Luận văn household oriented approach for the optimization of resources management at the floating village in tonle sap lake region cambodia

EAM SAM UN TIOUSEIIOLD ORIENTED APPROACTI FOR TIE OPTIMIZATION OF RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AT THE FLOATING VILLAGE IN TONLE SAP LAKE REGION, CAMBODIA Major: Waste Management and Contamin

VNU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITAT DRESDEN

EAM SAM UN

TIQUSEIIGLD ORIENTED APPROACII FOR TIIE OPTIMIZATION

OF RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AT THE FLOATING VILLAGE

IN TONLE SAP LAKE REGION, CAMBODIA

EAM SAM UN

TIOUSEIIOLD ORIENTED APPROACTI FOR TIE OPTIMIZATION

OF RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AT THE FLOATING VILLAGE

IN TONLE SAP LAKE REGION, CAMBODIA

Major: Waste Management and Contaminated Site Treatment

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My highly appreciation wishes to acknowledge to 1) Ing Catalin Stefan, Institute for Waste

Management and Contaminated Sito Treatment at the TU Dresden, provided me a great support for making this paper possible and 1 also contribute of my thanks ta alls as following in the accomplishment of this paper existing;

œ To Prof, Dr.-Ing, Habil Dr h c Bilitewski and Prof, Dr Nenyon Thi Diem Trang, who established the cooperation Master program on “Waste Management and Contaminated Site Treatment”

2 ‘Io DAAI Hanoi provided me full support for bath living allowance and tuition fee for duration 2 years of study

oo To Prof Dr Le Thanh Son, Vice Dean at the Faculty of Chemistry, at the Ilanoi University of Scicnve always provided 2e u suppor

on To all professors, lecturers, and colleagues at the Hanoi University of Scienec and the Institute for Waste Management and Contaminated Site Treatment, at the TL? Dresden for

all the important assistances

2 ‘To Ir Carly Starr who kindly revised this paper with grammar and structures

co To very supportive lovely parents, brothers, and sister, for encouragement and inspiration

11 Tonle Sap Lake Repion

12 Poverty in'lonle Sap Lake Region

13 Objectives of Study

Chapter II ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONEMNAT RELAVART

FACTORS IL1 Data Mining and Collections

IL2 - Socio-Economie Factors

112.1 Qceupation and Income

11.2.2 Bdneaion 112.3 Somes of Energy tor Consumption

11.2.5 Enviromental Pollution

112.6 Land Use Classifcation - ¬-

3 Drinking Water Supply and Quality

113.1 Somrees of Drinking Water Supply

1.4.10 Cošt Analysis o[ HWTR ào eroớn ¬-

IS - Domestie WasteQemeratien ¬ seed

DEVELOPMENT OF 4, CONCEPT FOR TIE OPTIMIZATION OF

IIL2 - Develapment of'a Technical Concept for Safe Drinking Water Supply and

I1.2.1 Simple Sand Filter (SSF) and Solar Disinfection (SODIS) 35

TILA TI.5

TV.1.2 Houschold Cust Expenditure

TV.1.3 Houschold’s Time Expending,

6S

: Reuse, Recycle, and Reduce

: Asia Development Hank : Asian /!U-University Network Program : American Water Works Association

: Bio-sand Filtcr : Calcium ion

: Center for Affordable Water and Sanitation ‘lechnology

: Center for Disease Control and Prevention

Cambodian Fuelwood Saving Project

: Methane

+ Chlordances : Chloride

: Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide

: Chemical Oxygen Demand : Ceramic Water Purifier : Dichlorodiphenylirichloroethane : Deoxyribonucleic acid

: Dissolved Oxygen : Swivs Federel Institute of Aquatic Seicuce

: Environmental Justice Foundation

: Water

: Hewaelloroberzene : Hexacharinated hydrocarbons : Household Water ‘l'reatment System : International Development Lnterprise : Institnte for Global Environmental Strategies : lulergovcnunental Panel on Climate Change : Japan Intemational Cooperation Agency

: Potassium ion

Liquefied Petroleum Gas

: Magnesium ion : Sodium iow : Sodium hypochlorite

: National Biogas Program

National Institute for Statistic

: Nitrogen Oxide : Oxygen

: Organo-chlorines

: Pan American Jealth Organization

: Polychlorinated bi-phenyls : Parliamentary Commissioner for the Enviroment

: Poly Ethylene Torephtludate

vì

: "Total Phosphorus

: Total Suspended Solid

United Nations Development Program

: United Nations Environment Protechon

: United Nations for Children’s Fund : United States Agency for International Development

: Ultra violate Volume

: Water Sanitation Health Environment Development

: World Health Organization

vii

: Gram methane per kilogram waste

: Lectare

: Kilogram per household per year : Kilogram per capital per day : Square klumeter

: Litter per day

: Litter per houschold per day

Litter per minnte

: Metter

: Milligram per litter : Millimeter per year : Nanogram per gram

Percentage of hydrogen : Ton Total Nitrogen per year : Ton tolal phosphorous per year : Ton per year

