Key words: reading comprehension, cultural familiarity activities, schema theory, content schemata, culturally responsive teaching... During the language teaching process, a wide range
INTRODUCTION
Rationale for the research
Reading comprehension is a crucial language skill that EFL learners must master to succeed in their studies and future careers (Bensala & Guerroudj, 2020) Numerous studies, both traditional and contemporary, such as those by Goodman (1967), Ruddell (1978), Carrell (1988), and more recent research by Nguyen (2012) and Vaughn et al (2024), highlight the importance of reading comprehension for EFL students This skill is essential for effectively searching, selecting, and utilizing English learning materials for various academic tasks, including essays and research projects For final-year students and recent graduates, strong reading comprehension skills are vital for identifying suitable job opportunities and conducting in-depth research in their professional fields Given that English is the dominant international language, proficiency in reading and understanding English texts is key to accessing a wealth of knowledge and resources.
In language teaching, various methods and strategies have been employed to enhance reading comprehension and background knowledge among learners Notably, cultural familiarity activities have proven effective in facilitating students' reading comprehension (Erten & Razi, 2009) Numerous studies have explored the impact of content schemata on this learning process, highlighting the importance of integrating cultural context into language lessons.
2 cultural schemata), specifically cultural background knowledge, on EFL learners‘ reading comprehension Several outstanding research papers could be listed as Hudson (1982), Carrell (1983), Anderson and Pearson (1984), Floyd and Carrell
Numerous studies, including those by Keshavarz and Atai (2007), Erten and Razi (2009), and Klassen (2020), have explored the influence of cultural background knowledge on reading comprehension However, the findings remain controversial, with differing opinions on whether cultural knowledge positively or negatively affects comprehension skills (Nguyen, 2012).
This study focuses on the role of Cognitive Framework Analysis (CFA) in enhancing reading comprehension among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, specifically targeting non-English major students at an English center in Hanoi, Vietnam By implementing CFA in reading lessons, the research aims to improve the reading skills of these learners, ultimately contributing to their overall academic success.
Aim and objective of the research
This study investigates the impact of prior cultural knowledge on the reading comprehension of EFL learners in Vietnam The primary objective is to explore how Cultural Familiarity Awareness (CFA) enhances EFL learners' understanding of texts.
Research methodology
The study was conducted in the design of an action research including one research cycle with a group of 5 non-English-major students in an English center in Hanoi, Vietnam.
Research questions
The study was carried out to answer the following research question:
To what extent could cultural familiarity activities facilitate non-English- major students‘ reading comprehension?
Scope of the research
There have been a diversity of strategies used to facilitate the EFL learners‘ reading comprehension, however, this study only focuses on CFA, which belongs to
This research focuses on the application of content schemata, also known as cultural schemata, in diverse educational contexts, including universities and various levels of secondary and primary schools Specifically, the study examines a group of five non-English-major EFL learners at an English center in Hanoi, Vietnam, representing a mix of backgrounds This targeted approach allows for a detailed and in-depth analysis of the learners' experiences and interactions with content schemata.
Significance of the research
This research aims to enhance the understanding of the role of cultural knowledge in reading comprehension Specifically, it seeks to confirm how cultural knowledge facilitates improvements in reading comprehension through the application of Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in reading lessons It is essential for EFL learners to possess sufficient prior cultural background knowledge to boost both the effectiveness and motivation of their reading comprehension skills.
Organization
Chapter 1 is the Introduction, which presents a brief overview on the rationale for the research paper, the aim and objective of the research, the research question, the scope of the research and the significance of the research
Chapter 2 is the Theoretical Framework This chapter provides a theoretical framework of reading comprehension, strategies in teaching reading comprehension, schema theory, culturally responsive teaching, cultural familiarity activities, review of previous studies and the perspective of this research
Chapter 3 describes the Research Methodology in detail, consisting of research context, research question, research participants and research design
Chapter 4 is the Research Findings and Discussion, in which the researcher provides, analyzes and discusses the research findings The research question is also addressed in this chapter
Chapter 5 is the Research Conclusion This chapter recapitulates the key points of the thesis and states the concluding remarks Additionally, the pedagogical
4 implications, the limitations of the current study and suggestions for future research are also provided in this chapter
LITERATURE REVIEW
Reading comprehension
Conventionally, experts in reading (Ruddell, 1978; Clarke & Silberstein,
Reading has evolved from being viewed as a passive activity, where readers merely decipher text without engaging their prior knowledge, to an interactive process that involves active participation (Bensalah & Guerroudj, 2020) According to Anderson (2000), reading is a fluent and active process where meaning is constructed by the reader from the text This meaning-making occurs not only through the printed words but also through the integration of the reader's background knowledge and experiences, a concept referred to as synergy by Erten and Razi (2009) Thus, reading is an interactive process that necessitates various mental operations to be executed simultaneously or in close succession.
