Luận văn an investigation into conceptual metaphors denoting life in american and vietnamese short stories from 1975 to 1991

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST - GRADUATE STUDIES mẻ ha TINH THỊ MAT ANH ANTNVESTIGATION INTO CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST - GRADUATE STUDIES

mẻ ha

TINH THỊ MAT ANH

ANTNVESTIGATION INTO CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS DENOTING “LIFE”

IN AMERICAN AND VIETNAMESE SHORT

STORIES FROM 1975 TO 1991

NGHIÊN CỨU ÂN DỤ Ý NIỆM DÙNG ĐỀ HIẾU ĐẠT “CUỘC SÓNG”

TRONG CÁC TRUYỆN NGẮN CỦA MỸ - VIỆT TỪ 1975 ĐẾN 1991

M A Major Program Thesis

Field: English Linguistics

Code: 6220201

HA NOI - 2016

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, IIANOL UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST - GRADUATE STUDIES

mẻ ha

TINH THỊ MAT ANH

ANTNVESTIGATION INTO CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS DENOTING “LIFE”

IN AMERICAN AND VIETNAMESE SHORT

STORIES FROM 1975 TO 1991

NGHIÊN CỨU ÂN DỤ Ý NIỆM DÙNG ĐỀ HIẾU ĐẠT “CUỘC SÓNG”

TRONG CÁC TRUYỆN NGẮN CỦA MỸ - VIỆT TỪ 1975 ĐẾN 1991

M A Major Program Thesis

Field: English Linguistics Code: 60220201

Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr Ned Dinh Phuong

DECLARATION

Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains

no malerial published elsewhere or extracied in whole or m part from a Lx is by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma

No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgements in this

thesis

‘This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degyee or diploma in

any other tertiary institutions

Hanoi, 2016

Đình Thị Mai Anh

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, the completion of this study could not have been possible without the expertise of Assoc Prof Dr Ngo Dinh Phuong, my beloved thesis supervisor 1 would like to express my sincere gratitude to him for his dedicated

guidance and constructive criticism extended to me

My appreciation also goes to all the lecturers at Faculty of Post — Graduate Studies, University of Languages and International Studies, who expertly guided me through my education, shared their valuable knowledge and inspired me to carry out

this research

Last but not least, I alsa place on record, my sense of gratitude to all the

famnily members for their mecasing support and greal encouragement

ABSTRACT

Metaphor has attracted the attention of scholars interested in

language, especially rhetoricians and literary critics, for more than 2000 years

Traditionally, metaphor was viowed as a matter of language, as a sct of extraordinary or figurative linguistic expressions only used in literature with the aim

lo erubellish discourse However, cognitive linguistics presents a different view of metaphor, stating that metaphor, in its broad sense, is pervasive and essential in language and thought It is defined as understanding one abstract conceptual domain

(target domain), in terms of another concrete conceptual domain (source domain)

‘The concept of life has been one of the most common target domains, which is hard

to fully comprehend without establishing a set of mappings, i.e a set of systematic

correspondences, belween this undelmealed nation and other betler-known one

‘Therefore, this study attempts to probe into conceptual metaphors denoting life in American and Vietnamese short stories from 1975 to 1991 from the perspective of cognitive linguistics Basing on a relalively considerable number of collected data,

the author makes an investigation into the similarities and differences im the use of these conceptual metaphors in both languages, in the hope to contribute a part to the

process of foreign language teaching and learning, and translation practice

1.1 Rationale of the study

1.3 Aims and objectives

1.3.1 Aims of the study

1.3.2 Objectives of the study

1.4 Research questions

15 Scope of the study

1.6 Method and Procedures ke ke ke

1.6.1 Research Method

1.6.3 Dals aualysis s- ¬— ¬— ¬—

1.7 Organization of the study

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE

2.1.4.1 The trachional view o!

2.1.4.2 Metaphors int the Cognilive Linguistic View

2.1.5 Short stories

2.2 Literature review

CTIAPTER 3 RESEARCH METIIODOLOGY

3.1 Research design and methodology

American short stories

4.3 Qualitative analySiS co 2121111112221 HH H2 re cose 4D

4.2.1, Conceptual metaphors denoting life in American short stories 48

5.3 Limilations and suggestions for further studies 83 REFERENCES

APPENDIX A AMERICAN CORPUS ANALYZED IN THE STUDY

1.1 Aimerican & Victtarmesc short stones from 1975 - 1991 4

21 Melaphorical Mapping between Conceplual Domaims 15

22 Melaphorical Mapping between Conceplual Domaims 15

23 Melaphorical Mapping between Conceplual Domaims 18

32 Vietnamese corpus analyzed in the study 31

Oceurrence and Percentage of Conceptual Metaphors

42 denoting life in Amencan and Vietnamese short stories 35

from 1975 ta 1991

Occurrence and Percentage of Structural Metaphors

443 denoting life m American and Victnamese short storics 36

from 1975 to 1991

Occurrence and Percentage of Ontological Metaphors

44 denoting life m American and Vieiamese short sforics 37

from 1975 to 199]

Ocourrence and Percentage of Crientational metaphors

45 denoting life in American and Vietnamese short stories | 32

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale of the study

Cognitive linguistics is the approach to the study of language that began to

emerge in the 1970s and has been increasingly active since the 1980s Until now, a

large amount of research has been carried out in the light of cognitive linguistics over the world in general and in Vietnam in particular, and most of them have focused on semantics with a deeper insight ito the use of conceptual metaphor int language Conceptual metaphors involve two concepts and have the form A is B, where the more abstract concept A such as love, life, economy and argument is comprehended in terms of the more concrete concept B including war or a container ‘herefore, the investigation into conceptual metaphors with the aim to

find out similarities and differences of using this kind of meaning transference among languages im the world brings greal benefits 10 the Enghsh teaching, learning and translating process

Life has been one of the most inspirational and enchanting topics for thousands of writers across the time Although the concept of life is commonly

inentioned in our daily life or everyday conversations, iis definition or true meaning

cannot be described by only one or two words, Life is the mixture of everything the inixture of happiness and sadness, success and failure, comfort and pain, cncouragement and frustration, opportunities and obstacles, love and hatred, relict and sorrow, and struggle and surrender Therefore, it is hard to fully comprehend the concept of life itself without any connection with other concrete notions or tangible objects To illustrate that, imagine life is a game People are considered as players, who need to play as skillfully and fairly as they can with the aim to win, or acquire their own goals in life If the concept of life is perceived in terms of a joumney, people are considered as travellers tying their best to overcome all impediments on their way to reach the final destinations As a result, the abstract concept of life can be metaphorically mentioned through other more delineated ones Dopending on the distinctive featwes of different cultures or specific geographical characteristics of regions in the world, life has its own uniqueness

