Efl teachers’ perceptions of using formative assessment to assess young learners’ speaking skills in the classroom

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAININGCAN THO UNIVERSITY ĐẶNG NGỌC MỸ DUYÊN EFL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF USING FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT TO ASSESS YOUNG LEARNERS’ SPEAKING SKILLS IN THE CLASSROOM

Organization of the study

This study is orgainzed into five chapters: (1) Introduction, (2) Literature review,

(3) Methodology, (4) Results and Discussion, and (5) Conclusion.

Chapter 1 presents the rationale underlying the study and the significance of the study, followed by the organization of the study.

2 Chapter 2 reviews literature relevant to key terms of the study as well as previous study related to formative assessment and English assessment practices.

Chapter 3 introduce research aims and research questions Then, it specifies the methodology employed in this current study including research design, participants, instruments, data collection procedures, data analysis and procedures.

Chapter 4 presents and analyzes findings from two research instruments addressing two key questions: first, the perceptions of teachers regarding the use of formative assessment; and second, the strategies and tools teachers employ for formative assessment, along with the reasons behind their choices, specifically in evaluating young learners' speaking skills.

Chapter 5 summarizes the key findings of the study and suggests pedagogical implications Limitation of the study and suggestions for further research are also given.

This chapter explores the literature pertinent to the study, starting with clear definitions of essential terms such as perceptions, young learners, and formative assessment It then examines various strategies and tools associated with formative assessment Finally, it presents findings from related studies that investigate teachers' perceptions and practices regarding formative assessment.

Perception

Perception is a widely discussed concept in English language teaching research, with various definitions presented in previous studies It involves the process through which humans interpret information from their environment using their sensory systems, including sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch (Blake, 2006; Jordaan & Jordaan, 1986; Williams & Sommer, 1997).

Perception is defined as the process through which individuals organize and interpret sensory impressions to create meaning in their environment (2001) Rookes and Wilson (2005) describe it as a cognitive process that aids individuals in realizing and interpreting information Additionally, Susuwele-Banda (2005) emphasizes that perception is shaped by personal experiences and events, influencing future actions Overall, perception encompasses how individuals understand the social world based on their sensory interpretations, which ultimately affects their behavior.

This research examines teachers' perceptions, which are shaped by their experiences, observations, and learning, influencing their teaching practices and interactions with students According to Mozafari and Wray (2015), teachers' perceptions encompass their viewpoints on teaching and the learning process, significantly impacting their professional behaviors In this study, the focus is on teachers' opinions regarding the use of formative assessment to evaluate young learners' speaking skills.

Young learners

Young learners

The term "young learners" encompasses various definitions, primarily focusing on children aged 5 to 12 years According to Scott and Ytreberg (1990), young learners are typically defined as those between 5 and 10 or 11 years old UNICEF's Convention on the Rights of the Child identifies young learners as individuals under 18, while Phillips (1993) specifies the age range of 5 or 6 to 11 or 12 years Additionally, Cambridge Language Assessment defines young learners as children aged 6 to 12 These varying perspectives highlight the complexity of defining young learners in educational contexts.

The term "young learners" refers to children aged 5 to 12 years, encompassing students in primary and secondary schools in Vietnam, where compulsory education spans from grade 1 to grade 5 for those aged 6 to 14 (Ellis, 2014; Nunan, 2010; Phillips, 1993; Pinter, 2017) Despite variations in social, emotional, and cognitive maturity among this age group, they exhibit commonalities in their relationship with education (Cambridge papers in ELT, 2020).

Characteristics of EFL Young Learners’ Speaking Skills

The age of learners plays a crucial role in shaping educational approaches, as their needs, competencies, and cognitive development vary significantly Teachers must consider the unique characteristics of young learners, particularly those under 7 years old, who are inherently curious, imaginative, and enjoy playful activities Tailoring teaching methods to align with these traits is essential for effective learning.

Children aged 7 to 12 exhibit distinct characteristics in their English acquisition process According to Slattery and Willis (2001), younger learners under 7 acquire language through auditory experiences and playful interactions, often unaware that they are learning a foreign language In contrast, children aged 7 to 12 develop advanced cognitive skills, enabling them to actively engage in their learning This age group should be encouraged to collaboratively organize class activities and take an active role in constructing their understanding of the language.

When learning a foreign language, young learners primarily develop listening and speaking skills, mirroring the process of acquiring their mother tongue These learners can be categorized into two age groups: five to eight years and nine to twelve years, each exhibiting distinct thinking and speaking patterns Young children typically learn through observation, listening, imitation, and hands-on activities (Slattery & Willis, 2001) Initially, they mimic their parents' speech when acquiring their mother tongue, and similarly, they imitate their teachers while learning English According to Caudwell (n.d.), children aged five to eight often speak like "little parrots," absorbing new vocabulary without yet knowing how to construct sentences In contrast, by ages nine to twelve, learners develop a more logical understanding of objects and events, enabling them to articulate more complex ideas.

Teachers are encouraged to engage students aged nine to twelve in speaking activities with their peers, as friendships play a crucial role in their development (Caudwell, n.d) While young learners can accurately mimic their teacher's pronunciation (Cameroon, 2001), they often struggle with grammatical rules and may make mistakes while speaking (Phillip, 1993; Slattery & Willis, 2001) Despite their limited proficiency, child learners are generally eager to use language, in contrast to adult learners who may feel stressed by their inability to express themselves correctly (Lightbown & Spada, 2021) Thus, teachers should focus on the enjoyment of language use rather than the errors made Young learners particularly benefit from engaging activities such as songs, rhymes, chants, stories, and role-play to enhance their speaking skills in English (Nikolov & Timpe-Laughlin, 2021).

Classroom assessment

Testing and Assessment

Assessing and testing are two terms that are usually seen as synonyms, but they are not.

Testing is a well-defined subset of assessment techniques, as noted by Brown (2018) It involves methods that evaluate a test-taker's performance, utilizing structured approaches like multiple-choice questions or writing prompts with scoring rubrics According to Bachman (1990), a test must measure performance based on explicit procedures or rules Tests can assess general skills or specific competencies, providing valuable insights into an individual's knowledge, ability, and language use.

Assessment encompasses a broader range of concepts than just tests, defined as activities that provide valuable information for adapting teaching and learning to meet students' needs (Black and William, 1998) It is a collaborative process where teachers and students evaluate the quality of student achievements and infer learning outcomes (Sadler, 2005) According to Brown (2018), assessment is an ongoing process utilizing various methodological techniques to gauge students' current levels and achievements This process is essential for measuring students' understanding of lessons at specific points in time, referred to as assessment of learning (Stiggins, 2007) Assessment is further clarified by its intention, purpose, interpretation, and administration, where formal assessments are planned and informal assessments are unplanned (Mihai, 2010).

Assessments serve two main purposes: formative assessments focus on evaluating the learning process of students, while summative assessments measure the outcomes after a specific period Additionally, assessments act as a tool for comparing students' learning outcomes with course content and for evaluating performance among peers.

Summative and Formative Assessment

Summative and formative assessments are key concepts in education, as highlighted by the Ministry of Education and Training, which defines summative assessment as the evaluation of students' learning outcomes following a period of study According to Brown (2018), the primary goal of summative assessment is to measure and summarize students' achievements after completing a course or instructional unit Hatipoglu (2021) identifies several applications of summative assessment, emphasizing its role in determining students' proficiency in meeting the educational program's objectives.

(i) award or deny a diploma, license

(ii) classify students’ proficiency (beginner, intermediate, or advances)

(iv) obtain a measurement of achievement

Formative assessment is primarily a classroom-based evaluation method that emphasizes student learning and their ability to apply knowledge, distinguishing it from summative assessment (Bernett, 2011) Researchers, including Kahl (2005), highlight its role in measuring students' knowledge acquisition and identifying understanding gaps during lessons The State Collaborative on Assessment and Student Standards (2008) describes formative assessment as a feedback process that helps teachers and students adjust their teaching and learning strategies to improve student achievement Wiliam (2017) offers a precise definition, stating that formative assessment involves gathering and interpreting evidence of student achievement to inform instructional decisions, leading to better outcomes than those made without such evidence (p.48).

Formative assessment plays a crucial role in enhancing student learning by providing instructional feedback that informs teaching strategies According to Black and Wiliam (2009) and Ruiz-Primo, this assessment approach benefits both educators and learners, allowing teachers to modify their instruction based on students' performance and needs.