: Yon carbon dioxide equivalent : US Dollar per hectare

| US Dollar per household por your

Vi

LIST OF FIGURES:

Figure 1: Tonle Sap Lake Region with five zones classitication

Figure 2; Scheme of eyele of poverty and sanitation

Figure 3: Occupation aruong pupulation in the Tonle Sup Lake Region by perconlage

¥igure 4: income from sectors in the ‘Tonle Sap lake Region by percentage

Figure 5: Rducatton level in the Tonle Sap [ake Region

Vigure 6: Sources of energy for cooking

Figure 7; Sources of energy for lightoning

Figure 8 Sources of drinking water

Figure 9: Solar Disinfection

Figure 10: Simple Sand Filter

Figure 11: Ceramic Water Purifier (CWP)

Figure 12: Bio-sand filter design components

Figure 13: Comparative cost production of HWTS per household per year

Figure 14: Characterization of domestic waste in Siem Reap Province

Figure 15: Toilet Facility in Tonle Sap Lakeitcgian

Figure 16: Comparison of time spending between baseline boiling water and optimized-

Figure 18: GHG Emission trom baselme-boiling water and optinuzed-SODIS/SSF

Fignrel9: Complete single pit

Tigure 20: Nutrient recovery from human waste

Figure 21: Schematic of composting cquation

.34

36

39 Al

Vaveline-trede aud vptinized-mnushrou A 1 49

Figure 29, Comparison of muse reduction within baseline- before and optimized-afler mushroom

Figure 31: Default value of GHG emission from composting gCH/kg waste - 51 Figure 32: Comparison of rice yield between baseline scenario and optimized scenaria 53

Higure 35: Comparison time spending for cocking and firewood consumption baseline scenario

TÄgure 36: GIÌG Emission from baseline-firewood and optimized biogas for cooking 56 igure 37: Comparison of expense for baseline-firewood and optimized-char briquette 3 Ligure 38: Comparison of GIG emission between baseline-firewood and optimized- char

Land use classification

‘Water quality parameters in the Tonle Sap Lake

Summary of potential effective by IIWTS

The volume and nutient loading of watcr consumption in houschold (g/m3) Human wale flow

LIST OF ANNEXES

Annex] -Socio-economic indicators

Aanex1-1 Components of Service Occupation in the region

Aamox 1.2 Income from fishing "¬

Aamex L.3 Ineonte from Íầmning 5 55c Set

Amexl : Ineeme from trade

Aainex 1S: Incoite ÍEoIN s€TvÏC€S c ct

Aamex 1.6: Income generation ftom total zones:

Aanex 1.7: Income generation from total zones by percentages

Aamex2.1: Energy for cooking,

Annex’

; Energy for lightening

Annex3: LJrinking Water Supply —cost estimation

Annex: Fuel consumption and emission factors by household (Calculation by Shipbuilding

GIG Iimigsion Inventory Tool)

AnnexS: Agncultural and honsehold waste materials

Annex6: Drinking, Water Quality Index

Aunex 7; Houschold waler treatment system (HWTS) for drinking water

Aantex 8: Sanilation facility

ABSTRACT

Tonle Sap Lake is known as a sich in natural resources where it engages the high population contribution throughout the Qoodplain up to 1.2 million and approximately 4.2 million in total of the region, and makes up the distribution density in average 58 persone per square kilometer Due to the high proportion of population depend on existing resources, fishing and farming are majorly of region up to 70%, aud hus resulted 42.8% living in he poverty in the uzca, A large mumber of floating villages in floodplain live in low income generation from farming and fishing; likewise, inadequate to access safe water supply, lack sanitation system, and poor

the Tonle Sap Luke basin is alanning to call for the

understanding of environmental impa

sustainable management in terms of human health, socio-economic, and environmental issues Thus, the purpose of this papor is analysis of human and environmental relevant factors includes socio-econamic, drinking water, sanitation system, and domestic waste Hased on this relevant factor analysis, the key tasks are to develop a concept for optimization of household oriented resoures and compile the oriented wuideline for local community uve Ag a zevuli, it is indicated that mushroom is feasible option for socio-economic development up to 10,210 US&hh/yr compare to baseline scenario comprised only 2,732,75US®hlvyr or 5 times increasing, The optimization scenario for the drinking walex supply is SODIS and SSF, sauitation is dry toilet with single pit or bucket, and waste management is compost, biogas, and char briquette ‘Those metheds ar recommended to use in the basin duc to their not only low cost production, but also flexible less time spending, and environmental- ftiendly In average of cost expenditure from each household is estimated that 107.SUS§/th’/yr and it is reduced to 71.96USWhiyr respectively Time spending is also significantly reducud regarding lo the optimization seunaio

np to 935.5hrs‘hh/yr if compare to the baseline scenario 1498.Shrs/hh/yr GIG emission from

housshold oriented are 6.42TCO:E/yr, whulst, the application of the optimized sconano is reduced to 0.59 TCO2E/hh/yr

xiii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Ll Tonle Sap Lake Region