‘The conceptualization of life in American and Vietnamese short stories and

the universal and unique conceptual metaphors referring to life among, languages

have given me a great inspiration to carry oul «research entitled: “An investigatian

into conceptual metaphors denoting “life” in American and Vietnamese short

stories from 1975 ¢o 1991” Hopefully, the findings of this study would make a

contribution to the process of understanding and interpretation of coneeplual

metaphors in American and Viemamese short stories

1.2 Significance of the study

This research is carried out in ike hope {o contribute a sinall part Io the consolidation of cognitive linguistic theory in general, and cognitive semantics in particular Although there are a number of investigations into conceptual metaphors

in the world and in Vietnam as well, how the concept of life is conceptualized in

short stories, and how metaphorical expressions used to denote this abstract notion are similar and different among languages, have not been examined yet Therefore

this study is expected to help learners who lave noi expostred much int life and

might find it difficult to understand this concept when reading materials or having a

conversation with foreign people Moreover, it is hoped to contribute to the process

of teaching «nd learning American litcrature in foreign languages departments or

universities in Vietnam, aud of translating American shorts stories or other forms of art into Vietnamese and vice verse

1.3 Aims and objectives

1.3.1, ims of the study

This research aims to:

- Carry out an investigation into conceptual metaphors denoting life in some

American and Vietnamese short storics based on the theory of cognitive selnantics

- Make a comparison of using conceptual metaphors to express life in

American versus Vietnamese short stories

- Make contributions to learning, teaching and translating process

10

1.3.2 Objectives of the study

‘To gain the aims above, the researcher attempts to:

- Identify the conceptual metaphors of life in some American and Victnamese short stories in terms of cognitive linguistics

- Categorize these conceptual metaphors in the frame of linguistic cognitivism

- Analyze and discover the similarities and differences in the conceptual mefaphors denoling the concept of Tile in some American and Vietnamese short stories

- Make some suggestions for foreign language teaching and learning, as well

as for translating process

1.4, Research questions

In order to achieve the aims and objectives of the investigation, the

researcher allermpls lo give answers to the following questions

a How are the conceptual metaphors of life conceplualized in Amerivan and

Vietnamese short stories trom 1975 to 1991?

b What are the similarities and differences of the conceptual metaphors denoting life in American and Vietnamese short stories from 1975 to 1991?

c What are the implications for the use of conceptual metaphors in teaching,

learning and translating?

1.5 Scope of the study

The study merely focuses on investigating the conceptual metaphors

denoting life based on the theory of cognitive linguistics The rescarcher also chooses to investigate these conceptual metaphors in nineteen American short

stories and nineteen Vietnamese short stories from 1975 to 1991, as follows:

No American short stories ictnamese short storics

1 |Asilver dish (Saul Bellow, 1979) Vệ sỹ của Quan Châu (Ma Vin

3 | Where I'm calling from (Raymond Newti gap hing ngay (Nguyén Khải,

4 | Janus (Ann Beattie, 1986) Chuyến bay (Nguyễn Minh Châu, 1983)

5 |The way we live now (Susan Chó từ miễn cát (Xuân Thiệu, 1983)

14 | Bologoye (IMikhail Lossel, 1990) Nắng chiều (Nguyễn Khải, 1989)

15 | Glossolalia (David Jauss, 1990) Đôi đời (Nguyễn Khải, 1990)

16 | Viva la Tropicana (Leonard Ong tréng ho (Neuyén Khai 1991)

Michaels, 1990)

17 | Willing (Loric Moore, 1990) Heo may, gió lộng (Ma Văn Kháng, 1991)

18 | Friend of my yeuh (Alice Mumo, Móng vuốt thời gian (Ma Văn Kháng,

In this study, the quantitative and quanlitative methods are applied in order to

achieve its aims and objectives In addition, this research is also carried out on the

base of contrastive and comparative analysis so as to make an investigation into the

similarities and differences im metaphorical expressions manifested in conceptual metaphors denoting life in American and Vietnamese short stories from 1975 to

1991 from coguilive semarilic approach

1.6.2 Data collectian

Melaphorical cxpressions denoting life are collected from American and Vietnamese short stories composed during the time from 1975 to 1991, and published in printed editions

Nineteen American short stories are taken from two famous collections of short slorics including The Best American Short Stories of the Century cdited by John Updike and Katrina Kenison (1999), and The Best American Short Stories

1991 selected from U.S Magazines by Alice Adams and Katrina Kenison (1991)

Nineteen Vietamese short stories written by well-known authors those days

are collected from collections of short stories including Nguyén Khdi truyện ngắn 1 selected by Nguyén Phan llách and Nguyễn Khắc Trường (2003), 7ruyận ngắn Nguyễn Minh Châu, tác phẩm và lời bình by Tuân Thành and Vũ Nguyễn (2007), Truyện ngắn Aúa Văn Kháng by Trung Trung Đình mã Nguyễn Khắc Trường

(2008), and Xudn Thiéu toàn tập, tập 3 by Ngô Vĩnh Binh (2015)

1.6.3 Data analysis

In order to achieve the aims of this study, the data are both quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed Firstly, the data is quatitatively examined in terms of occurence of three types of conceptual metaphors classified by Lakoff and Johnson

(1980), specifically structural metaphors, ontological metaphors, and orientational

metaphors Scoondly, the two seis of dala will be qualilatively analyzed and

compared in order to find out the similarities and differences between conceptual mi¢laphors denoting life in some American ard Vietnamese shorl slaries from 1975

to 1991

1.7 Organization of the study

The thesis consists of three main parts:

Chaper 1 “Introduction” will include the rationale, the aims and objectives

of the study, the significance, the research questions, the scope and the organization

of Ihe study

Chapter 2 includes the “Theoretical Rackpraund and Literature Review”

where a review of previous studies is carried out and the theoretical background is

provided

Chapter 3 is about the “Research Methodology” of the study This chapter will mention the methodology, the design of the rescarch, the ways of dala

collection, data analysis

Chapter 4 gives the “Findings and Discussions” related to the conceptual metaphors denoting LIFE in some American and Vietnamese short stories

Chapter 5 entitles “Conclusions and Implications” This chapter will sum

up the development of the study, provide implications for teaching, learning and translating cognitive metaphors in Linglish and Vietnamese It will also present some Limitations and suggestions for further research

CHAPTER Z TOEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1, Theoretical background