Reading is a complex phenomenon that goes beyond a simple process According to Goodman (1967), it is characterized as a "receptive language process" and a "psycholinguistic process," which involves grapheme-phoneme decoding, word recognition, syntactic and semantic processing, and the application of prior knowledge This intricate interaction between language and thought is essential for achieving comprehension, as noted by Carrell and Eskey (1988).
In 1965, reading comprehension gained significant attention from linguists, psycholinguists, and cognitive psychologists, as it was acknowledged to involve complex mental processing This shift in focus highlighted the importance of cultural knowledge in understanding how individuals interpret and engage with text.
‗schema‘, has also been gradually investigated and confirmed as an important factor in acquiring comprehension during reading (Nguyen, 2012) Specifically,
Background knowledge, as defined by Steven (1982), refers to the information and understanding that a reader possesses about a particular topic This knowledge can either be directly related to or completely separate from the subject matter of a specific reading text, as noted by Alderson & Hudson (2014) and Carrell & Eisterhold (1983).
Reading comprehension is an interactive process that relies heavily on both background knowledge and syntactic knowledge, as highlighted by various studies (August et al., 2006; Burgoyne et al., 2013; Mahmoudi & Mahmoudi).
Insufficient background knowledge and limited vocabulary are significant challenges that learners face in reading comprehension (Carrell, 1988) Consequently, reading comprehension is essential for EFL students to master as a fundamental language skill (Bensalah & Guerroudj, 2020) To enhance their academic performance and research capabilities in non-native language documents, university students must focus on improving their reading comprehension skills.
Strategies in teaching reading comprehension
Effective reading comprehension requires the implementation of strategic reading lessons Research by Baier (2005) indicates that learners who utilize reading comprehension strategies retain more information and achieve a deeper understanding of the text Consequently, these strategies should be integrated into all classrooms, particularly those that are socioculturally diverse Additionally, promoting students' strategic reading behaviors during pre-, while-, and post-reading stages can be facilitated through targeted reading activities (Alyousef, 2006; Ur, 1996; Erten & Razi, 2009).
Harvey and Goudvis (2007) present six essential reading strategies that enhance comprehension: Monitoring comprehension, Activating and connecting to background knowledge, Questioning, Visualizing and inferring, Determining importance in text, and Summarizing and synthesizing information Among these, the strategy of Activating and connecting to background knowledge plays a crucial role in enriching the reading experience by linking new information to prior knowledge.
Chapter 7 of this book highlights the significance of schema theory in reading comprehension, emphasizing that our background knowledge profoundly influences our learning and understanding (Harvey & Goudvis, 2007) Effective comprehension relies on the ability to connect new information to existing knowledge, making it essential to have a diverse range of background knowledge Additionally, Andreasse and Brồten (2011) identify four key instructional principles for enhancing reading comprehension: relevant background knowledge, comprehension strategies, reading-group organization, and reading motivation Lika (2017) underscores the importance of equipping teachers with the skills to teach these comprehension strategies, which include activating background knowledge, predicting, monitoring comprehension, making inferences, generating questions, and summarizing, as crucial for improving the skills of readers with poor comprehension.
Navarrete (2019) identifies four waves of studies focused on teaching comprehension strategies: Single Strategy Instruction, Multiple Strategies Instruction, Transactional Strategies Instruction, and Dialogic Approaches (Wilkinson & Son, 2011) The third wave, Transactional Strategies Instruction, particularly highlights the interaction between readers and texts, as well as among participants In this approach, students learn various strategies, including predicting using prior knowledge, generating questions, clarifying confusions, creating mental images, connecting text content to existing knowledge, and summarizing (Wilkinson & Son, 2011).
Vaughn, Boardman, and Klingner (2024) emphasize the well-known principle that students first learn to read and subsequently read to learn They highlight that reading to learn is crucial for building knowledge, which in turn enhances comprehension This process of knowledge construction relies on background knowledge, which is essential for effective learning.
Promoting content-area literacy is essential for enhancing overall reading comprehension, as it involves the development of generalizable skills and strategies These skills facilitate metacognition and comprehension at all stages of the reading process: before, during, and after engaging with the text.