Tonle Sap Lake is known as a largest lake in Southeast Asia It lies on the central plain of

Cambadia where il covers 85 620kin2 of tand (Figure 1) The lake cormeets lo the Mekong River

by the Tonle Sap River which is 120m long (Sokhem, P., & Sunada, K,, 2006) As a complexity

of flowing and inter-linkage, the lake changes in size and volume depending on the season, During the wet scasun, the depth of the Jake can tise from Im up to 10 m Mcanwhile, the surface area enlarges trom 2500km? up to 15 000km2, extending the lake over the floodplain

consisting of flooded forests, shrubs, and rice field (Keskinen, M, 2006) The variation of waler volume in the Take is inftusrced by the increasing water lovel from the Mckong River whera it causes reversed iow of the Tonle Sap River during the wet season, Duting the dry season, the

‘Tonle Sap Lake is reversed again and starts to empty into Mekong River

The extraordinary water regime of the Tonle Sap Lake and Tonle Sap River has provided occasionally to biodiversity and highly productive aquatic food chain The migration of various fish species and aquatic animals between the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mckong River is highly remarkable due to the suitable conditions for fzeding food, breeding and nursing in the flooded forest or shrubs The adull fish or aquatic aniwals might be snoved to the Mekong River or habitant in the lake throughout the year (Lamberts, 2006), More than 1.2 million people live in the floodplain by deeply depending on the fishery and other existed resources Furthermore, it is estimated that an approximately half of total country’s population is direct or indirectly beneficially from the Jake’s resources Though, the rich of ñsherics, forestry and water sources that encourages the high opportunity for floating rice, seasonal zice cultivation and aquaculture, a lange manber of population still five in a poverty

Figure 1: Tonle Sap Lake Region with five zones classification ( Joha, S and J Koponen, 2003)

12 Poverty in the Tonle Sap Lake Region

Despite of the abundant natural resources, livelihoods in the Tonle Sap Lake region is known as

the poorest part of the country due to the strong dependences on the existing resources in the

area, and more than 70% of labor force employs in agriculture Rich in resources, it is engaged higher proportion of population in floodplain more than 1.2 million and more than 4.2 million in

the Tonle Sap Lake region However, the high dependence on natural resources for daily

livelihoods has resulted in 42.8% of the population live in poverty in the basin (Malin M, 2009) The high poverty rate in this area is partially from unequal access to natural resources,

insufficient rights for land usage, and less opportunity to increase productivity (Keskinen, M,

2006) Living with a low income generation, the population lack food security and clean water:

however, it is high aspect of poor awareness to pollute water and swrounding environment from the population The most significantly, in the floating community in the floodplain of Tonle Sap

Lake region is appeared strongly closed to water resources for domestic consumption and

dumping site for their household waste including excreta, The high pollution is alarming, with

increased incidents of diarrhea, up to 22.4% in Tonle Sap Lake region (NIS, 2004), 54.1% in children under 5 years ofd in case study among 123 samples in the Chong Khnea District, Siem

Reap Province (USALD and RACIIA, 2009), and is the known as cause death of children under 5

in 7% of cases (WHO, 2011), $1% of houscholds in the floating villages in the Tonle Sap basin currently have no sanitation system (N18, 1998), and there is @ low awareness of hygiene in this area, The high incident of diarrhea among these populations requires both water and sanitation intervention to reduce Inman health risks that endangers the lives of adults and children As shown in Figure 2 there is a strong link between poverty and poor sanitation, he improved sanitation may help lo broak the cyct: by stopping haman cxcrcla entering the environment in a way that influences human health Overcrowded, bad drainage, polluted water, unreliable and insufficient water supplies and poor sanitation all contribute to poor health (Rebecca S, 2003)

| Good Sanitation to break cycle

ss expand for sanitation

Figure 2: Scheme of cyele of poverty and sanitation (Rebecca S., 2003)

Given characterization of Tonle Sap Lake region, livelihoods is significantly dependent on fishenes, forestry, water sources and rice cultivation, however, it is still high proportion living in poverty that encourages the high rate of human health risks Likewise, it is partially from lack of cleaned waler supply, low sanilalion and hygicnic promotion program, and lack domestic waste management ftom household, Thus, it is an essential for this master thesis aims to address the local resources management in terms of human health, environmental impacl, and socia- economic welfire for floating villages in Tonle Sap Lake region by analyzing of human and environmental relevant factors including socio-economic, water supply, sanitation, and domestic

The tsrms of human health, environmental impact and socio-economic aspects, this mainly

study’s purposes are concluded into three tasks,

Task I: Analyze of human and environmental relevant sectors by focusing on socia-economtie, water supply, sanitation, and domestic waste management for household level

Task TT: The study is to develop the concepts for optimization of resources management in region

by focusing on four main indicators descziption in Task I and;

Task IT: Compited the oriented guidelines for esl practices in local community at (he Tonle Sap

Lake region.

