “dirsetly applying provions knowles

lp facilitate new knowledge

in the targel language” (Oxford, 1990: 85) The previons knowledge can be that of learners” native language, that of target language which students have already learnt, or the Imowledge from one aspect of target language to another aspect However, if the knowledge is not paralicl, learners may transfer irrelevant knowledge, which may lead to

inaccuracy

Creating structure for input and output strategies

Taking notes

Note-taking strategy is important in reading skills as it helps learners understand

thoroughly the content as well as remember what is read Mote taking can be done in learners’ native language af the beginning stage of learning, in both native and target

language or in only the target language for advanced levels Students can take notes in the

form of raw notes, shopping list, ‘T-formation or semantic maps

Summarizing

The strategy of summarizing involves the process of creating a “condensed, shorter version” (Oxford, 1990:88) of what is read ‘This not only helps students understand better but also be able to structure their roudings Tt can bs done as simple a

summarizing, in learners” native language ot as complicated as writing complete sentences or paragraphs in the target language

Highlighting

Learners can use various elements as color, underlining, capital letters, initial capitals, big writing, bold writing, stars, boxes or cirekss lo highlight anportant information in their readings

The three strategies of creating structwe for input and output should be used in combination to make the best use of them

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12.1.3 Compensation strategies

Guessing intelligently

Systematic guessing helps language leamers improve their reading comprehension without

having to understand every single word

Using linguistic clues

Learners can use their Linguistic knowledge of either their native or target language to

guess Ihe meaning of what they read The bes! linguistic clucs (hai learners can rly on are attixes and word order

Using other clues

Apart fiom linguistic clues, language learners can use other clues fiom other sources, either related or unrelated to languages Those sources can be text structures, general

background knowledge, graphs, piclurss, lables or appendives They all help tearners gol

some ideas of the meaning of what is read

1.2.2 Indirect learning strategies

1.2.2.1 Metacognitive strategies

Centering your learning strategies

Overviewing and linking with already known material

In this strategy, learners are supposed to overview what they are going to read (topics), and associate it with what they aircady know (background knowledge and vocabulary) Onoc the purpose of their reading is worked out and the associations are made, learners’ reading

is better oriented for performance enhancement

Paying attention

Learners are advised to choose where to focus their allention al the beginning af their

reading process They can either concentrate on the general ideas of the readings (which is

called “directed attention” (Oxford, 1990: 138)) or the details (“selective attention”

(Oxford, 1990-138) This will provide a focus for their reading, which is helpful in

improving their reading competence

Arranging and planning your learning

Finding out about language learning

Learners can improve their reading skills by knowing how it works in general through books and other language Iearnors and apply this knowledge to their own situations

Organizing

Learners should make full use of their conditions to organize their reading schedule,

physical cnvironment (like reading space or lighting system) and olher materials for

learning reading

Setting goals and objectives

Setting long-term goals and short-term objectives are also suggested once students want to improve their reading performance in Linglish

identifying the purpose of a language task

When learners want to use the strategy of paying attention, they need to identify the purpose of their reading before hand, as this normally makes their reading process more meaning fil and more oriented

Planning for a language task

Planing for a reading task which includes such four slops as describing the task, finding out its requirements, checking the language learners already know and anticipating what

more is needed is necessary for a successfull reading process

Seeking practice opportunities

Practice makes perfect, therefore, learners should either seck or create as many opportunities for reading practice as possible, especially reading authentic materials

Evaluating your learning strategies

Self-monitoring

This strategy is helpful to language learners in checking their reading performance It aims

at setfidentifying errors learners maks in their reading process, determining the errors

which cause serious confusion The core of this strategy is for learners to find out themselves

12.2.2 Affective strategies

Lowering your anxiety

Anxiety is not always bad for language learners A certain amount of amdety can help learners reach their potentials, however, too much anxiety in the form of worry, frustration, foar and so on blocks language learners from making progross Thercfora, knowing how lo

control their anxiety in leaming reading skills is necessary

Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing and meditation

Learners can overcome their anxiety during the reading process by “alternately tensing and relaxing all of the major muscle groups in the body” (Oxford, 1990:143), especially those

im the neck and face Furthcrmore, dogp breathing and meditating by concentrating on a certain mental image or sound are also helpful in preventing their anxiety

Using music

Music has boon used as a popular way Lo relax in mankind's lislory Learners arc advisod

to use music, especially soothing one like classical music in order to ease their mind and

increase their concentrating competence before their reading process

Making positive statements

Learners normally cxpecl to gel encouragement from other people: therefore, they may

Taking risks wisely

Risk-taking actions such as guessing meanings or inferring are necessary in reading comprehension Therefore, laarners are supposed to push themselves to take reasonable risks in their reading proccss

Rewarding yourself

Rewards of different kinds can be uscd by learners lo encourage themselves once they have made good performance in reading skills

Taking your emotional temperature

Listening to your body

Learners’ emotions can influence their language learning as well as their reading performance ‘Therefore, if learners are not aware of their own fisclings and the reason why they have those feclings, they ara untikely to be able lo control their affections Noticing all the signals given by their bodies is the first step in controlling their affective side in Jearning reading skills

Using a cheeklist

When learners want to take notice of their affections, it is advisable to use a checklist “to

discover feelings, attitudes, and motivations” (Oxford, 1990:144) concerning reading skills,

in generat, and specific reading tasks, in particular

Writing a language learning diary

Diary or journal can be used to self-monilor lamers’ vents and feclings during the time they leam reading skills, This helps them better understand themselves as well as their reading process

Discussing your feelings with someone else

Learners may discuss their feelings about learning reading skills with someone else to

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know more about their affections as well as their reading process

12.2.3 Social strategies

Asking questions

Asking for clarification or verification

Dunng the tune leamers read, they may encounter things they are not clear about,

‘Therefore, asking questions helps them get closer to the intended meanings as well as aids

their reading comprchension Inthe reading pro

clarification (when something is not understood), or verification (when leamers need to check if something is correct) ‘he questions can be posed to their teachers, their friends or

others who are more proficient in English

Conperating with others

Cooperating with peers

Cooperating in language learning is essential due to the social nalure of language Leamers can lean fiom their peers by cooperating in numerous reading tasks done in groups through the process of questioning and negotiating,

Cooperating with proficient users of the new language

‘This strategy is stightly hard to apply in comparison with other strategies as proficient users of the new language are needed In the case of learners, teachers are the most easily

ace

ible proficiont users, Learners can gel advice on mumcrous aspocts of their readings such as vocabulary, grammar, comprehension

Empathizing with others

Developing saliural understanding

Language and cullure arz closcly commecled, Therefore, the background knowledge of the target language’s culture can assist learners in understanding more thoroughly their readings, Learners can pick up knowledge of English-speaking countries” culture through lectures in classes, discussions with native speakers, books, travel brochuues, articles fom

newspapers, magazines and the Internet, programs on television, and their own travel to

those countries.