To enhance reading comprehension, it is essential for students to connect new information to their prior knowledge before they begin reading During the reading process, they should employ a main idea strategy to synthesize the information effectively After reading, learners can summarize and establish connections by creating a concept map of the ideas presented (Vaughn, Boardman & Klingner, 2024).
An overview of Schema theory
Since 1932, Bartlett has defined schema, or "schemata" in plural, as the background knowledge individuals possess prior to reading a text Research into the psychological processes of comprehension demonstrates that our understanding is significantly influenced by our prior experiences and background knowledge, often referred to as schemata (Bartlett, 1995; Rumelhart, 1980).
Schemata are defined as "interacting knowledge structures" stored hierarchically in long-term memory, serving as the "building blocks of cognition" (Rumelhart, 1980; Rumelhart & Ortony, 2017) Various types of schemata exist, including those related to scenes, events, and activities For instance, Carrell (1983) illustrated schemata through examples such as dining at different types of restaurants—ranging from fast food to elegant French cuisine—attending professional meetings, visiting doctors' offices, and the arrangement of furniture in different rooms of a house.
Modern researchers such as Khataee (2018) and Bensalah and Guerroudj
(2020) also have a similar definition of schema, which is the background knowledge
9 which enables readers to make predictions more successful interactions while reading the text It is of paramount importance in the interpretation of the text
Various terms such as schemata, frames, scripts, event chains, and expectations are commonly used by researchers to describe the concept of background knowledge, collectively known as schema-theoretical orientations (Carrell, 1983) According to Carrell and Eisterhold (1983), background knowledge and cultural familiarity play a crucial role in the reading process, forming the core of schema theory.
Early schema theorists, including Rumelhart in 1980, argue that comprehension occurs when we connect new experiences to our existing knowledge structures, allowing us to relate unfamiliar information to what we already know.
Research by Anderson (1978), Goetz et al (1983), Carrell and Eisterhold (1983), and Anderson and Pearson (1984) highlights the critical role of schemata in the reading comprehension process Schema theory is particularly important among various reading approaches, as it enhances reader satisfaction and enables individuals to connect meaning to the texts they engage with This understanding fosters deeper learning and comprehension of reading materials.
Successful comprehension of text is deeply rooted in shared schemata, which refers to the reader's ability to leverage prior knowledge for understanding According to Nassaji (2002), schema theory encompasses "pre-existing knowledge structures stored in the mind," prompting readers to engage in mental searches and connections between their existing knowledge and the text at hand This interactive process is supported by various scholars, including Carrell (1983) and Alderson (2000), highlighting the importance of prior knowledge in enhancing reading comprehension.
Schema theory highlights the importance of background knowledge in the reading process, emphasizing that understanding occurs through the interaction between a reader's schemata and the text This concept has been supported by various researchers, including Anderson and Pearson (1984), Bartlett (1932), Carrell et al (1988), Rumelhart (1980), and Rumelhart and Ortony (2017).
Schema theory plays a crucial role in reading comprehension, as noted by An (2013) It emphasizes that readers actively construct meaning by engaging with relevant schemata and the text's elements.
2.2.1 Bottom-up processing schema and Top-down processing schema
The principle of schema theory results in two basic modes of information processing, called ―bottom-up‖ and ―top-down‖ processing (Carrell, 1983)
Reading is often viewed as a 'bottom-up' process, where comprehension begins with the language of the text itself (Nguyen, 2012) This approach requires readers to decode fundamental language units, including morphemes, words, clauses, and sentences (Carrell et al., 1988; Hudson, 2007; Rivers, 1965; Yorio, 1971) In this model, incoming data triggers bottom-up processing, allowing features of the text to enter the cognitive system through the most relevant schemata As these schemata connect and evolve into broader, more generalized frameworks, higher-level understanding is activated.
Top-down reading involves starting from the reader's prior knowledge of text structure and content to make predictions, which are then confirmed or disconfirmed This processing mode, described as "data-driven" or "conceptually-driven," relies on the system searching for input that validates predictions based on broader general schemata.
Schemata play a crucial role in understanding various events and activities, such as dining out, attending meetings, or visiting a doctor They not only aid in comprehending these scenarios but also influence how we interpret the language used to describe them in both oral and written forms This aspect of schema theory is particularly significant for those exploring the processing of linguistic texts, especially when comparing comprehension in native English speakers versus those learning English as a second or foreign language.
Bottom-up processing enables listeners or readers to be attuned to new information that challenges their existing hypotheses about the content or structure of the text.