& Brookhart, 2018) and students can gain insights into their current learning status to make improvements (Hattie & Timperley, 2007) In the study, formative assessment can

7 be defined as a process in which teachers, students and their peer elicit and interpret what students have gained to adjust teaching and learning process for better learning outcomes.

Formative assessment plays a crucial role in enhancing teaching and learning by evaluating students' competencies and guiding their future development (Brown, 2018) Cizek (2009) identified ten key characteristics of formative assessment, highlighting its significance in the educational process.

- Requires students to take responsibility for their own learning -

Communicates clear, specific learning goals.

- Focuses on goals that represent valuable educational outcomes with applicability beyond the learning context.

- Identifies the student’s current knowledge/skills and the necessary steps for reaching the desired goals.

- Requires development of plans for attaining the desired goals -

Encourages students to self-monitor progress toward the learning goals.

- Provides examples of learning goals including, when relevant, the specific grading criteria or rubrics that will be used to evaluate the student’s work.

- Provides frequent assessment, including peer and student self-assessment and assessment embedded within learning activities.

- Includes feedback that is non-evaluative, specific, timely, related to the learning goals, and provides opportunities for the student to revise and improve work products and deepen understandings.

- Promotes metacognition and reflection by students on their work.

Assessing student learning extends beyond assigning grades; it is an integral part of the educational process Regular formative assessment is essential in the classroom, as it allows teachers to understand students' progress and needs rather than relying on assumptions This study emphasizes the importance of formative assessment, which Wiliam (2017) defines through five key strategies that enhance student learning, particularly in English.

Formative Assessment Strategies

Ramaprasad (1983, cited in Wiliam, 2017) pointed out three key processes in learning and teaching

- Establishing where the learners are in their learning,

- Establishing where they are going,

- Establishing what needs to be done to get them there

William and Thompson (2008) outline essential strategies for formative assessment that can be applied across various subjects and educational levels These five key strategies involve the actions of teachers, learners, and the classroom context, all of which are evaluated to steer learning toward specific objectives.

1 Clarifying and sharing learning intentions and criteria for success; 2.

Engineering effective classroom discussions, questions, and learning tasks; 3.

Providing feedback that moves learners forward;

4 Activating students as instructional resources for one another; and

5 Activating students as the owners of their own learning.

According to Wiliam (2017), effective teaching and learning involves three key processes: first, identifying the learning objectives; second, assessing the current understanding of learners; and third, strategizing ways to help them achieve their goals This process engages three essential agents: teachers, learners, and peers.

Traditionally, teachers have been responsible for three key educational processes, but it is essential to involve students and their peers in these activities According to William (2010) and Wiliam (2017), five key strategies emerge from the intersection of these processes and agents, drawing on various theoretical frameworks and research findings.

Strategy 1: Clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning intentions and success criteria;

Teachers must clearly define learning intentions and expected outcomes for their students According to Wiliam (2017), these intentions should be transformed into specific, measurable goals with well-defined success criteria Using friendly language helps students easily grasp these objectives Effective success criteria should be measurable, accommodate student differences, be articulated in clear and meaningful terms, and empower students to recognize their own success Additionally, teachers should provide examples that align with the success criteria, fostering students' ability to discern quality in their work Wiliam (2017) also recommends utilizing rubrics and process criteria to enhance this learning process.

To enhance student ownership of their learning, it is crucial for educators to involve students in developing learning intentions and success criteria (Wiliam, 2017) Teachers must ensure that students comprehend these concepts and their practical applications; however, students may sometimes diverge in their learning paths, which can hinder effective learning Therefore, it is essential for teachers to intervene and guide their learning activities (Wiliam, 2010) This study emphasizes the importance of clarifying and sharing learning intentions and success criteria to facilitate student understanding and engagement.

Strategy 2: Eliciting evidence of learning;

The strategy emphasizes eliciting evidence of student achievement, primarily through questioning, which also encompasses actions that reveal learning to inform instructional practices (William, 2010) To effectively manage this evidence, teachers must align their elicitation methods with clear learning intentions and an understanding of students' challenges Decisions on what evidence to elicit are informed by a solid theory of learning, with significant cognitive preparation occurring prior to the evidence collection (William, 2010) Wiliam (2017) highlights the importance of questioning in this process, noting that it promotes critical thinking and provides valuable insights into students' learning, allowing for tailored instructional adjustments High-quality questions that invite multiple answers or present unsolved problems are essential for encouraging deeper student engagement Thus, this study centers on the role of questioning in education.

Strategy 3: Providing feedback that moves learners forward;

Feedback is a crucial tool for enhancing classroom learning by offering insights on errors and suggestions for student improvement (William, 2018; Wiggins, 2012) This study emphasizes the significance of feedback in the educational process.

According to Brookhart (2010), effective formative assessment is focused on future learning rather than past performance, highlighting the importance of feedback that drives improvement Feedback should aim to enhance performance by encouraging cognitive engagement rather than emotional responses, ensuring that learners receive constructive information to advance their skills.

Effective feedback is essential for enhancing student learning, as highlighted by 2010 research, which emphasizes that its impact depends on both the learners and their educational environment (Black & Wiliam, 2009, cited in William, 2010) While students' responses to feedback can be unpredictable, they may react negatively if their performance does not meet their expectations Therefore, to deliver constructive feedback that promotes student progress, educators must adopt specific strategies.

To foster a growth mindset in students, educators should focus on praising their efforts, providing scaffolding, and offering formative feedback According to Wiliam (2017), improving the quality of classroom feedback can be achieved by adhering to these essential principles.

- Feedback should be more work for the recipient rather than the donor

- Feedback should relate to shared learning goals

Brookhart (2010) suggested some characteristics of good feedback: - Feedback should be descriptive, which focus on work instead of students - Feedback should be specific and clear to students

- Feedback should show students areas for improvement

Strategy 4: Activating students as the owners of their own learning;

According to Wiliam (2017), learners are responsible for creating their own learning experiences, emphasizing the importance of training students to become self-regulated learners Key attributes for self-regulation include metacognition and motivation, as highlighted by Boekaerts (2006) To foster self-regulated learning, a supportive learning environment is essential, where teachers share learning goals, promote the belief in incremental ability, and encourage self-study When students find value in tasks and are interested in them, they are more likely to engage in their learning journey Wiliam (2017) also notes that self-assessment is a simple yet effective method to enhance student achievement, empowering students to take ownership of their learning This article focuses on the significance of self-assessment in promoting self-regulated learning.

Strategy 5: Activating students as instructional resources for one another.

Peer assessment is a crucial step towards enhancing self-assessment and self-regulation in learning, as highlighted by Black et al (2003, cited in William, 2010) This approach emphasizes student growth and improvement, rather than merely judging the work of peers.

Teachers should promote cooperative learning among students to enhance their educational experience by encouraging collaboration and mutual improvement This approach allows students to become valuable resources for one another, fostering a supportive learning environment Effective cooperative learning hinges on two key elements: group goals and individual accountability Group goals require students to work together as a cohesive unit, ensuring that everyone contributes to the group's success.

Individual accountability in education emphasizes that students are responsible for their own work rather than relying on group efforts To effectively assess their peers, learners must understand the learning objectives and success criteria In peer assessment, students take on the role of teachers, gathering evidence of learning and offering constructive feedback This study primarily focuses on the practice of peer assessment as a valuable educational strategy.

Wiliam discusses five key formative assessment strategies that enhance student learning: clarifying and sharing learning intentions and success criteria, effective questioning, providing constructive feedback, and implementing self-assessment and peer assessment These strategies collectively foster a deeper understanding of educational goals and promote active engagement in the learning process.

Formative Assessment Tools in Young Learners’ Classroom

According to Brookhart (2010), formative assessment tools are essential for teachers in the formative assessment cycle, enabling them to achieve specific assessment goals These tools help educators elicit student learning and create opportunities for students to revise their understanding Brookhart outlines a four-step process for selecting or designing formative assessment tools: first, determine the assessment's purpose; second, choose a general strategy that aligns with this purpose; third, apply the strategy to a specific learning goal; and finally, decide on the key indicators to observe during assessment Teachers should carefully consider these strategies when selecting formative assessment tools to enhance student learning outcomes.

Dodge (2009) introduced four different types of formative assessments to help teachers to gain information about students' learning and understanding:

Summaries and reflections enhance students' metacognitive skills by encouraging them to analyze their learning experiences These activities rely on verbal-linguistic abilities and emphasize interpersonal intelligence, as they require students to engage in deep self-reflection and gain a better understanding of their own learning processes.

- Lists, charts, and graphic organizers: Students can organize information, and connect and create relationships of ideas by using graphic organizers.