Chapter l ASSESSMENTOEF HƯMAN AND ENVIRONMBNTAL

TL2 Sacto-Reonome Factors

1.2.1 Occupation and Income

According to NIS (1998), employment in the Tonle Sap Lake Region is classified into agriculture, amall tiade, fishing and scrvices Agriculture is rclated to rice farming, floating rice, dry and wet rice farming and crops in which it plays the major roles in the total region (63.4%) The trade makes up 12%, Gishing 5.7% and service 5.9% (Figure 3) Sinall trade is the activities

of small businesses in the region and includes shops, selling fish, and other trade, Service occupation is mentioned on the providing service sectors such as; motor taxi, boat service,

s, workers and other servic:

restanranls, guest housc, baltcry charging shop, tice tilling s

The occupation varied from zone 1 to zone 3 In the zone 1, fishing activitics raise up to 55% which is higher than other zones, Kor zone 2, zene3, and zone 4 has found that agriculture is significant jabs in these zones (average 80%) Towever, in vons 5 is the urban area, among population prefezred the provided service (30%) and trade (30%)

Figure 3: Occupation among population in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage (NIS 1998)

Depending on the NIS (1998) and ADB survey (2008), it is important to estimate the income from each activity in the region The farming activities can result in income less than other

activities ($32 US $/hh/yn) This result is defined by total cost of rice yields minus total cost of

production On the other hand, the income from fishing, service and trade are ranged from 1596

US $/hiyyr, 4,093.21 US S/hh/yr and 4,409.81US$/hlvyr The total income for the region is

shown in (Figure 4) All zones, trade and farming is ranging in highest percentage (38%), 17%

for service, 7% for fishing The income from zone 1, fishing (47%) is potential function in total

region if compare to other sectors, however, for zone 2, zone 3, and zone 4, agriculture are more

11.2.2 Education

‘There is low literature rate in the region Due to poverty, only 11.7% of girls attend school in

from grade 6- 12 across all zones For boys, the opportunity to attend school is significantly

higher than girls with 40% attending from grade 6-12 The distinct relationship between literacy

in males and females is gender issue Females are required to spend more time assisting in home,

whilst males are considered more responsible for generation income Figure 5 shows more detail

literacy from zone | to zone 5 The relationship between poverty and literacy is declined Zone 1

to zone 4 is lower income (mostly farming and fishing) community which has lower education

However, Zone 5 has a higher and easier access to school, and the rate is significantly higher

>12 Female

mZonel Never

Figure 5: Education Level in the Tonle Sap Lake Region (NIS 1998)

112.3 Sources of Energy for Consumption

Sources of Energy for Cooking

In Cambodia, 83% of the population use firewood for cooking, 9% use charcoal, and 9% rely on

LPG (NIS 2008) Cooking with an old custom stove, firewood is a major source for burning in

each household across the country Figure 6 shows that, about 90% from Zone 1 to zone 4

commonly use firewood; this is because in rural areas it is most accessible sources Only 80% in

Zone 5, firewood is used, however, about 15% in this zone is replaced by charcoal LPG and

Charcoal are considered popular energy sources for cooking across the zones in the region

Figure 6: Sources of energy for cooking (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

Sources of Energy for Lightening

NIS (1998) reported that popular sources of energy for lightening in Cambodian concluded lead acid batteries (38%), kerosene lamps (36%) and public-provided electricity power (23%)

However, public-provided electricity power can only provide 15.5% of the population across the

zones, and especially in zone 5 (42.8%, urban area) of the Tonle Sap Lake Region

Approximately 77% of household use kerosene lamps in all zones, zone 1 65.5%, Zone 2 97%,

zone 3 92.3%, and zone 4 85.4%, (Figure7).

Sources of Energy for Lightening

Zone 5 Zone 4

Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone1 All zones Cambodia

= Publicly-Provided Electricity Power —_m Privately generated electricity

= Batteries m Kerosene lamp

Figure 7: Sources of energy for lightening (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

1.2.4 Human Health

Surveys in Chong Khneas District, Siem Reap Province in Cambodia, by USAID and RACHA,

(2009) reported that amongst 123 children, 54.1% were infected by diartheal disease 60% of children become sick from drinking the lake water, 50% who drink house hold filtered water, 44.4% for children who drink boiling water, and 38% for children who drink purified water In this resident area, the majority of households have no toilet 88.8% and their faecal wastes are disposed directly into river or lake

Likewise, NIS, (2001) reported that the Tonle Sap Lake Area is covered by large surface water

from 2500km* - 11000 km’ depending on dry season to rainy season, 22.4% of cases of diarrhea

disease occurred across the population 4, 109, 137 Similarity, Tep Chhakda et al., (2006) has

indicated the information in the same region, approximately 44.5% of 1,584 samples has infected

by diarrhea The risk factors caused of persons who directly contact with the contaminated water

and eliminate pathogens into water, 68.1% no latrines at home, 35.4% recreational swimming,