Top-down processing helps the listeners or reader to resolve ambiguities or to select between alternative possible interpretations of the incoming data
The schema theory posits that language comprehension is an interactive process between a reader's prior knowledge and the text itself A text not only conveys meaning but also guides readers in constructing intended meanings based on their existing knowledge Effective comprehension hinges on the ability to connect textual information with personal knowledge (Adam & Collins, 1979) Consequently, this research paper focuses on top-down processing schemas that leverage readers' background knowledge.
2.2.2 Content schemata (Cultural schemata) and Formal schemata
Corresponding to each level, two kinds of schemata have been classified namely formal schemata and content schemata
In schema theory research, formal schemata refer to the background knowledge regarding the rhetorical and organizational structures of various text types, as defined by Carrell (1983) Singhal (1998) also highlighted the significance of formal schema in understanding text comprehension.
Textual schema refers to the understanding of language and its conventions, including the organization of texts and the key characteristics of specific writing genres (Alderson, 2000; Carrell, 1987, 1988; Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983) Research indicates that texts with familiar rhetorical structures are generally easier to read and comprehend compared to those with unfamiliar formats (Carrell, 1987) Formal schemata encompass discourse structures (Frazier & Brown, 2001) and knowledge of language elements such as phonemes, syntax, and semantics (Nguyen, 2012) This formal schematic knowledge is often contrasted with content schematic knowledge.
Culturally responsive teaching
Research by Gay (2010), Nieto et al (2008), and Ladson-Billings (2009) highlights that teachers employing Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT) value students' cultural and linguistic backgrounds as essential resources Rather than viewing these aspects as obstacles to education, they recognize them as valuable "capital" that can enhance learning By integrating students' personal experiences and interests into their teaching practices, these educators create meaningful instructional connections that promote student engagement and development through interactive and collaborative methods.
To effectively support Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD) students, it is essential to implement 14 methods and strategies that honor their unique cultural, linguistic, and racial experiences Integrating these approaches with evidence-based practices can significantly enhance educational outcomes for CLD learners (Harlin & Souto-Manning, 2009; Hersi & Watkinson, 2012; Nieto et al., 2008; Santamaria, 2009).
Research shows that culturally responsive teaching (CRT) combined with evidence-based practices (EBPs) significantly enhances the progress of culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students by leveraging their existing knowledge, backgrounds, and native languages Studies indicate that when teachers integrate culturally relevant instructional methods with skills-based practices, students demonstrate improved reading comprehension and better integration of new information Culturally responsive approaches empower educators to understand the impact of students' cultural, linguistic, and racial identities on their learning, ultimately fostering a more effective educational environment for CLD learners.
Cultural familiarity activities (CFA)
Reading activities enhance text interpretation by promoting interaction between the reader and the text, which is crucial for activating prior knowledge and improving comprehension (Wallace, 1992; Chen & Graves, 1995; Grabe & Stoller, 2002) Erten and Razi (2009) highlight that engaging in reading activities can help bridge gaps in cultural knowledge When readers are more familiar with the cultural context of a text, their understanding deepens, leading to reduced stress and anxiety for language learners during reading comprehension.
Familiarity with words and concepts can significantly motivate EFL learners, especially those with lower proficiency levels, enabling them to persist in reading despite comprehension challenges This cultural familiarity positively impacts learners' comprehension skills, as highlighted by Khataee (2018).
Khataee and Dowlatabadi (2023) emphasize the importance of incorporating Cultural Framework Analysis (CFA) in reading comprehension instruction They argue that language educators should focus on the cultural background of the target language to avoid misunderstandings and misinterpretations among students, as supported by the findings of Dabou et al (2021), Gunasinghe et al (2018), and Mousavi-Davoudi et al (2021).
Research indicates that cultural familiarity significantly enhances reading comprehension for learners Implementing reading activities that provide cultural background knowledge can effectively foster strategic reading behaviors in EFL students during pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading stages.
CFA, or Cultural Familiarization Activities, refers to pre-reading tasks designed to enhance reading comprehension by providing relevant cultural knowledge This approach, as defined by Erten and Razi (2009), encompasses the customs, traditions, and beliefs of a specific country, which aids language learners in understanding texts more effectively Through CFA, learners engage with unfamiliar cultural contexts—such as British royal fashion or Chinese traditional games—allowing them to connect more deeply with the material they are about to read This method emphasizes the importance of cultural schemata as a vital component of background knowledge in the reading process (Grabe, 2009).
Review of previous studies
This chapter examines the literature on the effects of background knowledge and cultural familiarity on reading comprehension Numerous studies highlight the significant positive influence that cultural familiarity has on enhancing readers' comprehension skills.
2.5.1 Studies on strategies in teaching reading comprehension
Numerous studies have explored methods and strategies for enhancing reading comprehension Baier (2005) conducted qualitative research using the Self-Questioning Reading Strategy to improve sixth-grade literature students' comprehension Similarly, Andreasse and Brồten (2011) performed an experimental study in fifth-grade classrooms, focusing on four instructional principles derived from research-based reading comprehension instruction: relevant background knowledge, reading strategies, reading-group organization, and reading motivation Their first principle emphasizes that reading comprehension involves readers actively constructing meaning from texts by leveraging their background knowledge This approach aligns with prominent theoretical models of reading comprehension, such as Anderson's schema-theoretic view (1984) and Kintsch's construction-integration model (1988).
A study by Lika (2017) utilized direct observation to examine the reading comprehension instruction methods used with third-grade students in the Albanian education system The research revealed that 87% of teachers effectively activate prior knowledge, allowing students to link their previous experiences to new topics This highlights the importance of leveraging existing knowledge in enhancing reading comprehension.
Research by Anderson and Pearson (1984) highlights the importance of reading comprehension skills Navarrete's journal (2019) presents four waves of studies focused on teaching comprehension strategies, with the third wave, known as Transactional Strategies Instruction, emphasizing the interaction of students with their prior knowledge Most studies on Transactional Strategies Instruction utilized experimental research designs and yielded positive outcomes (Wilkinson & Son, 2011).
The results of these studies demonstrated better performance of students in reading comprehension lessons after applying the aforementioned reading strategies and principles
Research indicates that various methods and strategies can enhance reading comprehension among learners Notably, students who are well-prepared during pre-reading stages tend to achieve better comprehension outcomes Supporting this finding, several studies explore the effectiveness of schemata theory in teaching reading comprehension, which will be examined in detail in section 2.5.2.
Research indicates that schema theory plays a crucial role in enhancing reading comprehension among learners (Nguyen, 2012) Background knowledge enables readers to form expectations about the text, significantly aiding in its comprehension and interpretation This paper explores the impact of schemata on EFL (English as a Foreign Language) reading comprehension processes.
2.5.2.1 Studies reflecting facilitating role of schema theory on teaching reading comprehension
Numerous research studies underscore the significant impact of prior knowledge on reading comprehension, as informed by schema theory Notable works by Steffensen, Joag-Dev, and Anderson (1979), Johnson (1982), and Pritchard (1990) highlight this facilitating role.
Research has shown that content schemata significantly impact L2 reading comprehension Johnson's 1982 study revealed that cultural information within stories affects comprehension more than the text's syntactic or semantic complexity Carrell's pioneering work in 1984 highlighted the influence of story structure on ESL reading recall, while his 1987 findings indicated that familiarity with both form and content enhances comprehension, whereas unfamiliarity creates obstacles Learners face greater challenges with unfamiliar content, emphasizing the importance of content over form Floyd and Carrell (1987) demonstrated that participants exposed to culturally relevant information performed better than those who were not Keshavarz and Atai (2007) further confirmed that content schemata play a critical role in reading comprehension and recall Liu's 2011 study also illustrated that content schemata, influenced by fields of study and cultural familiarity, significantly affect TOEFL iBT reading performance across various test-taker levels.
Most previous studies on cultural familiarity factors employed experimental methodologies with participant numbers ranging from over 20 to nearly 60,000 These studies predominantly involved students with advanced English proficiency, who had greater exposure to English language and cultural elements.
(1982) experimental study was conducted with 27 advanced ESL students at the university level, Floyd and Carrell's (1987) experiment had 34 students, and the
In a 1987 experiment by Carrell involving 52 high-intermediate ESL students enrolled in an intensive English program at the English Center, significant findings were observed More contemporary research, such as the experimental study conducted by Erten and Razi, has built upon these earlier insights to further explore ESL learning outcomes.
Several significant studies have explored advanced English learning, including a 2009 study involving 44 students at a public university and Nguyen's 2012 experiment with 31 advanced students in a Vietnamese high school program Bensala and Gueroudj (2020) conducted a study with 40 participants, while Keshavarz, Atai, and Ahmadi (2007) examined 240 Iranian male EFL learners at varying proficiency levels Additionally, Liu (2011) conducted a quantitative survey with an extensive sample of 58,038 test takers, highlighting the breadth of research in this field.