Visual representations, combining words and images, enhance students' memory retention and information retrieval Educators can leverage these dual modalities to cater to diverse learning styles and preferences within the classroom, fostering an inclusive learning environment.

- Collaborative activities: These activities give students the opportunity to collaborate with others, and develop and demonstrate their understanding of concepts.

Assessing students' speaking skills can be achieved through a variety of practices, including verbal presentations, interviews, dialogues, discussions, peer assessments, and public speaking, as noted by Cheng et al (2004).

12 classroom Taylor (2006) supports Cheng's (2004) ideas by stating that tasks requiring interactive communication are effective in assessing students' speaking skills.Haznedar

In 2023, formative assessment tools for speaking assessment in classrooms include observations, portfolios, self-assessment, stories, songs, and games Observation is a highly effective tool for assessing young learners, allowing teachers to document students' participation and performance, which informs the development of tailored activities (Janisch et al., 2007; Shepard, 2000, cited in Haznedar, 2023) Self-assessment fosters young learners' awareness of their learning processes, promoting a supportive environment for skill development Portfolios, which compile students' work over time, serve as valuable resources for reviewing progress and can include various formats such as speaking videos and discussion notes (Puckett and Black, 2000, cited in Haznedar, 2023) Additionally, stories play a crucial role in formative assessment, providing meaningful input that enhances young learners' oral and written language skills; early exposure to stories has been shown to improve reading and speaking abilities (Dlugosz, 2000; Kim and Hall, 2002, cited in Haznedar, 2023).

Interactive books play a significant role in enhancing learners' pragmatic competence by providing repeated structural patterns through storytelling These stories serve as both an introduction and a means of revising these patterns for students As learners engage with the narratives by reading, retelling, or role-playing, teachers can observe their awareness and accurate application of these structural elements.

Ioannou-Georgiou and Pavlou (2003) proposed various formative assessment tools to evaluate young learners' speaking skills, including portfolios, projects, self-assessment, peer assessment, take-home tasks, observations, and conferencing Projects encourage children to combine language skills while fostering creativity, allowing teachers to assess both group dynamics and individual contributions Additionally, conferencing serves as an informal dialogue between teachers and students, providing a supportive environment for assessing English speaking skills through engaging activities.

Considering young learners’ characteristics which have been reviewed, the study focuses on some common tools: verbal presentations, interviews, dialogues, discussions, observations, portfolios, take-home tasks, stories, games and projects.

Using Formative Assessment to Assess EFL Young Learners’ Speaking Skills

Speaking Skills in the Classrooms

Assessing children is essential in teaching and learning, as it helps monitor their progress, provides evidence of their development, and supports teachers in planning future lessons (McKay, 2006; Neaum, 2016) Recently, there has been an increased focus on evaluating early second language learning outcomes, particularly in speaking skills, which can be challenging to assess effectively in larger groups The primary goal of teaching speaking is to enable children to communicate orally and express specific meanings, emphasizing their ability to perform basic functions like self-introduction and asking questions.

The effectiveness of speaking assessments is largely determined by their intended purpose and is closely aligned with the curriculum's goals and objectives (McKay, 2006) Teachers must thoughtfully select speaking assessment tasks and procedures to ensure they are appropriate for both the assessment's purpose and the curriculum requirements.

Incorporating visuals and objects into assessment tasks is essential for maintaining student interest and engagement, as highlighted by 2006 Weurlander et al (2012) emphasized that oral group assessments enhance learning by allowing students to discuss and clarify concepts with peers Young learners should be encouraged to speak in pairs or groups, and when ready, individually Creating a friendly and enjoyable environment is crucial, as children thrive in settings that promote fun and play Thus, teachers should focus on keeping assessment tasks engaging and manageable in length while implementing formative assessment strategies.

Theoretical framework

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), an evolution of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), aims to predict and understand individual behavior by incorporating additional elements that address TRA's limitations Developed by Ajzen in 1991, TPB identifies three key independent determinants of intention: attitude towards the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.

Attitude towards behavior reflects an individual's inclination to engage in that behavior, shaped by their beliefs about its positive outcomes When a person perceives favorable results from a behavior, they are likely to develop a positive attitude towards it This concept encompasses two main components: affective and cognitive evaluations.

14 attitude (feelings/emotions occuring from the prospect of performing the behaviour) and instrumental attitude (appraisal of the outcome of performing the behavior)

Subjective norms represent the social pressure individuals feel regarding whether to engage in a specific behavior The likelihood of a person performing a behavior is influenced by external factors such as time, financial resources, skills, and the cooperation of others When individuals sense strong approval from those around them, they are more inclined to participate in that behavior.

Perceived behavioral control is the individual's assessment of their capability to execute a specific behavior, influenced by the resources available and the obstacles encountered This concept, as articulated by Ajzen (1991), aligns with Bandura's (1982) notion of perceived self-efficacy, emphasizing the importance of personal confidence and the perceived challenges or ease associated with performing the behavior.

Bosnjak et al (2020) displays Ajzen’s (2019b) adjustment and extension of the original Theory of Planned Behavior with the involvement of three new determinants: behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs.

- Behavioral beliefs refers to the subjective possibility that the behavior results in expected outcomes and experience Behavioral beliefs can produce positive and negative attitude towards the behavior.

- Normative beliefs refers to the perceived pressure in behavioral performance from exerted from others’ normative expectations Those beliefs can lead to subjective norm.

- Control beliefs relates to the perceived factors that stimulate or hinder the behavior Those beliefs cause theperceived behavioral control

The Theory of Planned Behavior posits that behavioral intentions can be accurately predicted based on one's attitude towards the behavior and subjective norms, with perceived behavioral control acting as a moderating factor This theory suggests that both intentions and perceived behavioral control account for variations in actual behavioral performance Ultimately, when individuals possess adequate control over their behavior, they are more likely to act on their intentions when opportunities arise.

Figure 2.1Graphical depiction of the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 2019b)

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) aims to predict and comprehend human behaviors, particularly within the education sector Its effectiveness in understanding behaviors has been notably applied to assessment practices (Yan, 2014; Yan & Cheng, 2015; Yim).

The theory has been utilized in various studies, including those by Cho (2016) and Zeng & Huang (2021), to analyze the factors affecting teachers' attitudes, intentions, and implementation of formative assessment in classrooms Additionally, Karaman and Sahin (2017) used the theory to explore the connections between teachers' attitudes, intentions, and practices regarding formative assessment In the current study, this theory serves as a framework to elucidate the interviewed teachers' use of formative assessment strategies and tools.

Related studies

Antoniou and James (2014) investigated formative assessment in primary school settings, revealing that teachers held positive views and values regarding these practices Additionally, they reported utilizing a diverse range of assessment methods in their classrooms.

Classroom observations revealed weaknesses in teachers' formative assessment practices, including a lack of clear quality criteria and defined purposes for activities Observations and questioning were often unstructured, with teachers focusing more on student groups rather than individual students Feedback provided by teachers tended to emphasize short-term rewards instead of offering detailed explanations of students' strengths and weaknesses, along with suggestions for improvement This study investigates the formative assessment practices of primary teachers across all English skills through the use of questionnaires and observations.

Yan and Pastore (2022) investigated the strategies teachers use in formative assessment and explored how these practices relate to their self-efficacy The study utilized two scales to evaluate the effectiveness of three key formative assessment strategies, which included clarifying and sharing learning objectives.

The study identified 16 intentions and criteria for success in engineering effective classroom discussions, focusing on teacher-oriented formative assessment through questions, learning tasks, and feedback that enhances student learning Additionally, it highlighted student-oriented formative assessment by promoting students as instructional resources and owners of their own learning Findings indicated a dominant role for teachers and limited student involvement in the formative assessment process, with variations in strategy use linked to teachers' familiarity and contextual factors Utilizing a quantitative approach, the research examined the formative assessment practices of primary and secondary teachers, providing a general overview while emphasizing the strategies employed.

In the Vietnamese context, research on in-class assessment reveals significant insights into primary school teachers' practices Pham et al (2019) highlighted that tests are the predominant assessment method, with speaking skills assessed only during end-of-semester tests, while formative tools like portfolios and diaries are underutilized Additionally, teachers primarily provide correct answers and scores, offering minimal corrective feedback Similarly, Tran (2021) examined the cognition and assessment practices of primary school teachers in Hanoi, finding that those with a strong understanding of assessment methods confidently employed diverse strategies, such as group work and peer assessment However, variations in formative assessment practices stemmed from differing perceptions of assessment activities among teachers Both studies identified challenges such as large class sizes, limited classroom time, and heavy workloads that hinder effective assessment Despite employing qualitative methods to gain deeper insights into teachers' cognition and practices, the research was limited to a small participant pool within specific regions.