8% fishing, 32.6% wearing shoes, and 65.2% wearing shoes during defecation

11.2.5 Environmental Pollution

Destruction of natural resources

The rapidly increasing population sizrounding the Tonle Sap Take is approximatcly 4.2 million, equal to 29% of the country total population The average density is 58 people per km”, and is increasing at 1.75% in 2009 (Marlin M, 2003) This has resulted in an increased demand for resources Keskinen, M, (2006) reported that 90% of the populations is dependent on natural resources for their livelihood, Overharvesting of fisheries, forestry products, and daily pollution from households are major coneem, and more sustainable development and resource management is crilically important in the Tonle Sap basin

Sedimentatians

The sedimentation of the Tonle Sap Lake receives from the Mekong River The increasing sedimentation annually is from 0.1-0.16mm/year (Joha, S and J Koponen 2003) The sediment

is ocowred during flooded scason (inflow) with up fo 5.7 million tons of sediments, and the

outflow (during dry season) is 1.2 million tons 70% is received from the Mekong River

Environmental changes

Himman activities have causcd physical, chemical, and biotogical changes to the lake Ineroased sedimentation has eaused lower water depth, and depleted dissolved oxygen concentrations in the water cosystems in the basin have changed regarding fo the increasing concentrations of pollutants, for instance DDT (average 450ng/g in fat fish and 3200ng/¢ in bird) Cherival are used for aqua-culture and farmung (Monizith et al., 1999) Daily pollution trom human waste and households further contribule to its environment degradation

IL2.6 Land Use Classification

Land use tn the Tonle Sap Lake region is classified into 5 zones Urbanived arca is dofined as zone 5 and fiom zone | to 4 is characterized as rural area (Tablel), The accuracy of zones is identified based on above sea level (asl), ranging from Zone 1 (0-6m asl), zone 2 (6-8 m asl), zone 3 (8-10m asl), zone 4 (10 m asl to national roads) and zone S is urban area which it locates

in centre of six provinces; Kompong Chhnagn, Pur Sat, Kompong Thom, Sicm Reap, Battam Bang, and Bonteay Meanchey ‘the usages of the land are given more detail in Table1

10

Tablet; Land use classification (Keskinen, M (2006)

Zone Classification Characteristics All

Zonel | Zone2 Zone 3 #one4 | Zone5 | zones Definition 06m | 68m 810m 10 mto Urban

(asl) (asl) (asl) national roads | area

‘by grass (2%) 43 48 1ã 27 02 117 Flood grassland (%) 15 19 94 04 0 7 Abandoned fields covered

‘Village garden crop 0 97 46 7 347 19 +lood forest (%) 23 02 - - ˆ 13 Floating rice field (2) 18 1 97 05 a 13 Grass land (2) Lt 94 92 ọ - 97 Take (%) 11 03 92 0.5 7 Shrub land (%) a1 97 93 36 96 Garden crop 4) 0.5 14 0 03 02 96 añdy field with villages (%4) - 0 94 2 - 94 Setflement (3⁄4) : - 92 93 30.1 2

11

I3 Drinking Water Supply and Quality

IL3.1 Sources of Drinking Water Supply

The sources for drinking water are provided in Figure 8 25% of people consume water from tube/piped well, 21% from dug well pond, 18% from lake, river or stream, 5% rain water, 18% from piped dwelling , and 8% purchase filter water In the Tonle Sap Lake region, 41% consume

water from a dug well, 31% from water sources from the lake, pond, river or stream Water

consumption from the lake, pond, river, or stream is larger proportion in zone 1 (up to 87%) and

decrease dramatically to 67% in zone 2, 41% in zone 3, 23% in zone 4 and 13% in zone 5 In

zone 5, water consumption are shared in similarity in percentage among population who use

water from piped in dwelling (25%), tube well (25%), dug well (22%), and bought (25%) (Figure 8)

Sources of Drinking Water

Zone 5 Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone2 Zone1 Allzones Cambodia

113.2 Water Quality in Tonle Sap Lake

Chanicat contaminants in froshwaler from tho Tonle Sap Lake are from the Organochlarines (OCs) group and pathogen group OCs group includes DDT, PCBs, HCHs, and HCLs which are

River (1500ng/g) and approximately four times higher in coastal areas (610ng/g) [tis also found

in fish (450ng’g fal wi) in the Torte Sap Laks Region DDT is cwrentty used for agriculture and aquaculture purposes In Cambodia, DDT has been used for the control of parasite on fish body

in cage cultures and as an insecticide before the wet season

The concentration of PCBs detected in birds (white breast waterhen) 120 ng’g is slightly higher than bird specimens from the Mekong River and coastal areas (33ng/g) The cncentration in fish (2Ingig) is nơi significantly different from freshwater fish (Tonle Sap Take region), Mekong River and coastal areas