Recent studies have explored the impact of nativization on reading comprehension by dividing participants into small groups, including control and experimental groups, to assess differences in understanding For instance, Erten and Razi (2009) conducted a study with four groups: one read an original short story without activities, another with activities, a third group engaged with a nativized version without activities, and the fourth with activities Additionally, research by Johnson (1982), Carrell (1987), Nguyen (2012), and Keshavarz, Atai, and Ahmadi (2007) examined the effects of both familiar and unfamiliar reading content, highlighting that students found nativized texts easier to comprehend.
Research has consistently demonstrated that both content and formal schemata play a crucial role in enhancing English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading comprehension Specifically, a lack of background knowledge can hinder EFL learners, particularly when engaging with culturally-loaded texts that contain unfamiliar concepts (Bensalah & Guerroudj, 2020).
Content schemata play a crucial role in reading comprehension, particularly for EFL learners, as highlighted in this research paper It emphasizes the importance of cultural familiarity in enhancing understanding Therefore, implementing effective Cultural Familiarity Activities (CFA) is essential to activate learners' background knowledge and improve their reading comprehension skills.
2.5.2.2 Controversial studies on the role of schema theory on reading comprehension
Conflicting studies on the role of schemata in reading comprehension have sparked considerable debate Some research indicates that reading schemata may not significantly aid comprehension, while other findings suggest that incompatible schemata, particularly in relation to cultural knowledge, can negatively affect understanding (Nguyen, 2012).
Perspective of this research
This study explores a diverse group of learners, including high school students, university students, and graduates, who participate in a reading-focused extra class to enhance their job and academic preparedness Unlike previous research, this study addresses the limitations identified by Nguyen (2012), which suggested that varied data collection methods and differing background knowledge applications contributed to inconsistent findings By employing appropriate research methods, this study aims to clarify the supportive role of background knowledge in second language (L2) reading comprehension.
This research focuses on non-English major students who possess a solid understanding of cultural aspects and can differentiate between their own culture and foreign cultures Unlike previous studies that primarily involved advanced English majors or very young learners, this study aims to provide these students with the opportunity to leverage cultural familiarity to enhance their reading comprehension For many participants, this may be their first exposure to such an approach, emphasizing the importance of integrating cultural insights into language learning.
Chapter summary
This chapter presents a comprehensive overview of the theoretical framework underpinning the study, beginning with a definition of reading comprehension and an exploration of various instructional strategies It delves into schema theory, distinguishing between Bottom-up and Top-down processing schemas, as well as Content and Formal schemata, with a focus on Bottom-up processing and Content schemata that emphasize readers' prior cultural knowledge Additionally, the chapter highlights culturally responsive teaching methods that enhance teachers' understanding of the influence of students' cultural, linguistic, and racial identities on learning It also defines CFA (Culturally Focused Activities) as pre-reading strategies aimed at providing relevant cultural context to improve language learners' reading comprehension Finally, the chapter reviews previous research on schema theory's role in teaching reading comprehension and outlines the current study's perspective.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research context
This study explores the impact of cultural schemata on the reading comprehension of EFL learners at an English center in Hanoi, Vietnam It specifically evaluates the effectiveness of Cultural Framework Analysis (CFA) in enhancing students' understanding of varied reading materials The selected texts are closely tied to the cultures of English-speaking countries, particularly American and British cultures, which are the primary origins of the English language The diverse content includes American literature, British fashion, and political themes, aimed at enriching the students' cultural insights and comprehension skills.
A recent reading explored the exchange between American and Asian cultures, with a focus on Chinese culture, enabling students to understand the connections between their indigenous Asian heritage and Western culture This discussion was particularly relevant as all students in the class identified as Asian, highlighting the importance of cultural awareness and integration in a diverse educational environment.
Research question revisited
To what extent could cultural familiarity activities facilitate non-English-major students‘ reading comprehension?
Research participants
Five EFL learners at an English center who were non-English major Vietnamese students in Hanoi, Vietnam participated in this study
The information of the students was illustrated in the following demographic information table (all names are pseudonyms) :
English level Desire after the course
12th grade student (senior high school student)
Phan Huy Chu high school
To be equipped with more knowledge and reading comprehension skills to effectively study at university in English speaking countries
To improve their reading comprehension ability to complete essays and university graduation thesis
University of Economics and Business, Vietnam National University 9.6
To improve their reading comprehension ability to complete essays and university graduation thesis
University of Economics and Business, Vietnam National University 9.2
To improve their reading comprehension ability to complete essays and university graduation thesis
News agencies and journalism companies
To improve reading comprehension to study documents and articles in English; to have opportunity to learn more about culture in order to exploit content for her articles
According to Carrell (1987), achieving a certain level of language proficiency is essential for readers to effectively utilize schemata during reading In this study, all five participants demonstrated an intermediate English proficiency level (B1+) Specifically, one student, Van Nghi, scored 7.0 on the IELTS in 2024, while Nhi Khanh achieved 7.5 on the VSTEP in 2023 The other three students, Hong Dan, Tuong Anh, and Vi Khanh, obtained scores of 9.2, 9.6, and 9.8, respectively, on the English test for the University entrance exam (also the National high school exam) in Vietnam in 2021.
All participants in the reading class shared a common cultural background, native language, and were young adult females aged 18 to 23 Among the five students, three were third and final-year students—Hong Dan, Tuong Anh, and Vi Khanh—who aimed to enhance their reading comprehension for writing essays and completing their university theses Nhi Khanh, a recent journalism graduate, sought to improve her reading skills for analyzing English documents and articles, particularly to enrich her content creation for journalism The youngest participant, Van Nghi, a 12th-grade student preparing for university entrance exams, aimed to acquire essential reading comprehension skills for her future studies abroad in English-speaking countries Overall, these students shared a strong desire to expand their cultural knowledge and improve their reading comprehension to support their academic and professional aspirations.
28 differences The selection of participating students was implemented carefully in order to promote a high validity of research findings.
Research design
3.4.1 Rationale for using action research
This research diverges from previous studies by focusing on a small group of five non-English major students, rather than a larger participant pool It emphasizes a detailed analysis of changes in reading comprehension before and after implementing pre-reading cultural familiarity activities, rather than dividing students into experimental groups The aim is to provide these students with exposure to cultural aspects of English-speaking countries that they had not previously encountered, thereby enhancing their understanding and appreciation of the material.
This action research study, following the framework established by Nunan and Bailey (2009), emphasizes critical reflection, informed application, and evaluation of outcomes in educational practice Conducted with a group of five non-English-major students at an English center in Hanoi, Vietnam, the research involved a systematic cycle of actions aimed at enhancing teaching effectiveness Drawing on the principles of Kemmis and McTaggart (1994), the primary objective is to propose viable solutions that facilitate language learners' English learning experiences through iterative arrangements.
Figure 1 Action Research (Nunan & Bailey, 2009)
The action research process outlined by Nunan and Bailey (2009) begins with identifying learners' reading comprehension difficulties Next, the researcher considers students' perspectives to select culturally relevant reading materials and design a Curriculum Framework Assessment (CFA) tailored to their needs Following this, the CFA is implemented, and the outcomes are meticulously observed The research concludes with final reflections to inform future actions This study was conducted over a single cycle due to the limited six-week duration of the course and the challenges posed by students' varied occupations and schedules.
The enhancements identified in this action research can serve as valuable input for future studies of a similar nature Specifically, the unique characteristics of the reading class examined in this research ensure that the findings will be beneficial for subsequent investigations.
30 improve the process of teaching the same types of learners in the classes with similar styles and contents
3.4.2 Rationale for the design of materials in the action research
This research paper retained original texts rich in cultural content from the UK and US, aimed at enhancing Vietnamese students' understanding of unfamiliar cultures To facilitate comprehension, pre-reading cultural familiarity activities were implemented, allowing students to engage with the texts more effectively The study compared students' reading comprehension performance on unfamiliar cultural texts before and after participating in these activities, analyzing the changes to assess the impact of cultural familiarity on non-English major students' reading skills.
Previous studies highlighted in Chapter 2, section 2.5.2.2 indicated that implementing CFA before reading could negatively affect students' reading comprehension The varied results stemmed from factors such as the reading texts being misaligned with the students' proficiency levels, particularly when texts were too challenging for intermediate learners Additionally, differences between participants' first language (L1) and second language (L2) hindered their ability to recognize words and comprehend the material To address these issues, the reading passages in this study were carefully selected at a B1+ level, ensuring they matched the students' capabilities Each reading passage was designed to be moderately lengthy, comprising 300 to 400 words, accompanied by 10 to 15 comprehension questions in diverse formats, including multiple choice, short-answer, matching, and True or False All participants were B1+ level learners who had been exposed to English from a young age, equipping them with the necessary skills for effective reading comprehension.