2 Cognitive Science

‘The term “Cognition”, as used by cognitive scientists, derives from the Latin

Tool (cognesce, cognoscere, cognovi, congnitum, which means to know, to

conceptualize or to recognize) and is defined in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (Llomby, 2000) as “the process by which knowledge and understaning is

developed in the mind” (p 299) Tl encompasses mental processes such as allention,

memory, production of language, problem solving, and decision making Ly Toan Thang (2005) considered “Cognition” as the process of absorbing, storing and

processing information into knowledge (p 16)

Cognitive science, which has attracted significant attention since the late 20

century, is the inlerdisciplinary investigation of the mind and imfelligence Tn

contrast with some early philosophical thearies and commonsense views treating the mind as souls and spirits, not suitable for scientific study, Cognitive science consider it to be @ valuable source of data in order to investigate the mind and understand how information is processed in human’s brains on the base of the ideas

and methods of psychology, linguistics, philosophy, computer science, artificial intelligence, neuroscience and anthropology For instance, linguists collect evidence about the way people produce and understand meaningful sentences Meanwhile, psychologisis will gather behavioral evidenee relating to social interaction, language comprehension and emotional experience Until now, the cooperation of scientists from different fields in attempts to understand the mind has brought illuninating cxplanations of many kinds of human thinking

Linguistics is deemed to be a flexible framework rather than a single theory of language In other words, it includes a cluster of many partially overlapping

approaches rather than a single well-defined theory Tn the light of Cognitive

Linguistics, language is considered as a way of organizing knowledge that reflects

the needs, interests, and experiences of individuals and cultures The formal

slructures ol lmguage are studied nol as if they were autonomous, but as reflections

of general conceptual organization, categorization principles, processing

mechanisms, and experiential and cuvironmental influences (Gesraeris &

Cuyckens, 2007) Whereas the generative grammarians only analyze language on the base of a precisely formulated set of rules whose output is all the grammatical

sentences in a given language, for the Cognilive approach, natural language is nol

only seen ss a system of mules, but also a repository of world knowledge, a structured collection of meaningful categories that help us deal with new

expernenees and store old information (Gecracrts & Cuyckens, 2007)

Until now, its theory formation is not yet completely stabilized However, according to Croft & Cruse (2004), there are three fundamental hypotheses

considered as the guiding principles of Cognitive Linguistics to language:

- Language is not an autonomous cognitive faculty

- Grammar is conceptualization

- Knowledge of language emerges from language use

‘These above hypotheses are presented as opposite responses to the other vigorous research paradigms including Generative Grammar and Truth-conditional Semantics Today, the arguments and empirical questions are still raised by the

cognitive linguistics to protect their hypotheses

Topics of special interest for Cognitive Linguistics include: the structural

characteristics of natural language categorization (such as prototypicality,

systematic polysemy, cognilive models, mental imagery, and metaphor), the functional principles of linguistic organization (such as iconicity and naturalness):

the conceptual inlerface between synlax and semantics (as explored by Cognitive

Grammar and Construction Grammar), the experiential and pragmatic background

of language-in-use; and the relationship between language and thought, including questions about relativism and conceptual universals

Although there has been more than thirty years of development in the warld,

researches relalcd lo “Cognitive linguistics” just account for an insignificant!

numbers in Viet Nam with some noticeable authors such as Ly Toan Thang (2005),

Trân Văn Cơ (2007), Phan Văn Hoà (2008), Nguyễn Đức Tôn (2007, 2008) and Nguyễn Tai (2009)

2.1.3 Cognitive Semantics

Cognilive semantics, which is similar to the larger enterprise of cognitive linguistics, is not a unified theory It represents an approach to the study of mind and its relationship with embodied experience and culture It proceeds by empleying language as a key methodological tool for uncovering conceptual

organization and structure [t began in the 1970s as a reaction against the objectivist

world-view assumed by the Anglo-American tradition in philosophy and the related

approach, truh-condilional semantics, developed within formal linguistics While

“by viewing meaning as the relationship between words and the world, truth-

conditional semantics eliminates cognitive organization from the linguistic system”

(Sweolser, 1990, p4), cognitive semanlios secs linguistic meaning as a manifestation of conceptual structure “Research on cognitive semantics is research

on conceplual content and its organization in language” (Tahuy, 2004, p.4)

Evans and Green (2006) in their book Cognitive Linguistics: Ấn Introduction

oxamine the four guiding principles that collectively characterize the collection of

approaches that fall within semantics, as follows:

L Conceptual structure is embodied

2, Semantic structure is conceptual structure

3 Meaning representation is encyclopedic

4, Meaning-construction is conceptualization

2.1.4 Metaphor

‘The possibility of differentiating between literal and figurative language has been always drawing, attention of Western linguistic scholars since at least the time

of Anstotle Within thal, general process, researchers have concentrated on

introducing a system on the base of this differentiation and discussing further

distinctive features among different types of meaning transference These figurative

devices including metaphor, metouymy, hyperbole, Holes, irony and cuphemisms

have been used in literature with the aim to embellish discourse, to paint a vivid piclure, or in other words, lo convey a thought more forcefully than a plain statement Within those discussions, the different valuations of the figurative, or

more specifically, views of metaphors as ornaments have been a controversial issue

for years

Let us begin wilh Aristotle, who is considered as the father of metaphor

theory He supposed that “It is the one thing that cannot be leamt from others, and it

is also a sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the

similarity in dissimilar’ (Aristotle, 1909, p71) In other words, metaphor was

considered as a conscious and deliberate use of words, and only great poets and eloquent speakers, who must have special talent such as Shakespeare and Churchill,

could be ils masters Tn particular, AristoUe Innited the use of metaphor merely in

poetry and regarded it as a kind of decoration or omament :As a result, metaphor in the traditional view was not an inevitable part of everyday human communication,

merely in literature

Melaphor was delined as “giving the hing a nam hal hckongs to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, on grounds of analogy” (Aristotle,

1909, p.63) In other words, everything in nature has its own ‘proper name’,

however, melaphor mfringes this rule by using the name of one thing lo convey the other In literature, simile has been also used with the same purpose However, the

significant difference is that metaphor is considered to be implicit comparison and have no elements of comparison, whereas simile is explicit one with the use of signaling words such as “like”, or “as” It is said that the omission of the “like” in metaphor brings two compared entities far closer ta each other, which challenges

readers io understand the comparison, deepens their expericnee and helps Uher to

gain some additional understanding from the analogies presented, In general, using metaphor has much greater power than simile