The Concentration of HCHs (range fiom 7.3-73np/g) in the Tonle Sap Lake region is significant higher than the Mekong River (1.6-23ng/g) and coastal area (2.7-5ng/g), (Monirith et al., 2003) The use of pesticide to contral lepidopteran pests attacking mung bean crops at shore of the Tonle Sap Lake region (Witten 1999) anay be the reason for the HCHs concentrations In fish, the residue level of HCHs, HCLs, and HCB were low in 1999 (Monirith et al., 1999) However, TICLs aceumulaled in birds in the Tonle Sap Take region were found (27ng/g) in 2003 The increasing use of pesticide in agricultwe in the Tonle Sap Lake region is of coneems (EJF, 2002) ‘The following, HCBs concentrations were detected in birds ranging from 3.5 -33ng/e in the region The use of HCBs in the region is considered cssontial to kecp inscots away from dried fish, HCBs used as the trace elements in several pesticides contain chlorines (Bailey, 2001) The present of concentration of !CPMe ranged from 0.16.6.6ng/g

The other trace elements were lower and still under the Limitation of national water quality standard (sub-degree 1999) However, the concentration of total suspended solid (I'SS) was

13

significantly higher than national water quality standard (maximally 1000mg/L during dry)

(Joha, S and J Koponen 2003) In‘Table 2 describes detail for each parameter

Pathogens are an essential issue in the region due to concerns of human health Though, there is

no data available on the water contaminants by pathogens, several reports on diartheal disease

and

occur frequently The major veclors for diarrheal dis

protezoas Rotavirus in group of the viruses is major vectors for the diarsheal discascs Report on

Rotavirus in Phnom Penh, Cambodia from March 2005 through February 2007 by Nyambat, B.,

et al (2009) indicated that 2817 persons were tested for diarrhea di

ses In this amount, 81%

equal to 2281 persons are tested, 56% of specimens were found positive of Rotavirus vectors

Approximately 94% of children are found diarthea less than 2 years old and 61% are less than

T2manths old, 2281 children who provided the stool, a total of 1278 (56%) children age |

5 years old had confirmed of Rotavirus positive, A 97% of Cambodian children identified with

114 _ Llousehold Drinking Water ‘Treatment Systems (1[W1'S) :ffectiveness and Cost Analysis

Humans need to drink approximately 2 liters of water each day Unfortunately, millions of

people cannot access to clean water sources worldwide, ‘Therefore, household water treatment

jams (TWTS) are established lo remove contaminants that lead to water bore diseases In

developing countries, Cambodia for instance, the most common contaminants in this water are

pathogens from fecal materials Common fecal pathogens are bacteria, viruses, and protozoa An

effective HWTS must be able to remove biclogieal pathogens from varions sources such as, lake,

pond, river, and unprotected well The following methods to remove pathogens are revised and

assess the benefits and drawbacks of each and the effectiveness of [W'S which are suitable to

apply for the arca

* Manirih ot a., 2003

15

141 Solar Disinfection (SODIS)

Description and Implementation

Solar disinfection (SODIS) was developed in the 1980’s to inexpensively disinfect water In

1991, the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology (SANDEC, EAWAG) began to investigate and implement SODIS as an HWTS option, to prevent diarrhea in

developing countries Users of SODIS fill 0.3-2.0 liter plastic soda bottles with low turbidity

water, shake them to oxygenate, and place the bottles on a roof or rack for 6 hours (if sunny) or 2 days (if cloudy) The combined effects of UV-induced DNA alteration, thermal inactivation, and

photo-oxidative destruction inactivate disease causing organisms (Figure 9) SODIS method can

potentially remove bacteria, viruses, and protozoa in up to 99.9% of cases (Daniel et al., 2007;

Oxfarm 2009) This simple method has been widely recommended and has the potential to

reduce diarrhea from 9-86% of cases (CDC, 2008), and 86% reduction in cholera cases during outbreaks in Maasai (Conroy, et al., 1996, 1999, 2001) The potential reduce diarrheal diseases

by up to 35% among children below five (Hobbins 2003) and in an urban slum in Tamil Nadu

the risk of diarrhea was reduced by 40% by using SODIS (Rose et al., 2006) Further health

evaluation studies showed a reduction of 13 to 39% in Pakistan (Gamper, 2004), by 53-57% in Uzbekistan (Grimm, 2004; Grimm, 2006), SODIS is zero cost option to user, an exception that

cost for plastic bottle The estimation of usage SODIS system is approximately US $3.15/hh/yr

Solar Disinfection

UV aiation From Sun

Figure 9: Solar Disinfection

16

Benefits and Drawbacks

The benefits of SODIS are (CDC 2008);

+ Reduction of viruses, bacteria, and protozoa,

+ Reduction of diartheal dissase,

+ Simple and feasible (or users:

+ Zero cost to the user exccption that’s plastic bottles,

+ Low influence on taste changing of water,

* No Tecortarinalion occurred and chemical residue

The drawbacks af SODIS are:

+ Incase high hatidity water, prctrsalment is required

+ Limited volume and length of time required;

+ The clean, suitable plastic bottles required

142 — Boling

Description and Inplementation

Boiling is the traditional and most commonly practiced method to treat water in households It has been widely promoted for decades, Many programs recommend boiling water in developing countries, and to provide sale drinking waler in emergency s

uations Ủmonghoul the world However, boiling time has been recommended from 0-20 minutes in order to make water safe

from 70 to L00C e World Health Organization (WHO) also recommends that water boiling

jon is lo ensure an inactivation of the

should be reached until boiling poinL Thi sugg

pathogens that cause diarrheal disease According to Brian Skinner and Rod Shaw and Oxfanm (2008) hoiling water can potentially remove almost all bacteria, viruses, fungi, helminthes and protozoa by using an average dwation of 10 min and temperature of 70°C, Water should be stored in the same container in which it was boiled, handled carefully, and consumed within 24 hours to prevent recontamination Boiling also can improve the taste of water by aeration, slivring and increased air content in the water Tha disadvantages of boiling water arc the use of fuel, high costs involved, and the residue fiom buming (2g firewood, charcoal or LPG) The cost for boiling with firewood is approximately $0,012 for the treatment of 101, water IDE

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(2003) also conducted a pilot project in Cambodia on boiled water, and identified for each househeld (ca.5 persons in a household) it would cost approximately 17.4 US$*year on firewood

and 32$ US/year using PLG

Benefits and Drawbacks (CDC 2009)

The benefits of boiling ure:

+ Practical method in many households in mral areas;

+Available malorials [or boiling

-Proven inactivation of ‘all bacteria, viruses and protozoa, even in turbid or contaminated

water;

* Sucio-cultural acceplance of boiling for water treatment

The drawbacks of boiling are:

+ No residual protection from fuel burning;

+ Human health impact by sorption of CO, NOx, smoke, small particles

* Ligh cost om fel sources

43 Flocculalion (CDC 2009)

Description and Implementation

Alurtinura sul fale is widoly uscd as a flocculants in both developed and developing counties TL

is sold in blocks of soft white stone and generally called alum, Alum is used in various ways It may be crushed info a powder before adding to water and stirring and decanting Secondly, the whole stone can be stirred in water for a few seconds, waiting for the solids to settle Flocculation is an option which is potentially able to remove pathogens and twhid water (Brian Skinner and Rod Shaw) CDC (2008) identified flocculants can reduce diarthea from 16-90% Tho flocculation method also reduces Fo & Mn, orgunic substances, and improves the taste of

water

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Benefits and Drawbacks

The benefits of alum are they are widely available, proven to reduce turbidity, and are not expensive The drawback of alum is the necossary dosage varics unpredictably, Rescarch is curently underway to determine the necessary alum dosage for different waters, and the effectiveness of alum to reduce turbidity in water

144 Sample Sand Filter (SSF)

Filtration is a simnple and fast pro-treatment method, Water is poured through the container of clean sand and gravel with spigot al the batlom (Figure 10), ‘The water then flows inte a storage container The benefits are it is etfective in removing some bacteria, It is both an easy and fast option for users It is also inexpensive if sand is available in locally The drawback is three containers arc needed In laboratory studics, the usc of sand filtration significantly reduced both the turbidity and the chlorine demand of turbid water

1145 Chlorination (Daniel et al., (2007)

Description and Implementation

Chlorination was firs! used to disinfect public water supplies in th:

reduce waterbome disease in cities in Europe and the United States (Gordon et al., 1987) Although it is the point-of use (POU) chlorination (Mintz et al, 1995), larger-scale trials began

in the 1990s as part of the Pan Atnerican Tealth Organization (PATIO) and the U.S Centers for

a and some viruses (American Waler Works

programs, chtorine effectively inaotivales baH

Association, 1999), howover, iL is nol cffective at inactivating some protozoa, such us cryptosporidiuns

The benefits and drawhacks

The benefits of Chlorination:

* = Toreduce bacteria and most viruses,

© Residual protection against contamination;

© improved of tasls and odor

© Easy to use and acceptable to users,

¢ ~~ Low cost

The drawhacks of Chivrination:

* Limitation of protection against some viruses and parasites,

= Lower effectiveness on contarinalod waler by organic and inorganic compounds,

© Long-term carcinogenic effects of chlorination by-products

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146 Sedimentation

Settling and decanting is a way to reduce the turbidity of water by letting the water sit from 2-24 hours Therefore, the particulates settle to the bollom of the contamer The elcar water is then decanted off the top info a second container The benelit of settling and decanting is not requiring equipment other than buckets, However, settling and decanting requires two containers, and time for waler to sellle The difficulty is to observs the effects af decanting in storage containers In laboratory studies, the use of settling and decanting significantly reduced the turbidity of water, and also significantly reduced the chlorine demand of turbid waters, ‘Thus, it is recommended to add atly a single dos of sodium hypochlorite solution afler setlling and decanting (CDC, 2009)

147 Ceramic Filter

Description and Implementation

The ceramic fitter was first introduced by John Doulton inl827 (WHO 2009) Currently, there

are two designs, firstly the ceramic candle filter and secondly the ceramic pot style filter Both

models are currently used in Central America, AGica, and Asia, The Ceramic Water Purifier (CWP) was developed by International Development Enterprise since 2000 in Cambodia The