Nguyen and Tran (2018) conducted a study examining EFL high school teachers' perceptions of formative assessment practices for evaluating speaking skills Utilizing questionnaires and interviews for data collection, the research revealed significant insights into teachers' views and approaches to formative assessment in the classroom.

A study revealed that participants generally understand in-class speaking assessments, perceiving the purposes of formative assessments as more significant than those of summative assessments They preferred interactive tasks, such as role plays and interviews, over other task types However, the teachers demonstrated limited knowledge regarding the benefits of portfolios and the implementation of self-assessment.

In the context of speaking assessment criteria, high school teachers prioritized factors other than grammar, as they aimed to avoid instilling a fear of making grammatical mistakes in their students during speaking activities.

Previous research has extensively explored teachers' practices of formative assessment in enhancing students' English learning, particularly in speaking skills While some studies have examined formative assessment across all skills, they predominantly focus on teachers of teenage or adult learners Limited investigations have addressed primary teachers' perceptions and practices of formative assessment in the classroom, often employing qualitative methods Notably, there is a scarcity of research on teachers' views regarding formative assessment for young learners' speaking skills in primary schools and foreign language centers in the Mekong Delta, especially using a mixed-method approach Given the varying cognitive abilities, age characteristics, and contextual factors such as class size and study duration, the application of formative assessment in teaching English can differ significantly Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap in research.

This chapter reviews significant literature, defining key terms such as perceptions and young learners It outlines the characteristics of young learners and discusses Wiliam’s (2017) formative assessment strategies, along with various formative assessment tools that serve as a framework for designing the study's data collection instruments Additionally, the chapter explores research related to teachers' cognitions and practices concerning formative assessment in English Language Teaching.

This chapter outlines the study's methodology, starting with the research aims and questions It details the research design, participants, and instruments used Finally, it concludes with an overview of the data collection procedures and data analysis methods employed in the study.

Research aims and research questions

This study investigates EFL teachers' perceptions of formative assessment in evaluating young learners' speaking skills It also examines the strategies and tools employed by teachers for this assessment and the reasons behind their choices.

1 How do EFL teachers perceive the use of formative assessment in assessing young learners’ speaking skills in the classroom?

2 What formative assessment strategies and tools do EFL teachers use to assess young learners’ speaking skills in the classroom?

What are the underlying reasons for their choice?

Design

This descriptive study utilized a mixed methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative data to effectively address the research aims and questions While each method offers valuable insights, they also come with inherent limitations, as noted by Creswell and Clark.

In 2017, researchers highlighted that studies involving a small number of individuals limit the ability to generalize findings, while larger participant groups may overlook individual nuances This interplay between the strengths and limitations of different research methods underscores the importance of employing mixed methods According to Creswell and Creswell (2018, 2022), mixed methods aim to mitigate the weaknesses of each approach, leading to a more nuanced understanding of the research topic By utilizing mixed methods, researchers can gather comprehensive data that effectively addresses the research problem (Creswell and Clark, 2017).

Questionnaires were distributed to teachers to gather data on their views and implementation of formative assessment strategies and tools The quantitative findings from these questionnaires informed the development of interview questions Additionally, semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data, providing a deeper understanding of teachers' perceptions regarding the use of formative assessment and the reasons behind their selected strategies and tools for speaking assessment.

Participants

The study involved a purposive sample of 96 EFL teachers currently instructing young learners in both public and private primary schools.

The study involved 19 schools and English language centers, focusing on participants with experience in teaching English to young learners aged five to twelve To gather a wide range of perspectives, no specific criteria were set for the teachers' experience levels Participants utilized various textbooks and coursebooks in their teaching A summary of the participant demographics is presented in Table 3.1 below.

Table 3.1The summary of teachers’ demographic information

30 – 39 years old 24 25% 40 – 49 years old 7 7.3% Over 50 years old 1 1%

Years of experience in teaching English to young learners

Public primary school 23 24% Private school 15 15.6% 1 – 5 years 72 75% 6 – 10 years 13 13.5% 11 – 20 years 9 9.4% Over

The study population predominantly consists of young adults, with 66.7% of respondents aged between 22 and 29 years Among the participants, 60.4% are teachers at English language centers, while 24% work in public primary schools, and 15.6% in private primary schools A significant majority of the teachers, 78.1%, are female, making it easier for the researcher to connect with them The data also reveals that approximately 75% of the teachers have one to five years of experience teaching English to young learners, a factor that influences their perceptions and use of formative assessment strategies for evaluating speaking skills In contrast, responses from teachers with over 20 years of experience were notably limited.

Data collection instruments

Questionnaire

The questionnaire utilized in this study is essential for addressing the research questions by gathering insights from a broad audience on specific topics (Fraenkel et al., 2012) It was carefully crafted to provide a comprehensive overview of teachers’ perceptions and their application of formative assessment strategies and tools in evaluating young learners’ speaking skills.

Previous studies, including those by Sach (2012), Ta (2017), Alotabi (2019), Asare (2020), and Yan and Pastore (2022), utilized questionnaires to explore teachers' perceptions of formative assessment, each with distinct objectives Sach (2012) and Alotabi (2019) focused on the influential factors affecting the adoption of formative assessment, while Asare (2020) investigated teachers' views on the usefulness of formative assessment and the predominant strategies employed.

The study utilized a questionnaire adapted from Ta (2017) and Yan and Pastore (2022) to evaluate teachers' perceptions and practices regarding formative assessment Part 2 of Ta's (2017) questionnaire focused on four key areas: sharing learning goals, questioning, self-assessment, and feedback, with self and peer assessment separated into distinct clusters for this study Additionally, Part 3 of the questionnaire was developed based on a literature review of formative assessment tools specifically designed for young learners' classrooms.

Detail description of the final questionnaire was displayed below The questionnaire involves three main sections:

- The first section includes 5 questions to ask for teachers’ background information like name, age, gender, workplace, and years of experience in teaching English for young learners.

The study explored EFL teachers' perceptions of formative assessment for evaluating young learners' speaking skills, utilizing a survey with 24 items rated on a five-point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree The items are organized into five clusters: clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning intentions and success criteria (items 1-5); questioning (items 6-9); feedback (items 10-14); self-assessment (items 15-19); and peer assessment (items 20-24).

The study explored how EFL teachers implement formative assessment strategies and tools to evaluate young learners' speaking skills It featured a survey with 27 items, comprising 25 closed-ended questions utilizing a 5-point Likert Scale (never, rarely, sometimes, often, frequently) and 2 open-ended questions The open-ended questions aimed to gather additional insights on formative assessment tools and the rationale behind the participants' choices in using these tools.

Table 3.3The summary of the questionnaire

Sharing and clarifying learning intentions and success criteria

Teachers’ perceptions of formative assessment strategies

Teachers’ uses of formative assessment strategies and tools

Table 3.3showed the summary of the questionnaire including how many items there are and which statements involved in each cluster.

A copy of the questionnaire and the description for its adaption were detailed in Appendix A and B.

Semi-structured Interviews .23 3.5

The semi-structured interview was conducted with the aim of answering research questions of the study The outline was prepared for the interviews because it can

To enhance the comprehensiveness of data collection and establish a systematic approach for each respondent, a semi-structured interview was utilized (Fraenkel et al., 2012) This method was selected to uncover participants' thoughts and insights regarding formative assessment The interview comprises three key sections: (1) demographic information of the participants, (2) teachers' perceptions of formative assessment, and (3) additional relevant insights.

This article explores teachers' utilization of formative assessment strategies and tools, along with the rationale behind their choices Section 1 focuses on the participants' years of experience in teaching English to young learners and their respective workplaces Section 2 delves into teachers' perceptions of formative assessment, while Section 3 examines the specific strategies and tools employed by teachers, highlighting their reasons for selection.

To gather comprehensive responses from participants, the researcher crafted concise and clear interview questions and sub-questions, minimizing the risk of confusion The inclusion of sub-questions facilitated deeper insights and made it easier for participants to share their thoughts A complete list of the interview questions is available in Appendix C.

In this study, two key instruments utilized are a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview Prior to the official data collection, both tools were piloted with a group of teachers who possess similar characteristics to the intended research participants.

A pilot study was conducted to identify any ambiguities, misunderstandings, or unclear wording in the questionnaire Twenty teachers participated in testing the initial version to ensure clarity and effectiveness in the questions and response options.