Kévecses (2010) points out that in the traditional view, similarity is considered as the basis of metaphor; in other words, one linguistic expression rather than another is chosen to speak metaphorically about something on the base of resemblances Thus, the excessive production of metaphor has been limited because

of this similarily constraint He lakes “ihe roses on her cheeks” as a typical example

presenting noticeable features of traditional view of metaphor Firstly, metaphor is

deemed to be Tanguage’s decorations or ommaments In this example, “roses” are

used to describe the blushing checks on somcone’s face The main purpose of this metaphor is to enhance readers’ feeling, not to use the word “roses” as part of the process of conceptualizing and understanding one thing in lerms of another Secondly, metaphor in the traditional view is a linguistic phenomenon, instead of a conceptual one To be more specific, metaphor means only using one word, phrase

or expression in order to refer to others, rather than one conceptual domain to

perceive another ‘Ihirdly, the reason for choosing “roses” to talk about somebody’s

cheeks is because of the similar color between this kind of flower and women’s

cheeks (pink or red), which exists in human's life even before people use this

metaphor Iinally, in the traditional view, certain preexisting similarities can limit the selection of linguistic expression used metaphorically in place of others to

describs the world Therefore, in order to describe the pinkish color om somcone’s face, it is unusual to use the word “sky”, as in “the sky on her cheeks”, because there is no resemblance between the biue color of the sky and the pinkish colar on a

person’s checks To sum up, the choice of melaphorical expressions in both conventional and unconventional language use depends on the preexisting similarity

in realily However, there are a huge number of other metaphorical expressions in

life, which can be used without any preexisting similar points, such as between

“digesting foods” and “digesting ideas”, or “We're not going anywhere,” and

“This relationship is nat going anywhere

In order to seek for the answer of these linguistic phenomena, cognitive

the selection of metaphorical source concepts and their corresponding metaphorical linguistic expressions

2.1.4.2 Metaphors in the Cognitive Linguistic View

A new view of metaphor that challenged all the aspects of the powerful traditional Ihcory in a systematic way was [irsl developed by George Lakoff and

Mark Johnson in 1980 in their seminal study: Metaphor We Live By Lakoff and

Johnson in their work strongly stated that:

1) Metaphor is a property of concepts, not of words

2) The purpose of using metaphor is to comprehend concopls in a deapor way,

not just for decorative function in literature

3) The basis of metaphor is not merely based on similarity

4) Metaphor is not a matter of special talents, but is used effortlessly in everyday life by ordinary people

5) Metaphor is not a superfluous process by using metaphorical expressions, bul is av inlogral one of human thought, and reasoning in order to coneive the world

2.1.4.2.1 What is metaphor?

In the cognitive linguistic view, metaphor is defined as understanding one

conceptual domain interns of another conceptual domain Tt other words, it can be understood that “CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN A” IS “CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN B”,

which is called a conceptual metaphor ‘'o be more specific, in each conceptual metaphor, there are two conceptual domains, in which one domain is understood in terms of another A conceptual domain is any coherent organization of experience Let us take a paragraph that contains metaphorical linguistic expressions to talk

about life, used pervasively in reality by native speakers of English, as an excellent

example,

People might say that they try to give their children an cdueation so they will get a good start in life If their children act out, they hope that they are

just going through a stage and that they will yet over il Parents hope thal their

children won't be burdened with financial worries or ill health and, if they

face such difficulties, that they will be able to overcome them Parents hope that their children will have a long life span and that they will go far in life

Bul they also know that their children, as all mortals, will reach the end of the

road

(Winter, 1995, p 235)

In this example, life is considered as a journey Therefore, we have a conceptual metaphor: LIFE IS A JOURNEY, in which life is conceptual domain A, and a journey is conceptual domain B Peaple use the expressions of a journey in order to comprehend the elusive concept of life More specifically, in a joumey, travelers are the ones who carry out the action of travelling They get their start, their way and their destination, Additionally, they need means of transports to help them quickly reach their final point Obviously, there are no journeys full of happiness and Iuok, and the travelers have to overcome obstacles in order to finish, their joumeys By such understanding, people in their life are also travellers Everybody also wants to “get a good start” in life: however, life always consists of impediments and difficulties, which demands people to make strong efforts with the aim lo “go through a stage”, overcome all the daily burdens, “have a long life span’, and “go far in life”

Linguistic researchers also find out other huge number of examples, in which English speakers make extensive use of the more concrete domain of journey to refer to the highly abstract concept of life

He’s without direction in life

I'm where 1 want to be in life

I'm at a crossroad in my life

For additional examples, we also can talk and think about theories in terms of buildings, arguments in terms of war, ideas in terms of food, social organizations in terms of plants and so on

Therefore, it is necessary to point out the distinctive features between

concepiual metaphor and metaphorical expressions V.akoll (1992) suppose that the

system ‘Thus, the term metaphorical expressions “refer to a linguistic expression (a word, phrase, or sentence) that is the surface realization of such a cross-domain mapping (this is what the word melaphor referred to in the old theory)” Cakoff,

1992, p.1) In other words, the words or other linguistic expressions commonly appear in the use of describing CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN B and are used to melaphorically talk abou! CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN A, which are called metaphorical expressions To illustrate that, we have a conceptual metaphor LIFE

TS A JOURNEY, and the linguistic metaphorical expressions manifested from this

metaphor may include “without direction”, “at a crossroad’, “go places in life”,

“get in his way”, and “go through a lor in life” As a result, the nature of the

telalionship between comecplual metaphors and the metaphorical hnguistic

expressions can be that the linguistic expressions (ie., ways of talking) make

explicit, or are manifestations of, the conceptual metaphors (i.e., ways of thinking)

The two domains of a conceptual metaphor also have distinctive names

“The conceptual domain for which we draw metaphorical expressions ta understand

another conceptual domain is called source domain, while the conceptual domain that is understood this way is the target domain” (Kéveoses, 2010, p.4) The target

domain is the domain that we try to comprehend through the use of the source

domain ‘Iherefore, “conceptual metaphors typically employ a more abstract concept as target and a more concrete or physical concept as their resource”

(Kéveoses, 2010, p.7) In studying the most frequent sowec domains, Kdvecses

(2010) pointed out that the most systematic comprehensive survey is provided by

Alive Deignan’s Collins Cobuild English Guides 7: Metaphor To be more specific,

some common source domains are the human body (ineluding the head, face, legs,

hands, back, heart, bones, shoulders, and others), health and illness, animals, plants,

buildings and construction, machines and tools, games and sport, money and

cconomic transactions, cooking and food, heat and cold, light and darkness, forees,

and movement and direction Kévecses (2010) also presented some common target

domains such as emotion (anger, fear, love, happiness sadness, shame, pride, and

30 on), desire, morality, thought, society/nation, politics, economy, human

relationships, communication, time, life and death, religion, and events and actions