CWP consists of a porous, pot-shaped filter element made of kiln-fired clay and impregnated

with colloidal silver The ccramic filter clement is sct in a plastic reecptacle tank with a plastic

lid and a spigot The filter element is filled with water trom a contaminated source which can

seep through the clay at a rate of 2 to 3 liters per hour ‘The filter element holds approximately 10 liters This amount can supply a houschold to produce 20 lo 30 Hiters of waler per day with hwo lo

three fills (IDE, 2003) Ceramic filtration is an effective method to remove almost all pathogens,

turbid water, and some other organic matters It is also known to improve the taste of the water

CDC (2008) identified that the Ceramic filter can be reduce the occurrence of diarrhea from 60- 70% (CDC, 2008) ‘he 0.2 micron ceramic filter made in Switzerland has been identified to reduce charrhea by up lo 64% in Bolivia (Clasen et at., 2004) Figure 11 shows the components

of CWP design

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Figure 11: Ceramic Water Purifier (CWP) developed by IDE, (2003)

Benefits and Drawbacks

The benefits of ceramic filtration are:

Proven removal of bacteria and protozoa in water;

Simple and acceptable to users;

Reduction of diarrheal disease incidence in users;

Durable for up to 3 years and,

A low cost with a one-off cost,

The drawbacks of ceramic filtration are

Lower effectiveness on removal of viruses;

Limitation of residual protection causes recontamination if treated water is stored unsafely,

Differentiation of quality control depending on local filtration production,

Required maintenance when breakage parts;

Filters and receptacles regularly clean, especially when using turbid source waters

At low flow rate of 1-3 liters per hour in non-turbid waters

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Filtrete standpipe and the standing water level (supernatant)

The standpipe is the essential component in all bio-sand filters This simple but key design component automatically maintains the standing water level (the supernatant) to a constant depth when installcd Sem above the top of the filtering sand As a Figure 12, it is the bio-sand filter for household-scale that can be made in various ways, but each configuration share this one simple

‘The standpipe can be made out of 6 mm tubing which 1s 1 meter long ‘The materials can be plastic or molat, copper, PVC pipe fittings, polyethylene, or vinyt tubing The primary function

of the supematant is set by the standpipe placed

Media (sand and gravel) bed

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The media layer is composed of the sand and gravel Filtering layer consists of fine sand in 3.15

mm or less diameter sand, The depth of the filtering sand bed is 40 to 50 cm This is the

minimum fine sand requirement to ensure the best quality of water The actual volume of fine

sand required is 25 liters The upper fine sand (Filtering layer) is responsible for removal of

pathogens and the establishment of the biological zone The support layer (coarse sand) uses 3.125 to 6.25 mm diameter sand, with a depth of 5 cm Coarse sand volume required is 3 litters

The purpose of the middle support layer is to prevent the sand mixing with the under drain layer

Under-drain layer (fine gravel) use 6.25 to 12.5 mm diameter gravel, depth should cover

standpipe inlet about 5 cm or more Gravel volume required is 3 liters The purpose of the lower

gravel layer is to allow unrestricted water flow out of the filter via the standpipe

Filer Lid + Prevents contamumants from entering the filter

Diffuser Plate Protects the biological Layes from damage when water is poured into the filter

Outlet Pipe ~ 6 mun (*4") ianer diameter (LD.) (Conduct: water fiom filter tase to outside

Sand Layer ~40 to 50 cm deep

‘Trap: organic and morganx material at the top of the

The bio-sand filter is effectively for drinking water treaunent, One study found that approximately 95% removal of coliforms and a 99% removal of Cryptosporidium and Giardia eysts (WEDC) Initial research has shown that the BSI removes less than 90 percent of indicator viusss The bio-sand filler is also highly effective al treating Arsenic, orgunie matter and il also improves the taste and odor of water It has also been shown that Biosand filters are capable of continuing to deliver 1-2 log reductions in microbial pathogens mere than five years afler they were first used (Clasen, 2007) The cost to construct a Bio-sand filter varies from $12 to $40 or

$10 per household per year

Benefits and Drawbacks

Benefits of bio-sand filtration are that they are functional, user-friendly, durable, affordable, and produce sufficient water quality (CAWST, 2008)

Functional: The bio-sand filter is a ‘point of usc” or houszheld treatment deviec Water can be

obtained from the closest water supply point, whether that is a river, a stream or a well, and used

efficient community water systems

High user acceptability: The bio-sand filicr is casy to use and it improves the look and tasis of water, Also, the filter takes up very little space and can easily fit into most rooms, In fact, previous experience has shown that the filter normally occupies a place of significancs in the living room because it is so important lo the individual houschold

User-friendly: it is simple to operate and maintain the filter There are no moving parts that require skill to operate When the water flow through the filter becomes too slow, the maintenance consists simply of washing the top few centimeters of sand Operating and maintaining the filter is well within the capacity of the household users

Durable: ‘the filter box is made of cement concrete with a built-in pipe It is very durable since there are no moving parls during operation, The filler may necd occasional replacement of iron

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