To validate the questionnaire, the researcher engaged in discussions with participants to clarify any misunderstandings and gathered their recommendations for improvement One teacher suggested rephrasing statement 5 in part 2 for clarity, while another recommended removing statement 1, believing her students were too young to grasp the concept of learning intentions Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, with SPSS 20.0 employed for analysis, resulting in a high reliability score of α = 94.

All participant responses, recommendations, and results analyzed using SPSS 20.0 were submitted to the supervisor for discussion Following the supervisor's feedback, the researcher revised one item and incorporated seven additional close-ended questions.

23 one open-ended question Therefore, the new questionnaire involved 49 items applying Likert scale and two open-ended questions.

A questionnaire created on Google Forms was distributed to teachers of English for young learners, with support from the researcher’s colleagues and friends Out of 102 responses, 96 were deemed valid after excluding six that had uniform answers across all questions The quantitative data collection took place over a three-week period.

TheScale testwas conducted to check the reliability of the questionnaire The result of the test indicated that the questionnaire was reliable for data collection

A male teacher with four years of experience teaching English to young learners participated in a structured interview, which was recorded with his consent Conducted in Vietnamese for clarity and comfort, the interview followed prepared questions, and the researcher ensured the validity of the instrument by discussing any misunderstandings with the participant The recorded interview was then transcribed and shared with both the supervisor and the participant for feedback, leading to necessary revisions Additionally, it was suggested that Section 3 include questions regarding formative assessment tools that the participant plans to use or has rarely used.

Sixteen participants provided their contact details in response to the questionnaire, leading the researcher to send emails requesting permission for interviews These emails outlined the study's aims and assured participants that their information would be used solely for research purposes, including a request for permission to audio record the interviews Once participants agreed, arrangements for convenient times and locations were made Before each interview, the researcher reiterated the information from the initial email and addressed any questions The interviews were recorded, transcribed immediately, and the researcher ensured accuracy by listening to the recordings multiple times Subsequently, the transcriptions were sent back to participants for confirmation, and their responses were translated into English for analysis and interpretation.

The data of this study was analyzed by the combination of quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis.

The analysis of quantitative data was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 20.0, which included a reliability test to evaluate the consistency of the questionnaire and its components Descriptive statistics were employed to determine the mean score, minimum, maximum, and standard deviation, revealing teachers' perceptions of formative assessment in evaluating young learners' speaking skills Additionally, a paired comparison was performed to analyze the mean scores across different clusters.

Samples-T tests were employed For this analysis, differences are statistically significant if p < 0.5 and vice versa.

The test value adapted from Pallent’s Likert Scale is used to compare the mean scores of the questionnaire.

Table 3.4Pallant’s Likert Scale description of the mean scores

Weighted mean Level of agreement

Very high High Average Low Very low

Pallent categorizes mean scores into distinct ranges: a score of 1.00 to 1.80 is classified as very low, 1.81 to 2.60 as low, and 2.61 to 3.40 as average Additionally, scores between 3.41 and 4.20 are deemed high, while those from 4.21 to 5.00 are considered very high.

The researcher conducted a qualitative analysis using Thematic Analysis as outlined by Braun and Clarke (2024) This process involved five key steps: first, the researcher transcribed the data, familiarized themselves with it, and carefully selected relevant quotations to ensure no important information was overlooked Next, they identified keywords related to participants' frequent and infrequent use of formative assessment strategies and tools Following this, the researcher coded the data and organized these codes into meaningful themes to uncover relationships The final step involved conceptualizing the findings by interpreting the keywords, codes, and themes.

This chapter outlines the research methodology employed in the study, detailing the participants and the data collection instruments utilized It also encompasses the procedures for data collection and the methods of data analysis, providing a comprehensive overview of the research process.

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the findings of the study based on data gathered from 49-item questionnaires and semi-structured interviews It begins by exploring teachers' perceptions of formative assessment, followed by an examination of the strategies and tools they employ for formative assessment, along with the rationale behind their choices The results are then analyzed and discussed in detail.

Teachers’ perceptions of using formative assessment to assess young learners

Teachers’ perceptions of formative assessment strategies to assess young learners’ speaking skills

The Descriptive Statistics Test was conducted to analyze the average scores across five key clusters: clarifying learning intentions, sharing and understanding success criteria, questioning, providing feedback, and engaging in self and peer assessment.

Table 4.3Mean scores of the five clusters

Clarifying, sharing and understading learning intentions and success criteria

The mean scores for the five formative assessment strategies varied, with self-assessment receiving the lowest score (M=4.08, SD=.58) and feedback achieving the highest (M=4.44, SD=.46) These results indicate that teachers have a strong positive perception of these strategies for evaluating young learners' speaking skills.

Table 4.4One-Sample t-Test of questioning and feedback

Test Value = 4.20 t df Sig (2- tailed) Mean

The One-Sample t-Test revealed significant differences in teachers' perceptions of questioning (M=4.33, SD=.47) and feedback (M=4.44, SD=.46) compared to the test value of 4.20, indicating a high level of agreement Specifically, teachers demonstrated a strong perception of questioning as a tool for eliciting evidence of learning (p=.01, t=2.67), while their perception of using feedback to assess young learners’ speaking skills was even more pronounced (p=.00, t=5.02) These findings underscore the importance teachers place on both questioning and feedback in the educational process.

Table 4.5One-Sample t-Test of three other formative assessment strategies

Test Value = 4.21 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper

Difference and understading learning intentions and

A One-Sample t-Test was conducted to evaluate teachers' perceptions of formative assessment strategies, specifically focusing on learning intentions and success criteria, feedback, self-assessment, and peer assessment, against a test value of 4.21 on a five-point scale The findings revealed a statistically significant difference in perceptions regarding self-assessment (M=4.08, SD=.58), with a p-value of 0.03, indicating that teachers highly valued this strategy Conversely, no significant differences were observed for peer assessment (M=4.20, SD=.56) and the strategy of clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning intentions and success criteria (M=4.19, SD=.51), both showing high levels of agreement with the test value (p=.69) Overall, teachers perceived peer assessment and the clarification of learning intentions and success criteria very positively.

Eight educators shared their insights on formative assessment strategies, including clarifying learning intentions, questioning, feedback, self-assessment, and peer assessment, in evaluating young learners' speaking skills Most participants expressed a strong appreciation for these strategies, highlighting their positive influence on assessment practices and the overall teaching and learning experience The teachers' grasp of formative assessment significantly shaped their approaches to speaking assessments, as noted by Teacher A and Teacher V.

When teachers were well aware of formative assessment strategies, they could use them more flexibly and creatively depending on their classroom (Teacher A, line 50-52)

When I perceived and understood formative assessment strategies well, I could conduct my assessment process better (Teacher V, line 154 - 155)

31 Besides, the teachers could identify students’ strengths and weaknesses of speaking skills and give prompt support for their speaking improvement For example, teacher L and teacher C remarked that:

Understanding formative assessment strategies has provided me with a clear framework to evaluate students' speaking abilities effectively This approach not only aids in supporting students' improvement after each lesson but also enhances their comprehension of the material and boosts their speaking skills.

Formative assessment strategies were important as they helped me recognise my students’ weaknesses and give them extra classes … as well as know who understood lessons (Teacher C, line 58-63)

They could adjust their instructions and make lessons more interesting to enhance students’ engagement For example, some teachers said that:

The assessment process enhanced students' language learning and academic performance while allowing teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching methods and assessment strategies.

Formative assessment strategies helped me know about students’ speaking skills,make the lesson more interesting, and make learners become more interested in learning activities (Teacher D, line 40-41)

One participant noted that the effectiveness of formative assessment strategies on young learners' speaking skills is unclear, as the feedback from low-achieving students was inadequate to facilitate improvement in others' speaking abilities.

The effectiveness of peer assessment strategies on speaking evaluations remains uncertain During peer assessment activities, lower-achieving students struggled to provide constructive feedback, which hindered their peers' speaking development.

Participants in the interviews recognized the significant benefits of formative assessment strategies on their speaking assessment practices, highlighting its positive effects on both assessment and the overall teaching and learning experience Formative assessment enabled teachers to gauge students' understanding of lessons, allowing them to provide targeted support and adjust their instructional methods (Bernett, 2011; Kahl, 2005; Wiliam, 2017) However, the participants expressed concerns about the quality of feedback students received during the assessment process, prompting them to question the effectiveness of peer assessment.

A Paired Sample T-test was run to check the differences between the mean scores of formative assessment strategies: clarifying, sharing, understanding learning intentions and success criteria – questioning; clarifying, sharing, understanding

Effective learning involves clearly defined intentions and success criteria, which facilitate feedback and self-assessment By clarifying and sharing these goals, students can enhance their understanding through peer assessments and questioning This collaborative approach fosters a deeper engagement with the learning process, allowing for constructive feedback and continuous improvement among peers.

Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 learning intentions and Success criteria -

Clarifying, sharing, understanding learning intentions and success criteria -

Clarifying, sharing, understanding learning intentions and Success criteria -

Self-assessment.11 54 1.94 95 06 Clarifying, sharing, understanding learning intentions and Success criteria – Peer assessment -.01 55 -.26 95 80

Pair 5 Questioning - Feedback -.11 44 -2.43 95 02 Pair 6 Questioning -

Self-assessment 24 51 4.69 95 00 Pair 7 Questioning - Peer assessment 12 50 2.41

95 02 Pair 8 Feedback - Self-assessment 35 56 6.20 95 00 Pair 9 Feedback - Peer assessment 23 48 4.72 95 00 Pair 10 Self-assessment - Peer assessment -.12 43

The study revealed statistically significant differences between feedback and various educational strategies, including clarifying learning intentions and success criteria (p=.00), questioning (p=.02), self-assessment (p=.00), and peer assessment (p=.00) These findings indicate that teachers placed a higher importance on feedback (M=4.44, SD=.46) compared to other instructional methods.

Clarifying, sharing, understanding learning intentions and success criteria, questioning, self-assessment, and peer assessment (M=4.19, SD=.51; M=4.33, SD=.47; M=4.08, SD=.58; M=4.20, SD=.56 respectively).

The study revealed significant differences in teachers' perceptions of various assessment strategies, with questioning being favored more highly (M=4.33, SD=.47) compared to clarifying, sharing, understanding learning intentions, and success criteria (M=4.19, SD=.51), self-assessment (M=4.08, SD=.58), and peer assessment (M=4.20, SD=.56) The statistical analysis showed notable distinctions between questioning and the other strategies, with p-values of 01, 00, and 02, indicating a strong preference for questioning in educational practices.

Moreover, the difference between self-assessment and peer assessment was statistically significant (p=.01, t=-.12) As a result, teachers had greater awareness of peer assessment (M=4.20, SD=.56) than self-assessment (M=4.08, SD=.58).

Descriptive statistics were utilized to evaluate teachers' mean scores regarding their perceptions of various formative assessment strategies The subsequent tables provide a detailed overview of teachers' feedback on the effectiveness of these strategies in assessing young learners' speaking skills.

Table 4.7Teachers’ perceptions of the first strategy - Clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning intentions and success criteria

1 I think learning intentions should be discussed with students 96 1.00 5.00 4.27 81 2 I think information about learning intentions and success criteria should be presented in clear and explicit language which students can understand

3 I think my students can own their learning by discussing, deciding and developing

Students who comprehend the learning intentions and success criteria, and can relate them to their own speaking practice, tend to achieve greater improvements compared to those who do not Understanding these elements is crucial for enhancing speaking skills effectively.

5 I think students should be trained to understand what success criteria mean and how they look like

Teachers’ uses of formative assessment strategies and tools to assess young learners

Teachers’ use of formative assessment strategies to assess young learners’

learners’ speaking skills in class

The study aimed to evaluate how frequently teachers utilize formative assessment to gauge young learners' speaking skills A questionnaire featuring 25 items on a Likert scale, ranging from "never" to "frequently," was employed to gather data on this practice.

Descriptive Statistics Test was performed to find out the level of the frequency of teachers’ uses of formative assessment strategies and tools The result was displayed in

Table 4.12The frequency of teachers’ uses of formative assessment strategies and toolsN Min Max Mean SD Formative Assessment Strategies 96 2.82 4.73 3.91 43 Formative Assessment Tools

The analysis presented in Table 4.12 reveals a high mean score (M=3.85, SD=.42) for teachers' use of formative assessment strategies and tools, indicating frequent application in the classroom Specifically, the frequency levels were noted as high (M=3.91, SD=.43; M=3.79, SD=.47), demonstrating that teachers possess a strong perception of the significance of formative assessment in enhancing language teaching and learning Consequently, they regularly implement these strategies and tools to effectively assess young learners' speaking skills.

The study evaluated the frequency of teachers employing formative assessment strategies to assess young learners' speaking skills, utilizing Descriptive Statistics Tests Detailed mean scores of these strategies are provided in Table 4.13.

Table 4.13Teachers’ use of formative assessment strategies to assess young learners’ speaking skills

6 I give comments on my students’ performance after classroom speaking activities96 2.00 5.00 4.39 707 I tell my students what to do to improve their speaking96 3.00 5.00 4.54 568 I point out my students’ strengths and weaknesses in their speaking in class

11 I engage my students to do self

96 2.00 5.00 4.40 69 assessment 96 1.00 5.00 3.64 94 12 I engage my students to dopeer assessment96 1.00 5.00 3.54 97 18 I share and clarify learning intentions of lessons for my students 96 2.00 5.00 4.03 8019.I explain to my students how their speaking is assessed 96 2.00 5.00 4.00 79

21 I raise questions that require many possible answers from students to challenge my students’ thought96 2.00 5.00 3.98 77 22 I use questioning to check how well my students speak 96 1.00 5.00 4.28 74 23 I praise my students who have good speaking performance 96 3.00 5.00 4.61 59 24 I criticize students who do not try their best to perform their speaking 96 1.00 4.00 1.59 94

According to the data presented in Table 4.13, most participants consistently provided feedback on students’ speaking abilities, highlighting both strengths and weaknesses (M=4.39, SD=.70; M=4.40, SD=.69) Notably, the high mean score for item 23 (M=4.61, SD=.59) contrasted sharply with the low mean score for item 24 (M=1.59, SD=.94), indicating a strong inclination among teachers to commend students for their effective speaking performance This suggests that positive feedback is a priority for educators Interviewed teachers emphasized the importance of praising students, identifying their strengths and weaknesses, and offering constructive suggestions for enhancing their speaking skills.

After my students’ speaking, I usually gave feedback to my students First, I gave praise as encouragement to stimulate my students to participate in other

41 activities Next, I pointed out their strengths after they finish the activity. Then I told them what they need to improve (line 142 - 146)

Participants demonstrated a strong inclination towards using questioning as a method to assess their students' speaking abilities, evidenced by a high mean score of 4.28 (SD = 74) All interviewed teachers expressed their preference for this approach, with three teachers specifically highlighting its effectiveness in gauging student performance.

I usually used questioning (Teacher L, line 82 – 83; Teacher Q, line 66 – 67)

The respondents sometimes made questions that students could give possible answers to stimulate their thoughts (M=3.98, SD=.77) In the interview, teacher V also asserted that:

I prepared many questions I had to read the lesson carefully and make questions at different levels Those questions required students’ thoughts to answer (line 159 - 160)

In the interview, teachers highlighted the connection between their questions, the learning content, and the desired learning outcomes, aligning with their understanding of effective questioning criteria For instance, both Teacher L and Teacher T expressed this viewpoint.

In my teaching practice, I often formulated Wh- questions that aligned with lesson content and targeted structures When my students struggled to comprehend these questions, I provided additional Yes/No sub-questions to facilitate their understanding.

At the end of the class, I usually asked questions related to the learning outcomes of the lesson (Teacher T, line 104 – 105)

Participants indicated that they occasionally shared and clarified lesson learning intentions and explained success criteria to students, with means of 4.03 and 4.00, respectively According to Table 4.13, teachers also sometimes employed self-assessment and peer assessment in their classes, with means of 3.64 and 3.54 However, interviews revealed that teachers were less enthusiastic about these strategies, as only two out of eight teachers reported consistently sharing and clarifying learning intentions and success criteria with their students Teacher V highlighted this perspective in the discussion.

I elaborated learning intentions At the beginning of the class, I told students about their speaking after the lesson And in the end, I repeated it (line 218

Four participants reported incorporating self-assessment and peer assessment in their classrooms, emphasizing the need to guide students through the process They provided specific criteria and requirements to help students effectively evaluate their own work and that of their peers Teacher A detailed her approach to guiding students in both self-assessment and peer assessment, ensuring they understood the necessary standards to follow.

Students evaluated their speaking performance by identifying their strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement This self-assessment process occurred prior to receiving feedback from the teacher.

The teacher provided specific criteria for peer assessment, emphasizing the importance of evaluating peers on aspects such as pronunciation, grammar, and sentence structure When giving feedback, students were instructed to follow a structured approach, starting with their peers' strengths, followed by identifying mistakes, and concluding with constructive suggestions for improvement.

Participating teachers implemented various formative assessment strategies in their classrooms, though the frequency of their application varied significantly They shared insights that highlighted both the factors that encouraged and those that impeded the use of these strategies.

The participating teachers gave many reasons for their use of formative assessment strategies.

The teachers used formative assessment strategies due to their acknowledgement of the benefits of those strategies in their speaking assessment practices and the teaching and learning progress.

Participants favored questioning as a method to evaluate students' speaking skills and determine if learning outcomes were met in speaking classes This approach enabled them to pinpoint areas needing improvement and provide timely assistance Teachers C, K, and T highlighted the effectiveness of this strategy in supporting student development.

Teachers’ uses of formative assessment tools to assess young learners’ speaking

TheDescriptive Statistics Testwas run to find out the frequency of teachers’ use of formative assessment tools.Table 4.14displayed its mean score in detail.

Table 4.14Teachers’ use of formative assessment tools to assess young learners’ speaking skills

1 I ask my students to make verbal presentations individually96 2.00 5.00 3.77 83

2 I ask my students to make verbal presentations in groups96 1.00 5.00 3.74 933 Rubrics are designed and used to grade students’ presentation96 2.00 5.00 4.04 824 I interview my students individually on a certain topic96 1.00 5.00 3.56 995 I interview my students in groups on a certain topic96 1.00 5.00 3.38 1.029 I organize my students to practice dialogues in pairs96 2.00 5.00 4.42 6610 I organize my students to have discussions in groups96 2.00 5.00 4.11 72 13 I observe how well my students speak English 96 3.00 5.00 4.58 61 14 I make portfolios for every student to follow their speaking progress in class 96 1.00 5.00 3.24 1.12 15 I ask my students to tell stories on certain topics 96 1.00 5.00 3.63 92 16 I organize some games to encourage my students to speak in the classroom 96 3.00 5.00 4.36 65

17 I ask my students to sing songs related to the topic of lessons 96 1.00 5.00 3.58 1.08 20 Projects are used in class as a hands on activity 96 1.00 5.00 3.83 89

25 I assign my students to record their speaking at home and I give them feedback in the next class96 1.00 5.00 2.85 1.12

According to the survey results presented in Table 4.14, teachers predominantly utilized games (M=4.36, SD=.65), dialogue practices (M=4.42, SD=.66), and observations (M=4.58, SD=.61) to evaluate young learners' speaking skills Additionally, during interviews, three teachers confirmed their reliance on observations, with Teacher L providing specific insights into her observational techniques.

I observed what students could do, what they spoke and discussed, and what tasks they completed to get information about their speaking skills and their learning ability (line 188 - 191)

Tran (2021) highlights the effectiveness of teacher observations in assessing speaking skills, particularly for young learners (Janisch et al., 2007; Shepard, 2000, cited in Haznedar, 2023) However, the current study did not capture the adaptive strategies teachers employ to observe speaking skills in crowded classrooms, which were noted in Tran's findings.

The data indicates that teachers frequently utilize a variety of assessment tools, including interviews, presentations, discussions, portfolios, storytelling, songs, and projects In interviews, educators confirmed their use of formative assessment tools listed in the questionnaire, with some employing adaptive strategies For instance, Teacher D tailored her storytelling instructions to align with her students' varying skill levels.

At the Movers level, students were tasked with narrating longer stories, while those at the Flyers level were encouraged to express their creativity by crafting stories with imaginative endings.

Teacher Q asked students to practice dialogues made by the combination of new and old structures or by their own information replaced in the model dialogues.

I combined some structures that students learned in previous lessons with new structures to make dialogues for practice Then, I assessed their speaking skills (line 119 - 121)

I wrote some dialogues on the board I asked students to make new ones with their names, their activities, and their hobbies (line 140 - 142)

The questionnaire included two open-ended questions that allowed teachers to share their preferred formative assessment strategies and tools, along with their rationale Several respondents highlighted their use of technology to assess students' speaking skills, mentioning apps like ClassDojo and Elsa Speak, as well as AI tools and shadowing videos In interviews, three teachers expressed a strong interest in incorporating technology into their speaking assessments, with Teacher A specifically noting this desire.

I wanted to apply AI tools, some webs and apps to support my speaking assessment practices (line 164 - 165)

The participating teachers applied different formative assessment tools in class to assess young learners’ speaking skills for many reasons.

Many reasons stimulated the teachers’ use of formative assessment tools in class.Teacher-related reasons

The teachers used some formative assessment tools due to their acknowledgement of the benefits of those tools in their speaking assessment practices and the teaching and learning progress.

Among eight participants, three indicated they frequently utilized observation to assess students' learning during speaking activities These classroom observations enabled teachers to pinpoint students' strengths and weaknesses in speaking skills, allowing them to offer targeted support for improvement Teacher L emphasized the importance of this approach.

I observed what students could do, what they spoke and discussed, and what tasks they completed during their learning process to know their speaking skills and learning ability (line 188 – 191)

I closely monitor students' learning processes daily and compile my observations into notes From these insights, I provide tailored suggestions for each student, which I then communicate to their parents Additionally, I utilize a checklist to systematically record my classroom observations.

Three educators highlighted the frequent use of storytelling in their classrooms as a valuable tool for evaluating young learners' speaking abilities Two of these teachers emphasized that storytelling aids in providing a thorough assessment of their students' speaking skills.

I could assess different components of students’ speaking skills like grammar, pronunciation, ideas, or organisation (Teacher V, line 291 – 292)

50 Teachers could assess different components of students’ speaking skills like pronunciation, vocabulary, structures, and idea development (Teacher D, line 201 - 203)

Using images to tell stories proved to be an effective method for engaging students, as it encouraged them to generate more language and fostered their creativity Consequently, teachers were able to assess students' speaking skills more effectively Teacher D noted that this approach significantly enhanced student participation and expression.

Vibrant visuals enhanced students' learning experience, making it easier for them to grasp concepts Additionally, storytelling fostered their creativity, encouraging more innovative thinking Furthermore, teachers were able to evaluate various aspects of students' speaking abilities, including pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structures, and the development of ideas.

Participants frequently utilized various tools such as games, dialogue, and presentations in the classroom Two educators highlighted the effectiveness of games in assessing students' speaking skills, as they encouraged active participation in speaking activities This approach enabled teachers to better evaluate students' speaking abilities.

The formative assessment tool I usually used was games… I combined some questions related to the lesson with games (Teacher C, line 157 - 159)

Games stimulated students to participate in activities more actively, so I could assess their speaking skills better (Teacher C, line 175 – 176)

Teacher T emphasized that using presentations in the classroom aids in evaluating essential skills outlined in the curriculum, such as speaking confidence, critical thinking, and providing constructive feedback.

Because the curriculum of my English center focused on improving students' confidence in speaking, critical thinking, and giving feedback The tool that helps me assess all is presentation (line 181 – 183)

Teacher Q stated that students’ dialogue practice assisted him to quickly assess their speaking ability Therefore, he could identify how well students understood lessons and applied structures.

After teaching, I let students practice immediately to quickly determine how well they spoke and applied new structures Students didn’t need to prepare too much (line 157 – 158)

It showed how well students understood the lesson and applied structures in their dialogues (line 160 – 161)

Projects were also applied in class to assess young learners’ speaking skills as they engaged students in speaking English and using English in real life Therefore, the

51 teacher could assess how well students spoke English in both informal and formal situations with projects Teacher A explained that:

Students used English to describe their project It made them more interested in speaking English It was a chance for students to use English in real life. (line 149 – 151)

I knew how students used English in real life … how they used English in formal situations (line 155 – 157)

Some external factors contributed to the teachers’ use of some formative assessment tools.

Teacher V explained that her application of observation was to write reports which was a requirement of her job The information collected from observation assisted her in writing reports She said that:

In my role, I was tasked with writing reports on students' speaking skills, which involved daily observations of their learning processes Initially, this was merely a requirement, but over time, it evolved into a consistent habit.

Summary of key results

This study investigated teachers' perceptions of formative assessment and their selection of strategies and tools for assessing young learners' speaking skills Utilizing a combination of 49-item questionnaires and semi-structured interviews, the research aimed to uncover the reasons behind teachers' choices in implementing formative assessment in the classroom.

Research findings reveal that teachers have a strong perception of formative assessment as an effective tool for evaluating young learners' speaking skills, recognizing its positive influence on assessment practices and the overall teaching and learning experience They believe that formative assessment should be integrated into every speaking class and throughout the learning process Additionally, teachers are well-versed in various formative assessment strategies, which enhance their assessment practices by providing flexibility and direction These strategies are deemed significant for both teachers and students, enabling educators to gauge students' speaking abilities, determine the achievement of learning outcomes, and adapt their instructional methods Consequently, students benefit from improved speaking skills and collaborative peer learning.

The frequency of formative assessment strategies used by teachers varied, with a preference for feedback and questioning to assess young learners' speaking skills These strategies help both teachers and students identify strengths and weaknesses in speaking abilities Although teachers are aware of various formative assessment methods, such as clarifying learning intentions and self-assessment, they seldom implement them due to the young age of their students and their limited understanding of these strategies.

Teachers restricted students' involvement in the assessment process, particularly in self-assessment and peer assessment, due to their belief in their primary role in providing feedback This disparity in the quality of feedback from teachers compared to that of students negatively impacted the effective implementation of self-assessment and peer assessment practices.

Many teachers involved in the study utilized various formative assessment tools for evaluating in-class speaking skills among young learners The most frequently employed tools included games (M=4.36), dialogue practices (M=4.42), and observations (M=4.58) These tools were favored for their convenience and effectiveness in assessing students' speaking abilities Additionally, external factors such as institutional requirements also played a role in their selection of assessment methods.

Teachers showed a strong interest in using technology to assess young learners' speaking skills, influenced by the availability of materials However, the implementation of various formative assessment tools for in-class speaking evaluations was limited due to factors such as students' age and proficiency, as well as teachers' competencies and external circumstances.

Participating teachers expressed a strong appreciation for formative assessment and its strategies in evaluating young learners' speaking skills; however, there was notable variation in how frequently these strategies and tools were implemented.

Pedagogical implications

The study reveals that teachers frequently choose and utilize formative assessment strategies and tools due to their effectiveness in enhancing speaking assessments and improving students' speaking skills However, contextual challenges such as time limitations, parental expectations, and workplace curricula significantly hinder the implementation of certain formative assessment tools in classroom speaking assessments Additionally, the findings indicate that teachers often overlook the role of students in the formative assessment process To address these issues, the study offers suggestions for improving teachers' perceptions and practices of formative assessment in the classroom.

Teachers can enhance their classroom practices by self-studying and applying various formative assessment strategies while considering students' age and involvement After implementing these strategies, self-reflection is crucial to evaluate their effectiveness, which aids in future lesson planning and the development of assessment practices Collaborating with colleagues and experienced educators can further improve teachers' understanding and application of formative assessment Additionally, participating in formal professional development opportunities will provide teachers with valuable knowledge to effectively utilize formative assessment in their classrooms.

To effectively implement formative assessment strategies, educational institutions must prioritize the professional development of teachers This can be achieved by providing ample opportunities for participation in workshops, seminars, and conferences focused on formative assessment Such initiatives should equip educators with essential learning materials, research insights, and practical experiences Additionally, establishing professional development communities within schools can foster regular collaboration, allowing teachers to discuss challenges, seek guidance, and learn from one another Ultimately, these efforts will enhance teachers' understanding and application of formative assessment practices.

To enhance speaking assessment, 57 centers should create opportunities for teachers to explore adaptive formative assessment methods, particularly through the integration of technology such as AI tools and apps This integration necessitates clear guidelines to ensure teachers can effectively implement these technologies in their assessment practices Additionally, educational institutions must promote reflective follow-up actions, as they are crucial for teachers' adaptation and growth in future assessment methodologies A comprehensive framework for formative assessment, along with policies governing in-class assessment practices, should be established to encourage the use of diverse formative assessment strategies It is essential to consider local contexts and teachers' assessment literacy levels to facilitate meaningful improvements.

Limitations and suggestions for further research

The study has notable limitations, primarily due to its small sample size of only 96 teachers from the Mekong Delta, which restricts the generalizability of the findings To enhance the robustness and applicability of future research, it is essential to include a larger participant pool.

This study focused on a limited group of teachers, specifically those with over ten years of experience teaching English to young learners in both state and private schools Participants were chosen through convenient sampling Future research should aim to include a broader range of teachers from these groups to achieve greater diversity and balance among participants.

The study primarily relied on teachers' self-reports to investigate the use of formative assessment strategies and tools for assessing young learners' speaking skills, without conducting teaching observations to triangulate the data Future research should incorporate teaching observations and video recordings to analyze the actual implementation of these formative assessment practices Additionally, it is essential to explore the specific strategies and tools teachers employ in assessing speaking skills, as well as how their choices impact the selection and creation of formative assessment tools.

Concluding remarks

This study explores teachers' perceptions and utilization of formative assessment strategies to evaluate young learners' speaking skills, highlighting the reasons behind their choices Overall, the findings reveal that while teachers value formative assessment for assessing speaking skills, the frequency of their implementation varies significantly among them.

The study reveals that teachers often limit student involvement in the formative assessment process, primarily relying on convenient tools to evaluate speaking abilities It highlights the need for professional training to improve teachers' understanding and application of formative assessment strategies However, the research had limitations, including a small participant pool and a focus on teachers with less than twenty years of experience Future research should involve a larger sample size and include educators with more extensive experience, as well as investigate the actual implementation and effectiveness of formative assessment tools in the classroom.

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My name is Đặng Ngọc Mỹ Duyên I am studying Master at Can Tho University I am doing research on "EFL Teachers' Perceptions of Using Formative Assessment to Assess EFL

Young Learners' Speaking Skills in the Classroom".

We invite you to participate in our study by completing a questionnaire focused on your perceptions of formative assessment and its strategies for evaluating young learners' speaking skills Please select the box that best represents your opinion Your thoughtful responses are essential and highly valued.

I am grateful as you spend your precious time to complete the questionnaire Your response will be strictly confidential and used only for research purposes.

Please, choose the answer that best applies to your situation.

◻ Public school◻ Private school◻ English language center

5 Years of experience in teaching English to young learners (Example: 5): ……Part 2: Teachers’ perceptions of using formative assessment to assess young learners’ speaking skills

What do you perceive of using formative assessment to assess young learners’ speaking skills?

Please read the following statements carefully, and put the tick (✓) below the number that indicates your response.

No Statements Strong ly disagr ee

Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

1 I think learning intentions should be discussed with students

2 I think information about learning intentions and success criteria should be presented in clear and explicit language which

3 I think my students can own their learning by discussing, deciding and developing the success criteria

Students who grasp the learning intentions and success criteria, and can effectively apply them to their speaking practice, are likely to achieve greater improvement compared to those who lack this understanding.

5 I think students should be trained to understand what success criteria mean and how they look like

6 I think questioning is important to assessing my students’ speaking skills

7 I think questioning helps teachers get useful information about the extent of students’ speaking skill development

8 I think teachers should plan and prepare high-quality questions to elicit students' appropriate responses

9 I think the quality of the assessment is affected by the quality of the questions

10 I think feedback is also a key element of speaking assessment

11 I think feedback can help move forward students’ learning if teachers can promote students’ growth mindset

12 Feedback should relate to the shared learning goals to enhance classroom feedback

13 I think oral and written feedback to students about their strengths and weaknesses of their speaking performance without grading is a waste of time

14 I think giving feedback to students can help them know exactly what they need to do for speaking improvement

15 I think students are people who create their own learning

16 I think I have to create an environment for students to self-assess their speaking skills

17 I think students should be trained self-assessment skills to improve their speaking skills

18 I think it is necessary to explain to students the significance to learning of self-assessment

19 I think self-assessment is important to students’ speaking improvement

20 I think it is necessary to create opportunities for students to work as a group and assess their peers

21 I think when students cooperate and improve their peers’ speaking skills, they can also heighten theirs

22 I think while working as a group, students should be required to support their peers instead of doing their

66 peers’ work to ensure the equity

23 I think it is necessary to explain to students the significance to learning of peer-assessment

24 I think peer assessment is important to students' speaking improvement

Part 3: EFL teachers’ use of formative assessment strategies and tools to assess young learners’ speaking skills

What formative assessment strategies and tools do you use to assess young learners’ speaking skills?

Please read the following statements carefully, and put the tick (✓) below the number that indicates your response.

No EFL teachers’ use of formative assessment tools to assess young learners’ speaking skills

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Frequently

1 I ask my students to make verbal presentations individually

2 I ask my students to make verbal presentations in groups