2.1.4.2.2 Conceptual Metaphor as a Set of Mappings

‘The definition of metaphor in the light of cognitive linguistics is CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN A is understood in terms of CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN

RB To be more specific, “there is a set of systematic correspondences belween the source and the target in the sense that constituent conceptual elements of B

correspond to constituent elements of A” (Kovecses, 2010, p.7) These conceptual

correspondence:

ORGANIZATIONS ARE PLANT'S conceptual metaphor as an example

are commonly regarded as mappings Tet us take the SOCTAT

SOCLAL ORGANIZATIONS ARE PLANTS

Tle works for the local branch of the bank Our company is growing

‘They had to prune the workforce

A set of correspondences, or mappings between constituent elements of the source (ie PLANTS) and those of the target (ie SOCIAL ORGANATIONS) can

be laid oul as follows

(1) the whole plant > the entire organization

(2) a part of the plant > a part of the organization

@) growth of the plant > development of the organization

(A) removing a part of the plant > reducing the organization

(8) the root of the plant > the origin of the organization

(6) the flowering > the best stage, the most successful stage

‘Table 2.1 Metaphorical Mapping between Conceptual Domains

Let us consider another example with the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY, in which the target domain - love is conceived in terms of the source domain a joumey Some metaphorical linguistic expressions are commonly used

by speakers of inglish in daily conversations in order to talk about the abstract

concept - love

LOVEIS A JOURNEY

Look how far we've come We'll just have to go our separate ways

We can’t turn back now

‘The mappings of the conceptual metaphor LOVE 13 A JOURNEY can be as follows:

(2) the vehicle > the love relationship itself

(5) the obstacles encountered

(6) decisions about which way to go

> the difficulties experienced

> choices about what to do

(7) the destination of the journey > the goal(s) of the relationship

Table 2.2 Metaphorieal Mapping between Conceptual Domains

In general, mapping are regarded as the systematic set of correspondences between constituent elements of conceptual domain A (ie target domain), and conceptual domain B (ie source domain), which characterize conceptual

metaphors

2.1.42.3 Kinds of Metaphors

Conceptual metaphors can be classified according to the cognitive functions that they perform Lakoff and Johnson (1980) introduced three general kinds of

conceptual melaphor including structural, ontological, and onicnlational metaphors:

These kinds of metaphor often eoincide in particular cases

2.1.4.2.3.1 Structural Metaphors

In the light of cognitive lmguistics, metaphor can be characterized with the formula A IS B, where the target domain (A)} is understood through the source

domain (R) To make it clearer, with the usc of structural metaphors, “Ihe source

domain provides a relatively rich knowledge structure for the target concept”

(Kavecses, 2010, p37) In other words, thanks to this kind of metaphors, conceptual

imelaphor A (ic larget domain) can be comprehended by moans of the structure of conceptual metaphor B (ie source domain) This understanding is based on a set of

mappings thal exisL between the structures of A and B

Let us analyze the metaphorical concep! TIME TS MOTION in order to give reader decpor inside of structural metaphors The mappings of this conceptual

metaphor can be as follows

‘Times are things

The passing of time is motion

Future times are in front of the observer; past times are behind the observer One thing is moving, the other is stationary; the stationary thing is the deictic

center,

The concept of time is structured clearly according to motion in this set of

mappings There are two special cases of the TIME IS MOTION conceptual

metaphor, including TIME PASSING IS MOTION OF AN OBJECT, and TIME PASSING IS AN OBSERVER’S MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE

TIME PASSING IS MOTION OF AN OBIECT

The time will come when

‘The time has long since gone when

TIME PASSING IS AN OBSERVER’S MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE

‘There’s going to be trouble along the road

Ilis stay in Russia extended over many years

There are a huge number of metaphorical linguistic expressions derived from this TIME IS MOTION conceptual metaphor The mappings help people to understand the concept of time through the structure of the tenm motion

“Understanding our experiences in terms of objects and substances allows us

to pick out parts of our experience and treat them as discrete entities or substances

of a unifonn kind” (Lakoff & Jolson, 1980, p25) Therefore, abstract concepts that are considered as concrete entities, can be referred to, categorized, quantified and reasoned Let us consider the noun inflation as an entity as an example

INFLATION IS AN ENTITY

Taflation is lowering our standard of living

If there's much more inflation, we'll never survive

We need 10 combat inflation

In these metaphorical linguistic expressions, regarding inflation as an entity allows us to refer to it, quantify it (more inflation), identify a particular aspect of it (taking its toll), see it as a cause (makes me sick), and act with respect to it (combat inflation, dealing with inflation)

However, our experiences are generally comprehended in terms of objects,

subslances and conlamers, wilhoul naming their spevific kinds Therefore,

ontological metaphors do not provide an elaborate structure for abstract concepts, or

target domains, as discussed in structural metaphors In other wards, because of our

limited knowledge about objects, substances, and containers, lhe vague notions via

ontological metaphors can be only understood in the general level “Their cognitive

job seems to be fo ‘merely’ give a new cutological status lo general calegories of

abstract target concepts and to bring about new abstract entities” (Kévecses, 2010,

p.38) The mappings between source domains and target domains can be as follows

Source Domains Target Domains

PHYSICAL OBJECT > NONPHYSICAL OR ABSTRACT ENTITIES (e.g.,

the mind)

> FVENTS (c.g., going to the race), ACTIONS (c.g,

giving someone a call}

SUBSTANCE > ACTIVITIES (e.g., a lot of running in the game)

CONTAINER, > UNDELINEATED PHYSICAL OBJECTS (e2., a

clearing im the forest)

> PHYSICAL AND NONPHYSICAL SURFACES

(¢.g., land areas, the visual field)

> STATES (e.g,, in love)

Table 2.3 Metaphorical Mapping between Conceptual Domains

On the base of these mappings, people can use ontological metaphors for various purposes Lakolf & Johnson (1980) in their work Melaphor: We live by lisled different kinds of purposes and gave specific examples