The English writing system often confuses students, but targeted pre-reading activities can alleviate this challenge By providing a vocabulary list and cultural context directly related to the reading material, students can engage with the content more effectively This approach not only enhances their understanding of the text but also boosts their confidence, enabling them to answer comprehension questions accurately.
The learning and teaching process in this study lasted for 6 weeks, including
6 online lessons (each lesson took place every week and lasted for 90 minutes to
The study involved 120 minutes of online reading lessons conducted via Zoom, with all sessions utilizing bottom-up processing schemata and content schemata, except for Lesson 1, which included a pre-test Cultural knowledge was integrated into the lessons through cultural familiarity activities, aimed at enhancing reading comprehension The primary focus of this research was on the effectiveness of these cultural information activities in improving students' understanding of the material.
The CFA activities were designed as engaging short tasks, akin to a warm-up format, incorporating matching exercises, completion tasks, and multimedia elements like videos and images These activities immerse learners in culturally relevant contexts, facilitating their understanding of cultural content in reading materials For instance, prior to exploring the text on Queen Elizabeth II's hats in Lesson 2, students engaged in pre-reading CFAs that introduced them to various unfamiliar fashion items associated with the British royal family, such as coifs, brooches, bonnets, and berets This interactive experience allowed learners to act as the Queen's stylists, selecting appropriate outfits for her public appearances Consequently, students gained insight into how fashion items, particularly hats, are not merely accessories but are thoughtfully chosen to reflect significance and context.
32 events that the Queen prepared to attend, those items were even used for different purposes, also the way for Queen to express her own ideas, opinions and emotions
The CFA of each lesson were described in detail in the Teaching plans, which were put in Appendix B and C
In the initial 15 minutes of the first lesson, the teacher and students familiarized themselves with each other while the teacher outlined their research, class regulations, and guidelines for studying, homework, and learning diary submissions They also collaboratively established the class schedule, study times, and the online platform for the course, which is Zoom.
Students participated in a 45-minute entrance Reading Test focused on an unfamiliar culture to assess their reading comprehension skills Upon completing the test, they filled out a simplified bilingual questionnaire designed to explore the connection between cultural factors and their reading comprehension abilities.
After the students completed the test, the teacher reviewed the results, provided correct answers, and clarified any misunderstandings while introducing new vocabulary The teacher emphasized the importance of cultural context in enhancing reading comprehension by explaining unfamiliar cultural references found in the texts Additionally, a discussion was facilitated, allowing students to ask questions and engage more deeply with the reading material.
From Lesson 2 to Lesson 5, each lesson was divided into 3 parts, namely Pre-reading, While-reading and Post-reading
The teacher supplied students with a vocabulary list that included meanings and explanations of culturally relevant phrases and unfamiliar cultural phenomena found in the reading material To improve reading comprehension, students were instructed to complete the reading before class.
At the start of the class, the teacher facilitated engaging cultural pre-reading activities, introducing essential cultural insights to students prior to their reading assignments This interactive session typically lasts between 20 to 30 minutes, enhancing students' understanding and appreciation of the texts.
Cultural familiarity activities were designed in the form of short activities, similar to Warm-up format such as matching, word completion, watching videos/photos/movies, and answering questions
After pre-reading activities, students read the text in class (around 30 minutes)
Then the teacher reviewed the results, provided the key, explained the answers, especially the culturally related information appearing in the lesson (20-25 minutes)
After completing their reading comprehension, teachers facilitated a post-reading activity where students engaged in discussions about the text, raising questions about confusing or intriguing content, particularly cultural aspects they wished to explore further This activity allowed students to self-reflect and delve deeper into the reading topic for 15-20 minutes, enhancing their understanding and engagement with the material.
At the end of the lesson, the teacher wrapped up, summarized the content, and reminded students to write a Learning Diary after the lesson (10-15 minutes)
The teacher sent a Learning Diary form after each class for students to do (in both English and Vietnamese), students spent 5-10 minutes to complete at home
Chapter summary
This chapter outlines the research context, question, and participants involved in the study It details the research design, emphasizing the rationale for employing action research based on Nunan and Bailey's model (2009) and the development of materials used in the process The study describes a six-week intervention where CFA techniques were implemented, excluding the first week It also includes various instruments such as a simplified questionnaire, observation scheme, learners' diary, reading tests, and reading comprehension exercises, along with the data analysis procedure Learners' reading comprehension was assessed using four criteria: cultural knowledge, involvement, motivation, and application The researcher meticulously analyzed the collected data.