Referring

My fear of insects is driving my wife orazy

That was a beautiful catch

Quantifying

It will take @ lot of patience to finish this book

There is so much hatred in the work

Identifying Aspects

The ugly side of his personality comes oul mder pressure

The brutality of war dehumenizes us all

Identifying causes

‘The pressure of his responsibilities caused his breakdown,

Ile did it out of anger

Setting Goals and Motivating Actions

He went to New York to seek fame and fortune

Ilere’s what you have to do to insure financial security

Ontological metaphors are also used to comprehend events, actions,

activities, and slales According to the mappings mentioned above, events and

actions arc conceptualized metaphorically as concrete objects, activitics as substances, and states as containers Let us consider some following examples with

various kinds of slales conceptualized as conlamers

He’s ia love

We're out of trouble now

Ile’s caming out of the coma

Personification is also regarded as a form of ontological metaphor “In personification, human qualities are given to nonhuman entities” (Kdvecses, 2010,

p.39) For instance, theory, life, inflation, eaneer and compuler are nol hunnans,

however, they are given qualities of human beings as in following examples

11s theory explained to me the behavior of chickens raised in factories

Life has cheated me

Abstract or vague concepts can be comprehended in a better way via giving them

human quahties

2.1.4.2.3.3, Orientational Metaphors

Onienlational inelaphors give a concepl a spatial orientalion: up-down, ite

out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral Ior example, all the following concepts are characterized by an “upward” orientation, while their

“opposites” recive a “downward” orientation (Kévecses, 2010, p.40)

CONCIOUS IS UP, SAD IS DOWN I'm on top of the situation

HAPPY TS UP, SAD 1S DOWN, Tm feeling up today

Table 2.4, Orientational Metaphors

Tn general, upward orientation normally transfers positive meaning, while downward orientation with negative one

2.1.5 Short stories

According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s dictionary (2000), a short stary is defined as “a story, usually about imaginary characters and events, that is short

enough to be read [rom begining to cud without stoping” (p.1187) The tenn oflen

refers to a work of fiction no longer than 20,000 words and no shorter than 1,000

Short stories tend to be less complex than novels, focusing on only one incident, with a single plot, a single setting, a limited number of characters, and covering a

short period of Gime Short stories have their ongins im narrative storytelling and

prose anecdote As with any art form, the exact characteristics of a short story will

vary by authors Singer (2000), an award-winning author of children’s books in a variely of genres, collected ideas of diferent wrilers about the defimbon of short

stories in her work What is a Short Story? “A short stories, in some ways, like a

pholograph — a captured moment of time that is cryslalline, though sometnnes

mysterious, arresting, though perhaps delicate” (Singer, 2000, p.38) In other words,

a short story is like the illumination of a match, and all the details have work toward that ilhimination

Scolicld (2006) presented the distinctive features between the short story and

the ‘novella’ or the long story that form of between about fifty and hundred and fifty pages (or 20,000 and 40,000 words), too long for a ‘short story’ and too short

for a novel, in his book The Cambridge introduction to American short story

Because of the shorter length, a short story usually focuses on one plot, one main

character (a few additional minor characters), and one central theme In contrast,

“The novella often covers more narrative grourd, oflen deals with a large number

of characters rather than focusing on one or two, and is often divided into parts or chapters” (Scofield, 2006, p.4) In other words, a short story is like a short visit to

other people, while a long one is ike a long journey wilh others A short story is

cinematically seen as the camera zooming in this one climatic moment, then pulling

back on either side of the moment to show all that leads up to and comes after it

Regarding the short stories in American, there was a notable revival of

imerest, in the 1970s and 1980s Tradilionalists including Jolm Updike and Joyce

Carol Oates maintained significant influence on the form Of the Naith America’s foremost men of letters, John Updike was prolific in a variety of genres, especially

in short stories His works arc highly regarded for its luminous prose style and commitment to realism, and also provide readers with a detailed social history of the late twentieth century To be more specific, they expose the metamorphosis of

middle-class domesticity in an era of grealer sexual freedom, rising marilal discord,

heightened spiritual uncertainty, and increased social unrest (endixen & Nagel, 2010) In addition, minimalism gained widespread influence in the 1980s most

udably m the work of Raymond Carver and Ann Bealtic Among the writers,

Raymond Carver represents a return to realism as a literary mode after the

postmodern experimentation of Barthelme, Gass and others; a realism which owes

inuch (o Hemingway but which also gives the mode a dislinclively new inflection, exploring the strange turns of ordinary life, the odd comers within the familiar

(Scofield, 2006) Other noticeable aulhors during this period of tine inchile Saul Bellow (1979), Susan Sontag (1987), Alice Munro (1989), Lorrie Moore (1990),

Rick Bass (1990), Robert Olen Butler (1990) and so on ‘Their works are considered

as vivid descriptions of American life during thal period of time

Meanwhile, in Vietnam, tho historical background parlly had a great influence of the development of Vietnamese literature in general and the genre of short story in particular On April, 30 1975, the Fall of Saigon, or the Liberation of Saigon was the capture of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, by the People’s Amy of Vietnam and the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam ‘The event marked the end of the Vietnam War and the start of a transition period to the formal reunification of Vietam under the Socialist Republic During the renewal process, Vietmamese literature in general and short stories in particular experienced significant changes Critic Ngo Van Gia (2016) pointed out the biggest achievement was a change of perception of human lives Authors adopted a completely new writing style and became famous They shifted from war-time aesthetics to peace- time aesthetics, from praising the war of resistance to focusing on human destinies,

universal values, and questioning and engaging reality

Belore 1975, short stories wrilers such as Nam Cao, To Hoai and Kim Lan

tended to depict the plight of miserable people in the society with unfeigned vivid words and flexible descriptions They specifically concentrated on the lingering distressful tragedics of their inner souls, indircctly brought forward the prevailing social problems of this period After 1975, Vietnam’s renewal shaped national culture and inspired artists’ creativity Short stories written in this period of time

embodied a differen view of life Authors had [reedom to speak oul their voices,

and reflect the reality of life for the people If, during the war time, a generation of writers basically fulfilled their historical responsibility, after the war the subsequent

generation helped form an eventful literary period, winting the hearts of the

audience Neuyén Minh Chiu, Ma Van Khang, Nguyễn Khải, Xuân Thiêu and so

on were dominant short stories writers during this period of time These post-war

generations of authors, who grow up aller 1975, led more comfortable lives and Ivad

a new view of reform, contributed a remarkable part to the development of

Vietnamese literature

2.2 Literature review

The beginnings of Cognitive Linguistics lic around 1975, which is the yoar when Lakoff appears to have used the tenn “Cognitive Linguistics” for the first time (Dirk & Hubert, 2007, p.591) At this period of time, Lakoff realized that figures of speech, such as metaphor and metonymy, were not just linguistic decorations, but a part of everyday speech that affects the ways in which we perceive, think, and act

He began his collaboration with the philosopher Mark Johnson in 1979, and they

published their seminal book Metaphors We Live By in 1980, which was the first publication to bring Cognitive Linguistics to the attention of a wider audience In

this work, Lakoff and Johnson present their strong arguments against the traditional

view of metaphor and introduce a new oue that challenged all the aspocis off this widely-share theory in a coherent and systematic way They claim “metaphor is

pervasive im everyday life, not just in language but in thought and aclion” (Lakoff &

Johnson, 1980, p.3) They also introduce the notion of conceptual metaphor and

illustrate their viewpoint with a huge number of linguistic examples This work is the main thooretical background and guideline for my thesis

Since then, a considerable number of researches have Leen carried out im the

light of cognitive linguistics in the world and in Viet Nam as well Kaveoses (2010) points out that common target domains inchide emotion (such as anger, fear, love, happiness, sadness, shame and pride), desire, morality, thought, society’ nation, politics, economy, human relationships, communication, time, life and death, religion, events and actions To illustrate that, Lakoff and Turner (1989) investigate

melaphors for life and death, as well as time, in literary texts Johnson (1992) is ø

discussion of morality as moral accounting Jakel (1995) describes a large system of metaphors relating to the mind and thought, in which the mind is viewed as a

workshop and hough as the maripulations of Lools and objecis Kéveesos (1986,

1988, 1990, 1991a, 1991b) are analyses of various emotion concepts Lakoff (1990,

1993) looks at metaphors for events and actions in general Lakoff (1993 1994) and Radden (1997) examine the concept of time as coneeptualived in terns of moving

objects Lvans (2001) is a book-length study of time

In Lakoff and ‘Tumer’s work (1989), More than Cool Reason: A field guide

to poetic metaphor, (he conceptual metaphors denoting “life” were mostly examined

on the scope of pooms Other minor rescarches on the concept of lite inchides The

Journeys of Life: Examining a Conceptual Metaphor with Semantic and Lpisodic

Memory Recall (Katz & Taylor, 2008) with a deeper insight into only one

conceptual metaphor LIFE 18 A JOURNEY ‘This conceptual metaphor is also

dicussed by Lakoff (1994) and Winter (1995) In general, the number of the

researches into the conceptual metaphors denoting “life” merely takes up an

insignificant part in comparison with other target domains, which inspires me to

make a further study of this abstract concept

In Viet Nam, there are some noticeable cognitive linguists, such as Ly Toàn

Thắng (2005), Trần Văn Cơ (2007), Nguyễn Đúc Tên (2007, 2009), Phan Van Hoa

(2008) and Nguyễn Lai (2009) Lý Toàn Thắng (2005) in his beok “Ngôn ngữ học

tri nhận — Từ lý thuyết đại cương đến thực tiễn tiêng Việt” gives an introduction to

cognitive linguistics and presons distinctive features of linguistic models about the

world Tran Van Co (2007) explains the traditional view of metaphor and points out

the new viewpoint on this figure of speech in the light of cognitive linguistics Nguyễn Đúc Tổn (2008) and Nguyén Lai (2009) do research on the use of conceptual metaphors in idioms and poetry respectively Besides, there are some minor researches, carried out in VNU University of Languages and International Studics, on conceptual metaphors denoting “cconomy” as human body by Hé Thi

ân Thị Minh Yến

lãi Yến (2012), conceptual metaphors denoting “anger” by

(2012), and conceptual metaphors denoting “love” in American and Vietnamese romarlic novels from 2008 (o 2013 by 1.8 Thi Khanh Hoa (2012) However, none of

them mentioned in detail the conceptual metaphors denoting LU‘, and the similarities and differences between linguistic expressions deriving from these melaphors Tn the University of Da Nang, Hoàng Nguyên Tôn Ngân (2014) nhào made a research on cognitive metaphors denoting the concept of “life”, but the source of analyzed data was taken from English and Vietnamese lyric sangs

To sum up, none of researches have been carried out to examine conceptual melaphors denoting life in American and Vietnamese short slories during the period

of time 1975 - 1991, which motivates me to make an investigation in this topic

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

‘This chapter auns at describing the research design and methods, data

collection, dala am s, and research procedures used in the sludy Tis important

to choose the suitable methods and imstruments in order to analyze the data in this

study, which guarantee the reliability and the validity of the research

3.1, Research design and methodology

In this research, both the quantitative and quanlitative method are used in the process of analyzing the collected data Besides, Contrastive and Comparative

Analysis ave utilized with the ain to find ou the similares and differences of

conceptual metaphors denoting LIFT in American and Vietnamese short stories

Regarding Contrastive Analysis, pairwise language comparison has been

used in the description of foreign languages af least since the 19" century in Europe

Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigation approach based on the distinctive elements in a language It involves the comparison of two or more languages or

subsystems of languages in order to delermmme both the differ š and gìmHariies

between them The theoretical foundations for Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis were formulated in Robert Lado’s Linguistics Across Cultures (1957) Lado claimed

that “we can predict and describe the patterns that will cause difficulty in learning,

and those that will not cause difficulty, by comparing systematically the language and culture to be learnt with the native language and culture of the student.”

Therefore, contrastive linguistics plays an important role in the creation of language

awareness (Kortmann, 1996; James, 2005, Mair, 2005) In particular, leamers can

profit from a direct comparison of their native language with the language ta be

learnt, thus making their implicit knowledge of differences explicit, Therefore, it is

considered as a useful tool in pedagogical aspect,

Conceming, Comparative Analysis, its two features include (1) an interest in the explanatory question of why the observed similaries and differences between

cases exist, and (2) reliance on the colleclion of dala on lwo or more cases, ideally

according to a common framework, ‘I'he primary reason for comparative analysis is

34

the explanatory interest of gaining a better understanding of the causal processes involved in the production of an event, feature or relationship The two convenliomal lypes of comparative analysis focus an the explanation of differences, and the explanation of similarities

It is important to distinguish Contrastive Analysis and Comparative

Analysis Contrastive Analysis is part of applied linguistics and seeks to establish

the similarities and differences belween a language learner’s first language and the target language (= the one being learnt) in order to attempt to predict where learners

will have difficullies and make mistakes Meanwhile, Comparative Analysis is part

of historical linguistics and refers to the process of establishing family relationships and reconstructing proto-languages (= ancestral languages)

In the thesis, Contrastive and Comparative Analysis are used with the aim to identify the similar and different points between conceptual metaphors denoting LIFE in the two languages Krom that, the implications for teaching, learning and translating can be extracted, which brings great benefits to English leamers

3.2 Data

On the scope of this study, the data are collected from nineteen American

and nineteen Vietnamese short stories from 1975 to 1991, written by famous writers

during this period of Lime

3.2.1 American short sLories

The nineteen American short stories arc sclected from the two well-known collections of short stories, specifically The Best American Short Stories of the Century collected by John Updike and Katrina Kenison (1999), and The Best

American Short Stories edited by Alice Adams and Katrina Kemson (1991)

Tn order Lo choose the best short stories for the collection The Rest American

Short Stories of the Century (1999), the editors read thousand stories published in American periodicals, and from these, culled about 120 to pass on to the guest

editor, who then makes the (inal sclection This ensures thal The Best American

Short Stories would never be simply a collection of the stories only John Updike

predilections of such varied talents such as Robert Stone, Alice Adams, Louise Erdrich, Tobias Wolff, Jane Smiley, Tohn Edgar Widerman, Annie Proulx, and Garrison Keillor, The collections they have assembled are reflections both of who they are and of the healthy vigor of the American short story at the end of this century There are two principles guiding the editors in the process of choosing the

short stories for this collection First, this selection needs io reflect lhe century, with

each decade given roughly equal weight — what amounted to between six and eight stories per decade Second, it enforces the reflection of an American reality, deals with characters from the United States and excludes any story that did not take place on this continemt On the scope of this study, there are seven American short

vhosen from this selection ineluding:

A silver dish (Sun Bellow, 1979)

Gesturing John Updike, 1980)

Where I’m calling from (Raymond Carver, 1983)

Janus (Ann Beattie, 1986)

The way we live now (Susan Sontag, 1987)

Menseteung (Alice Munro, 1989)

You're ugly, loo (Lorrie Moore, 1990)

The remaining short series used or this study are selected from The Best American Short Stories edited by Alice Adams and Katrina Kenison (1991) Similar

ta the collection The Best American Short Stories of the Century (1999), a different

writer or crilic has served as guest editor of the anthology, therchy ensuring ils

continued diversity Ihe variety of viewpoints has enlivened the series and resulted

in volumes that reflect the passions and predilections of some of the finest writers at work today The qualifications for selccHom are: (1) original publication in nationally distributed American periodicals, (2) publication in English by writers

who are American, or who have made the United States their home; and (3) publication as short stories There are twelve American short stories chosen from

this study in order to search for Lil'l! metaphorical expressions, as follows

The legend of pig-eye (Rick Bass, 1990}

The ivip back (Robert Olen Butler, 1990)

36

‘The point (Charles D'Ambrosio, JR, 1990)

Oil and water (Millicent Dillion, 1990)

The body shop (Blicabeth Graver, 1990)

Loudini (Siri Llustvedt, 1990)

Bologoye (Mikhail Lossel, 1990)

Glossolalia (Mavid Jauss, 1990)

Viva la Tropicana (Leonard Michaels, 1990)

Willing (Lorie Moore, 1990)

Friend of my youth (Alice Munro, 1990)

American, Abroad (Joyce Carol Oates, 1990)

Lach short story faithfully reflects different pieces of life in America, which

becomes the valuable source for this thesis, in order to find oul LIFE inctaphorical

expressions

3.2.2 Vietnamese short stories

In fers of Vicbwmese data, the rinelcon short stories are selecled fram the collections of typical authors during the period of time from 1975 to 1991,

including Neuvan Khải truyện ngắn ! selecteä by Nguyễn Phan Hách and Nguyễn Khắc Trường (2003), Truyện ngắn Nguyễn Minh Châu, tác phẩm và lời bình by

Tuân Thành and Vũ Nguyễn (2007), Truyện ngắn Ma ăn Kháng by Trung Trưng

Đỉnh and Nguyễn Khắc Trường (2008), and Xuân Thiêu toàn lập, tập 3 by Ngô

Vinh Binh (2015)

Neuyéu Minh Chiu is considered as the outstanding successor in the Vietamese prose, and the person who paved the way for the brilliant talented young writers later as well His career lasted for three decades (1960 — 1989), with a significant number of well-known literal works Ou the scope of this study, there are merely five short stories chosen as the source of data analyzed, specifically Chuyén

bay (1983), Khách & qué ra (1984}, Bén qué (1985), Chiếc thuyền ngoài xa (1987),

and Phiên Chợ Giát (1989) All these works closely describe the real life of ordinary people, and reflect their way of conceiving the abstract concept of LIFE in

terms of others:

Dinh Trọng Doan, whose pen name is Ma Van Khang, was one of the first authors in the innovative period of time in Viet Nam with more than 200 short slorics Some typical works chosen for the analysis of this study include V8 sf exia

Quan Châu (1978), Trung du chiều mưa buôn (1807), leo may, giỏ lộng (1901), and Móng vuất thời gian (1991)

Themes of works by Nguyén Khai vay from the country life in the immovative period of Lime, the life of soldiers during the war against American army, the typical social aud political issues, to the spiritual and ideological life of

Vietnamese people witnessing the country’s complicated changes The short stories

sclocted for this thesis also reflect Vietoamese poople’s life in an accurate and direct

way, specifically Ilai ông gid & Déng Yhap Muéi (1981), Người gặp hằng ngàp

(1981), Nang chiều (1989), Đi đời (1900), Ông trường ho (1991) and Mội thời giỏ

bụi (1901)

At the age of 15, Xuan Thigu joined the patriotic movement, and then

worked for the Vietnamese army Therefore, the love for the country permeated the pages of his writing Although his works do not account for a significant number, every page, or story closely describes the life of Vietramese people who had been writhing to go through the war, won a heroic victory by their own blood and tears,

and kept fighting during the inmovative period of time The short slories analyzed in

this study including Gié tir mién edt (1983), Thong ngày đã qua (1984), Người mỹ

tội lỗi (1984 - 1985), Thành phố thân thoáng (1986 — 1987)

3.3 Data collection

‘The quantity of metaphorical expressions denoting life found in the nineteen

American and nineteen Vietnamese shori stories from 1975 ta 1991 is the exact

munber of 203 samples, specifically 114 lexical units in Vietnamese, and 89 illustrations in English

The table below will give detailed information of life metaphorical

expressions used for this study in the nineteen American short slories

3 | Where Pin calling from Raymond Carver |1983 4

5 | The way we live now Susan Sontag 1987 10

8 | The legend of pig - eye Rick Bass 1990 1

9 | The trip back Robert Olen Buller | 1990 2

D’ Ambrosio, IR

12 | The bedy shop Flivabelh Graver | 1990 1

16 | Viva la Tropicana Leonard Michaels | 1990 12

19 | American, Abroad Joyce Carol Oates | 1990 8

Table 3.1 American corpus analyzed in the study

Rogarding Vicinamese data, the specifi number of samples found in cach

short story will be presented clearly in the table below: