Efl teachers’ perception of the use of the rise model in formative assessment a case study

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAININGCAN THO UNIVERSITY LUU HOANG TAN EFL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF THE USE OF THE RISE MODEL IN FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: A CASE STUDY MASTER OF EDUCATION PRINCIP

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

CAN THO UNIVERSITY

LUU HOANG TAN

EFL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF THE USE OF THE RISE MODEL IN FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: A

CASE STUDY

MASTER OF EDUCATION PRINCIPLES AND METHODS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

EDUCATION CODE: 81 40 11 1

2024 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

CAN THO UNIVERSITY

LUU HOANG TAN STUDENT’S ID: M1622046

EFL TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF THE USE OF THE RISE MODEL IN FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: A

CASE STUDY

MASTER OF EDUCATION PRINCIPLES AND METHODS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

EDUCATION CODE: 81 40 11 1

SUPERVISOR ASSOC PROF TRINH QUOC LAP

2024ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis would not have been completed without the substantial assistance from specialpeople throughout my master’s journey Therefore, I would like to show my extensive

gratitude to all of them

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, AssociateProfessor Trịnh Quốc Lập, for his great devotion, inspiration, wholehearted support, preciousmaterials, constructive feedback and advice throughout my learning and thesis journey.Secondly, I would like to show my gratitude to all lecturers’ instruction during my master’sprogram In fact, they have equipped me with profound knowledge, valuable competences, andinnovative thoughts for my learning and teaching journey

Additionally, I would be very grateful to all the colleagues and teachers who activelyparticipated in my study Their considerable time, enthusiasm and support were invaluable to

và tự đánh giá là mô hình RISE (Suy ngẫm, Tìm hiểu, Đề xuất, Nâng cao) của Wray (2013).Tuy nhiên, có rất ít nghiên cứu về việc sử dụng mô hình này, đặc biệt là trong bối cảnh ViệtNam Nghiên cứu này khảo sát nhận thức của giáo viên Tiếng Anh về việc sử dụng mô hìnhRISE trong đánh giá thường xuyên Sử dụng phương pháp nghiên cứu hỗn hợp, nghiên cứu này

đã sử dụng bảng câu hỏi, phỏng vấn và dự giờ để khám phá quan điểm và thực tiễn giảng dạycủa giáo viên Tiếng Anh liên quan đến mô hình RISE Kết quả cho thấy giáo viên Tiếng Anh cómức độ nhận thức tích cực chung rất cao về việc sử dụng mô hình RISE trong đánh giá thườngxuyên Họ nhận ra các lợi ích của mô hình, chẳng hạn như tăng cường sự tham gia của học sinh,

học tập và phát triển chuyên môn của giáo viên, đồng thời cũng thảo luận một số thách thức,như giới hạn về thời gian và học sinh có năng lực và động lực học tập thấp Nghiên cứu đã phântích kết quả thông qua các lăng kính lý thuyết của Lý thuyết Lựa chọn Hợp lý và Lý thuyết Hệthống Sinh Thái Kết quả cho thấy mô hình RISE được coi là một công cụ hữu ích để tăngcường các việc đánh giá thường xuyên cho giáo viên Tiếng Anh trong bối cảnh Việt Nam.

Từ khóa: đánh giá thường xuyên, mô hình RISE, giáo viên Tiếng Anh, nhận thức,

Keywords: formative assessment, RISE model, perception, EFL teachers, peer

feedback, self-evaluation

context 3 1.3 Rationale of the

study 4 1.4 Research aims

and research questions 4 1.5 Significance of

the study 5 1.6 Organization

of the study 5

CHAPTER 2:

7 LITERATURE

REVIEW 7 2.1 Perception 7 2.1.1 Definition 7 2.1.2 Factors that

influence perception 8 2.1.3 The types of

Definition of reflection 18 2.3.2

Types of reflection 19

v 2.3.3 Main functions of students’ reflection (self-evaluation) in EFL classrooms .20 2.4 Effect .20 2.4.1 Hierarchy of effect theory .21 2.4.2 The AIDA Model .22 2.5 The RISE Model for peer feedback and self-evaluation 24 2.5.1 Definitions 24 2.5.2 Phases in the RISE Model for peer feedback and self-evaluation .24 2.5.3 Benefits of RISE 25 2.6 Theoretical framework underpinned the study 26 2.6.1 The Rational Choice Theory .26 2.6.2 The Ecological Systems Theory .28 2.7 Related studies: .31 2.8 Summary 32

CHAPTER 3: 33

METHODOLOGY 3

3 3.1 Research questions: 33

3.2 Research design 33

3.2.1 Mixed method design 33

3.2.2 Reasons for choosing mixed-method design .34 3.3 Settings 36 3.4 Participants 36 3.5 Research instruments .39 3.5.1 Quantitative data: Questionnaires 39 3.5.2 Qualitative data: Interviews 40 3.6 Data analysis 42 3.6.1 Data from the questionnaire .42 3.6.2 Data from the interviews 43 3.7 Ethical considerations 43 3.8 Procedure 44

CHAPTER 4: 46

FINDINGS 46

4.1 Findings from the first research questions: What are EFL teachers’ perception on the use of the RISE model in formative assessment? 46

4.1.1 Findings from the questionnaires

46 4.1.2 Findings from the interview

59

4.2 Findings from the second research questions: How do EFL teachers integrate the RISE model

in their teachings? 72

CHAPTER 5: 76

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 76 5.1

Introduction 76 5.2

Summary of the key findings 76

5.2.1 Research question 1: What are EFL teachers’ perception on the use of the RISE model in formative assessment?

76

5.2.2 Research question 2: How do EFL teachers integrate the RISE model in their teachings?

7 7

5.3

Discussion 77

5.3.1 Rational Choice Theory 77

5.3.2 Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory and EFL Teachers' Integration of the RISE Model 7 8

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Research questions and corresponding methods ……… 34

Table 3.2 Demographic information of participants for the questionnaire (N=60) …… 36

Table 3.3 The demographic information of participants for the semi-structued interviews (N=6) ……… 37

Table 3.4 Items based on AIDA theory ……… 38

Table 3.5 The reliability analysis test for the piloted data ……… 39

Table 3.6 The reliability analysis test for the official data ……… 39

Table 3.7 Demographic information of the interviewees ……… 40

Table 3.8 The Oxford’s weighted mean level of agreement for Likert Scale ……… 41

Table 3.9 The procedure of data collection ……… 43

Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics of EFL teachers’ perception on the use of the RISE model in formative assessment ……… 44

Table 4.2 One-Sample T test of EFL teachers’ desire on the use of the RISE model in formative assessment ……… 45

Table 4.3 One-Sample T test of EFL teachers’ attention on the use of the RISE model in formative assessment ……… 45

Table 4.4 Paired Samples t-Tests between the 4 clusters ……… 46

Table 4.5 EFL teachers’ attention on the use of the RISE model in FA ……… 47

Table 4.6 EFL teachers’ interest on the use of the RISE model in FA ……… 48

Table 4.7 EFL teachers’ desire on the use of the RISE model in FA ……… 49

Table 4.8 EFL teachers’ action on the use of the RISE model in FA ……… 50

Table 4.9 Male and Female EFL teachers’ perception on the use of the RISE model in FA ………51

Table 4.10 Bachelor and Master EFL teachers’ perception on the use of the RISE model in FA ……… 52

Table 4.11 Ages of EFL teachers’ perception on the use of the RISE model in FA…… 53

Table 4.12 Experience of EFL teachers’ perception on the use of the RISE model in FA 54

viii Table 4.13 Language proficiency of EFL teachers’ perception on the use of the RISE model in FA……… 55 Table 4.14 Workplaces of EFL teachers’ perception on the use of the RISE model in FA 56

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Factors affecting perception (Adapted from Brunswik's lens model (1956); Gibson,

Ivanovich, and Donelly (1985); Bandura's social cognitive theory (1986); Fiske and Taylor'ssocial cognition framework (1991); Robbins and Judge (2013))………10

Figure 2.2 The AIDA four – stage model (Rawa, 2013)………22 Figure 2.3 Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory (1979, 1994) ……… 29

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EFL – English as a Foreign Language

FA – Formative Assessment

HOE – Hierarchy of Effects

MOET – Ministry of Education and Training SPSS –

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences AIDA –

Attention, Interest, Desire and Action RISE –

Reflect, Inquiry, Suggestion and Evaluation

1.1 Introduction

It is undeniable that we are living in the globalized world where English is considered asthe key role for bridging the communication between many countries in the world Crystal (2003)profound English as a global language, he claimed that numerous nations with different races,history, religions, political systems may use English as a common language in order tocommunicate with each other Hence, according to Lupton (2012), many experts who are in the

field of education considered teaching English in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) orEnglish as a Second Language (ESL) as an art and a science Therefore, teaching English has beenstudied to find out some strategies to enhance the students’ performance and their motivation One

of the most attractive strategies that has been a favorite subject of many scholars is assessment.The role of assessment in EFL and ESL classes has been conducted by numerous researchers invariety of studies over the few decades In recent years, two main types of assessment, which wasfound by researchers, were used by the teachers The first type is summative assessment, which is

a procedure to make a judgment or to summarize all the evidence up to a given point of students’achievement This kind of assessment has been named as an assessment of learning (Clark, 2012;Stiggins, 2002) Formative assessment or assessment for learning is the second type of assessmentwhich happens in the mid-stream during instruction, not just at the end (Derrick & Ecclestone,2006; Stiggins, 2002) Traditionally, many educators still confused between the term “languageassessment” with the term “language testing”, they may think that assessment has beensynonymous with testing for such purposes as to grade and certify student’s learning at the end of

a specified learning period – this is the reason why formative assessment is not appreciated.Therefore, formative assessment is not fully understood by teachers

Another thing is that the relationship between assessment and language teaching isconsider to have a close connection In fact, assessment is used in order to identify the success oflearning – one of the key goals in language teaching, and it also informs the student’s abilities thatcan be used as a basic to enhance learning to achieve instructional goals (Stiggins, 2002; Tovani,2011; Boudett, City, & Murnane, 2013; Collier, 2013; Pantiwati & Husamah, 2017; Torres,2022) Many other researchers also stated that the classroom

1assessment is not only used explicitly to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the learners,but also to investigate the solution to improve the learners’ learning quality (Heritage, 2007;Birenbaum, Kimron & Shilton, 2011; Ashraf & Zolfaghari, 2018) According to Box, Skoog &Dabbs (2015), teachers use assessment as a part of learning and teaching, it is an ongoingprocedure to find out the learners’ level of knowledge and skills; learning outcomes, perks andperils so that teachers can have some strategies to motivate them to improve their competences Tomake full use of the formative assessment, many researchers believed that teachers should paymore attention on reflection and feedback The idea of reflection was explored by Schön (1983) as

a key component of professional development, which claimed that all fields of professionals can

be beneficial by from reflecting on their experiences and using that reflection to improve theirpractice This concept had a significant impact on a wide range of fields, including education,architecture, engineering, and healthcare Later on, several researchers carried on some studies onlearners’ reflection in order to find out the effects of it on English learning The significant ofreflection in language learning and the way it promotes learners' language development wasdiscussed by Mynard (2022) She argued that the language learner can be motivated to becomemore aware of their own learning processes, strengths, and weaknesses, and to develop strategiesfor improving their language skills The importance of learners' reflecting on their own languagelearning experiences was emphasized and the role of teachers in supporting learners' reflection,such as providing feedback, asking reflective questions, and encouraging learners to set goals andmonitor their progress, was also stated in her article Kabilan, M K., Ahmad, N., & Abidin, M J

Z (2010); Xu, H., & Brown, J D (2016) also found that learners would perceive a lot of benefitsthrough reflection In addition, the assessment makes teachers provides corrective feedback onwhat students are learning, how much they understand the learning material, and how well theylearned However, the feedback that is being used in EFL/ ESL classrooms has been issued bymany scholars Sometimes, teachers or other students (peers) may give destructive feedback on

students’ performance, which leads to their demotivation, resentfulness, and discouragement.This is the reason why educators and peers should pay more attention when giving feedback Thefeedback must be constructive, specific, and actionable in order to help students improve theirlanguage skills and achieve their language learning goals Additionally, it can also help improvelearners’ academic resilience, which is one of the most major factors in motivation, with enoughacademic resilience, students can overcome challenges, setbacks, and obstacles in their learning.

In conclusion, peer feedback and self-evaluation in particularly play a key role in EFLclassrooms Both of them can be valuable in enhancing the students’ self-efficacy and languageproficiency In fact, peer feedback allows students to get feedback from their peers, who may beable to identify areas for improvement that their teacher may not be able to see, and it can also helpstudents to learn from each other's strengths and weaknesses Whereas,

2self-evaluation gives students opportunities to reflect on their own work and identify areas forimprovement, and it can also help students to develop their critical thinking and analytical skills

1.2 The Vietnamese context

The educational reform has been promoted by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education andTraining (MOET), which implement several substantial changes to the assessments and teachingmethodologies from the primary to the secondary and high school education The aims of thereform, which appear in these changes, are part of a broader effort to modernize the Vietnam andbetter align it with global education trends as well as the demands of the 21stcentury There are twocirculars, which were issued and introduced a new formative assessment system for primaryschool students and extended the formative assessment practices to secondary and high schools.The Circular 27 was issued for the primary school students in 2020 by the MOET, which marked asignificant shift from the traditional focus on summative assessments and exams into formativeones The new system highlights the role of ongoing formative assessment in which feedbackplays a vital role, this allow teachers to adapt EFL teachers’ instruction to the individual students’learning needs The Circular 22 was issued in 2021 aimed to create a more cohesive andcomprehensive approach to student evaluation across different education levels

These policy adjustments are a part of a larger curriculum reform that was started in 2018with the goal of transforming the Vietnamese educational system more competency based andstudent-centered The reform places a strong emphasis on developing critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration abilities—all of which are necessary for success in the contemporaryworld Project-based learning (PBL), which encourages students to work on real-world projectsthat enable them to apply their knowledge and abilities in practical situations, is one of theinnovative teaching methodologies that are introduced in the new curriculum PBL encouragescritical thinking, creativity, and teamwork, empowering students to take charge of their educationand gain a better comprehension of the material In order to further integrate language learningwith content learning, the curriculum now includes Content and Language Integrated Learning(CLIL), which entails teaching subjects like science, math, and history in English This methodimproves students' language proficiency while also fostering critical thinking and successfulcross-cultural communication Additionally, a strong emphasis is placed on CommunicativeLanguage Teaching (CLT), which aims to help students become more proficient communicators

in English by emphasizing engagement and useful communication skills above mechanicalmemorization of vocabulary and syntax

The implementation of these reforms marks a significant departure from the traditional exam-oriented education system that has long been prevalent in Vietnam By focusing on

3formative assessment, project-based learning, and communicative language teaching, MOETaims to foster deeper learning and more well-rounded development of students' knowledge andskills These changes are expected to better prepare Vietnamese students for the challenges of the21st century, equipping them with the competencies needed to succeed in an increasinglyinterconnected and dynamic world While these reforms offer numerous benefits, they alsopresent challenges Teachers need to adapt to new teaching methods, which may requireadditional training and resources Furthermore, the shift from a traditional exam focused system to

a more holistic approach may face resistance from stakeholders accustomed to conventionalpractices However, the potential for positive outcomes, such as improved student engagementand achievement, makes these challenges worthwhile In conclusion, the

Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training's recent policy changes and curriculum reformsrepresent a significant step towards modernizing the education system By prioritizing student-centered learning and competency development, Vietnam is paving the way for a more

innovative and effective approach to education

1.3 Rationale of the study

Although many findings in recent research have proved the effects of formativeassessment in general and peer feedback, self-evaluation in particularly, in EFL classes, manyteachers have always emphasized on the summative assessment since there is little time forteachers to give feedback as well as students to reflect on themselves for a large number ofstudents in classes Moreover, the feedback models have never been considered well in EFLclasses which makes a big obstacle for them to imply in their own classrooms, and the fact is that

if some teachers know about the feedback models, they still find it difficult to make full use ofthem As a result, there is a great need for carrying out research on a suitable model in students’peer feedback and self-evaluation in order to promote the English learning and enhance students’motivation in EFL classes The RISE model for peer feedback is a model for students to providefeedback to other students and self-evaluation themselves in order to achieve the learningoutcomes in EFL classes It is worth conducting a research on EFL teachers’ perception on theeffects of the RISE model on students’ peer feedback and self evaluation so that EFL teachers canapply the model on their classroom practices

1.4 Research aims and research questions

The study, in alignment with the problem that was previously stated, mainly aims:

- To investigate EFL teachers’ perception about the use of the RISE model in formative assessment

- To find out the EFL teachers’ integration of the RISE model in their teaching practices

1.5 Significance of the study

In the context of Vietnam, RISE Model has not been applied widely yet up to the

moment; simultaneously, very few studies on RISE Model in peer feedback and self evaluation are conducted Therefore, if the research is successfully conducted, and it can demonstrate factual effects of RISE Model on students’ peer feedback as well as the self evaluation, this study can hopefully make a significant contribution in terms of both theoretical and practical aspect to the teaching and learning English Theoretically, this proposed study can provide an overview of RISE Model in teaching and learning to teachers Specifically, teachers can draw

on relevant literature review to figure out the basic concepts of RISE Model as well as its benefits in teaching and learning Practically, teachers may be provided with insights into the effects of RISE Model on students’ peer feedback, and self evaluation whereby teachers can help students considerably improve their critical thinking Moreover, it may help teachers feel more confident when they acknowledge the true value of RISE model in their teaching

1.6 Organization of the study

The thesis reports an investigation on EFL teachers’ perception on the use of the RISEmodel in FA The thesis includes five chapters, namely (1) Introduction, (2) Literature review, (3)Research methodology, (4) Findings, and (5) Discussion and conclusion

Chapter 1 introduces the Vietnamese context, the rationale for conducting the study,research aims and research questions Additionally, it also comprises of the significance of thestudy and the organization for the study

Chapter 2 presents an overview of the literature related to the study including thedefinitions of perception, effects, formative assessment, the RISE model for peer feedback andself-evaluation, and the theoretical framework used in the study

Chapter 3 provides the research methodology This chapter includes the research aims andresearch questions followed by the descriptions of the sampling method, participants, datacollection instruments, and data analysis tools The procedure for conducting the study is alsomentioned at the end of this chapter

5Chapter 4 reports the results of the study The first session of this chapter provides thefindings for answering the first research question by using questionnaire and interviews thesecond session reports the findings for answering the second research question from theobservations

Chapter 5 presents the summary key findings and the discussion of the findings of the study following by implications, limitations and recommendations for further research

According Huffman, Vernoy, and Vernoy (2000), "perception is the process of selecting,organizing, and interpreting sensory information." (p.113) They emphasize that perceptionprocess is natively active and constructive, it involves the selection, organization, andinterpretation of sensory inputs, rather than just the direct, unmediated awareness of environment

as Gibson’s definition

Worchel and Shebilske (1989) define perception as "The process by which we interpretand organize sensory information to produce a meaningful experience of the world." (p.68) Theauthors claim that perception process was also naturally constructive, but interpretive, which wassimilar to the definition given by Huffman, Vernoy, and Vernoy (2000) Both of these studyhighlight the way perception involved organizing and interpreting sensory inputs to create ameaningful representation of the environment, rather than simply a direct awareness of it.Besides, they mention the tendency for people to perceive objects as having consistent size, shape,color and other qualities even when the sensory input changes

Shiraev also agree that perception was "the process by which people select, organize, andinterpret sensory information to make sense of their world." (p.130) The author claims thatperception is not a passive registration of sensory data, but an active process of making sense ofand constructing one's understanding of the world

7Lindgren (1973) defines perception as: "the process by which we become aware of objectsand events in our environment through the use of our senses." (p.292) The author highlightsperception as an awareness or consciousness of environmental stimuli discovered by sensoryinputs, as opposed to the interpretative, creative processes mentioned in some of the previousdefinitions

According to these definitions above, we can understand perception is the active process

by which people become aware of and make meaning of the objects, events, and stimuli in their

surroundings It is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory informationobtained through the five senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell) Perception is aconstructive activity, not a passive registration of raw sensory data The brain does more thansimply detect physical sensations; it actively creates a meaningful picture of the environment.This involves using previous experiences, cultural contexts, and cognitive schemas to understandand provide meaning to the information received Perception is not a direct, unmediatedperception of the environment, as the ecological approach indicates Instead, it is an interpretativeprocess that forms and builds our perception of reality through the interaction of sensory inputsand the individual's mental processes At the same time, perception is essentially dependent onsensory information supplied by the physical environment It enables people to become aware ofand understand the objects, events, and relationships in their environment.

In conclusion, perception can be defined as the dynamic, constructive process of being aware and understanding of one’s environment through the active interpretation of sensory facts It is an essential cognitive function that allows people to interact with and make sense of the world around them

2.1.2 Factors that influence perception

There are plenty of studies conducted on the factors affecting the way people perceive something Many researchers like Brunswik (1956); Gibson, Ivanovich, and Donelly (1985); Bandura (1986); Fiske and Taylor (1991); Higgins (2012); Robbins and Judge (2013) discover several factors influencing perception

Brunswik emphasizes the significance of environmental signals and the perceiver's

"representative design" in shaping perception (Brunswik, 1956) According to the model,personal perceptions are affected by the availability and dependability of sensory information inthe environment, as well as the individual's cognitive processes for interpreting those cues

Bandura (1986) emphasizes the significance of observational learning, modeling, and self-efficacy beliefs in shaping perceptions and action According to this theory, the elements influencing people's perceptions are seeing others' behaviors and outcomes, as well as their ownsense of expertise in a certain topic (Bandura, 1986)

8Fiske and Taylor (1991) and their social cognition framework look at how people's priorknowledge, beliefs, and motivations interact with situational factors to shape their perceptions ofothers and social situations The model emphasizes the critical importance of schemes, heuristics,and attribution processes in social perception (Fiske and Taylor, 1991)

The accessibility model developed by Higgins (1996) indicates that the accessibility ofmental representations influences the likelihood of being employed in perception and judgmentThis model implies that salience and activation of particular schemas or cognitive categories canshape what individuals notice and how they interpret information (Higgins, 1996)

Although Robbins and Judge (2013) share the same idea with previous researchers thatperception was the process by which people organize and interpret sensory to give meaning to theenvironment surrounding them, they add that the way people perceived things may be extremelydifferent from actual reality (p.166) It means that perception can be affected by several factorsand depending on each person’s view they may perceive the same things differently According tothem, the factors that influence perception are perceiver factors (attitudes, motives, interest,experience, expectations), situational factors (time, work setting, social setting), target factors(novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, proximity, similarity) (p.167)

Firstly, from the table, it can be seen that individual’s own internal world plays a crucialrole The attitudes, motivations, interests, past experiences, and even expectations of each personinfluence how we view situations For example, some students who enjoys challenges might see ademanding project as exciting, while someone who prefers routine might find it stressful Besides,the context of a situation shapes individual’s perception Time constraints might result in hastyinterpretations, but a supportive work environment can promote a more optimistic attitude Socialcontext also matters; a casual conversation with a teacher may be regarded differently than aformal performance assessment Last but not least, the characteristics of the things or peoplesomeone encounters influence how they notice and interpret them Novelty, sounds, size, andeven background all play a role A loud announcement might grab their attention more readilythan a quiet conversation, and a large bonus might be perceived more positively than a smallerone The table below describes the factors affecting perception.

9

INTERNAL FACTORS

EXTERNAL FACTORS

Figure 2.1 Factors affecting perception (Adapted from Brunswik's lens model (1956); Gibson,

Ivanovich, and Donelly (1985); Bandura's social cognitive theory (1986); Fiske and Taylor'ssocial cognition framework (1991); Robbins and Judge (2013))

10According to the findings of those above studies, there are various factors that affect theway people perceive and interpret the environment, drawing from the work of several prominentresearchers in the field of perception and social cognition Brunswik (1956) emphasizes the role ofenvironmental cues and the perceiver's own cognitive processes in shaping perception Bandura(1986) highlights the impact of observational learning, modeling, and self-efficacy beliefs onperceptions and behaviors Fiske and Taylor's social cognition framework examines how pre-existing knowledge, beliefs, and motivations, combined with situational factors, influence socialperceptions Higgins' accessibility model proposes that the salience and activation of certainmental representations affect how information is perceived and interpreted Additionally, Robbinsand Judge acknowledges that perception can differ significantly from actual reality They identifythree key factors that influence perception: perceiver factors (e.g., attitudes, motives, interests,experiences, expectations), situational factors (e.g., time, work setting, social setting), and targetfactors (e.g., novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, proximity, similarity)

In conclusion, perception can be influenced by several important factors such asenvironmental signals, the individual's cognitive processes in interpreting those cues,observational learning, modeling, and self-efficacy beliefs, prior knowledge, beliefs, motivationsinteract with situational factors, salience, and activation of particular mental schemas

2.1.3 The types of perception

Many researchers have investigated how we view the environment through the lenses ofboth positive and negative biases, which has important consequences for our well-being

(Metalsky, Joiner, Hardin, & Abramson, 1993; Veltkamp, Aarts, & Custers, 2008; Icekson & Pines, 2013; Plys and Desrichard, 2020) According to them, people can broadlycategorize perception theories into two different types: positive perception and negativeperception

The first type of perception theories – positive perception tends to focus on the way peopleperceive and process positive stimuli, which may include positive events, emotions orexperiences According to these theories, positive perception can have a great positive influence

on well-being, self-esteem, and overall mental health (Veltkamp, Aarts, & Custers, 2008) For example, Plys and Desrichard's (2020) three-dimensional model of positive perception (PP) shows that positive perception is impacted by positive affect, optimism, and perceived goal attainability

In contrast, negative perception theories investigate how people perceive and process negative inputs such bad events, feelings, and experiences According to these

views, unfavorable impressions can harm one's well-being, self-esteem, and mental

11

health The perceptual negativity hypothesis, for example, proposes that those who perceive negative events as having a bigger font size than neutral events are more likely

to have a negativity bias, resulting in higher response to negative events.

In terms of perceptual variations, attributional style theory sheds light on how peopleattach reasons to bad occurrences, impacting their emotions and overall wellbeing Individualswith a negative attributional style, for example, frequently use internal, stable, and universalaspects to explain unpleasant occurrences, which can lead to sentiments of pessimism and despair(Metalsky, Joiner, Hardin, & Abramson, 1993)

In conclusion, positive and negative perception theories are crucial for understanding howpeople see and process many sorts of stimuli, as well as how these perceptions affect their well-being and mental health

2.2 Formative assessment

In general, assessment plays a vital role in teaching and EFL teaching in particularly, and it

is distinguished between summative and formative purposes (Zepada & Förster,, 2023).According to Stobart (2008), the assessment of learning outcomes is focused mainly on bysummative assessment while formative assessment supports learning on different aspects liketeaching and specific feedback There is plethora research on the use of summative assessmentincluding tests, final exams and grades, and it is also linked with the students’ certificationassessment focus However, the study on the use of formative assessment has just beenincreasingly developed recently since it can help develop student learning and direct teaching.(Looney, 2011; OECD, 2005)

This section mainly focuses on the conceptualization at the base of formative assessment,its types, benefits, and two common kinds of assessment – peer feedback and self-evaluation

2.2.1 Definitions

In general, the term “formative assessment” refers the process of collecting evidence aboutstudent learning and using that evidence to modify teaching and learning practices in order toimprove student learning outcomes (Wiliam & Black, 1996) Additionally, the definitionexpanded by Black and Wiliam (2009, p.6) of this kind of evaluation: "Practice in a classroom isformative to the extent that evidence about student achievement is elicited, interpreted, and used

by teachers, learners, or their peers, to make decisions about the next steps in instruction that arelikely to be better, or better founded, than the decisions they would have taken in the absence ofthe evidence that was elicited." This concept emphasizes decision making to promote or enhancelearning; consequently, formative assessment should be continuous and student-centered in order

to detect learning requirements and shape teaching (OECD, 2005)

12Another definition is given that formative assessment is an active and deliberate learningprocess in which students and teachers collaborate to collect evidence of learning on a continuousand systematic basis with the stated objective of enhancing it (Moss & Brookhart, 2009) This newapproach emphasizes the importance of formative assessment as an essential element of theteaching/learning process rather than an add-on (Deneen & Brown, 2016; Shepard, 2019)

Moreover, formative assessment, also known as assessment for learning, is the secondtype of assessment (Derrick & Ecclestone, 2006; Stiggins, 2002) In the context of English

language learning, formative assessment generally aims to help students improve their languagecompetence, identify learning progress, and detect students' needs (Black & Wiliam, 1998).

Importantly, formative assessment is included into the teaching and learning process itself.Teachers use it to adapt their teaching strategies and methods to better satisfy educationalstandards and student requirements (Black & Williams, 2009) The emphasis is on recognizingstudents' difficulties and assisting them in expanding their knowledge and abilities Theoretically,the implementation of formative assessment is inextricably linked to teacher understanding andviews about its purpose and advantages Teachers' ideas regarding formative assessment have asignificant impact on how they use it in the classroom (Leung & Scott, 2009), as well as theirdecisions about student learning outcomes (Derrick & Ecclestone, 2006; Karimi & Shafiee, 2014;Kuze & Shumba, 2011) In other words, having excellent knowledge and abilities in assessmenttechniques is expected to result in more effective formative assessment implementation Teacherswho genuinely believe in the benefits of formative assessment are more likely to use itsuccessfully (Karim, 2015)

Teachers are responsible for selecting and implementing appropriate assessmentprocedures to measure students' competencies Preliminary research on EFL teachers has foundthat teachers' ideas about the value and purpose of formative assessment have a significant impact

on the success or failure of formative assessment methods (Borg, 2011; Guadu & Boersma, 2018;Karim, 2015; Quyen & Khairani, 2016) Classroom observations have revealed that teacher use offormative assessment does not necessarily reflect their stated views Some teachers feel thatformative assessment is useful for recognizing students' challenges in learning English, and thatthe results may be used to adapt strategies for teaching to better achieve learning objectives.However, these teachers did not always apply formative assessment data correctly or follow upadequately This implies that teachers' perception and actual practices may not always align

To address this issue, research has shown that a variety of factors impact formativeassessment procedures, including teachers' views (Black & Wiliam, 2009; Guadu & Boersma,2018; Karim, 2015; Kuzborska, 2011; Quyen & Khairani, 2016) It is therefore critical to

13better understand how teachers' ideas regarding formative assessment influence theirimplementation of it in English language programs In summary, from the definitions above, wecan simply find out that formative assessment as a valuable process of capturing students’progress and understanding taking place during lecturing sequence to serve the purpose ofidentify learning needs and form a learning goals as well as adjust the teachers’ pedagogy

In conclusion, formative assessment is a crucial process for capturing student progress andunderstanding during the instructional sequence, with the goal of identifying learning needs,forming learning goals, and adjusting teaching practices By fostering a deeper understanding offormative assessment and addressing the factors that influence its implementation, educators canmore effectively use it to enhance student learning outcomes and meet educational standards

2.2.2 Types of formative assessment

Formative can be classified into two kinds: initial formative assessment, traditionallyknown as diagnostic, and ongoing formative assessment (Boston, 2002) The second kind offormative assessment is on-going assessment, which is considered as a new approach involving

2.2.2.1 Initial formative assessment

The first kind of formative assessment commonly known as diagnostic, the focus of thiskind of formative assessment is prior knowledge Zepada (2023) mentioned that “prior knowledge

is essential for the development of new learning since learning involves making connections andintegrating new understanding with existing knowledge” She emphasized the importance role ofthe initial formative assessment and she defined it as the process of investigating students’ priorknowledge (“what students knows, thinks, or believes”) at the beginning to apply or adaptteaching or support strategies Diagnostic assessments are an important first step in the formativeassessment process Their major goal is to identify students’ prior knowledge, abilities, andmisunderstandings before their new instruction begins This enables teachers to modify theirteaching strategies and content to effectively reinforce what students already know As Zepada(2023) pointed out, existing knowledge serves as the foundation for future learning Whenstudents can relate new material to their previous mental frameworks, they are better equipped tounderstand, apply, and remember it Usually, diagnostic tests take place at the beginning of thenew semester or at the new lesson, the purpose of them is to help teachers understand thebeginning points for each student or class

Teachers use data from diagnostic assessments to detect patterns, trends, and individualstrengths and weaknesses This data informs instructional planning, such as determining the beststarting point for new lessons, identifying prerequisite skills that must be addressed,

14grouping students based on readiness levels, developing differentiated instruction and resources,and providing targeted, personalized support and interventions Teachers may provide educationthat is sensitive to their different needs and development paths by first analyzing their students'existing knowledge and abilities

The advantages of diagnostic assessments are numerous They assist teachers inunderstanding students' past knowledge, identifying possible misunderstandings or knowledgegaps, allowing for more effective and targeted instruction and assistance, encouraging studentownership of learning, and establishing a baseline for evaluating student growth and progress overtime Diagnostic assessments are an important part of the formative assessment process becausethey provide the groundwork for providing teaching that is really responsive to each learner'sspecific requirements

In conclusion, diagnostic assessment is a procedure in order to gain the learners’ priorknowledge to find out their strengths and weaknesses and provide, develop paths for their study inthe future

2.2.2.2 Ongoing formative assessment

Ongoing formative assessment, in particular, is an effective technique for promotingstudent learning and enhancing teaching practices (Black and Wiliam, 1998; Wiliam, 2011).Formative assessment is the act of acquiring evidence regarding student learning and applying itfor improving education in real time (Popham, 2008)

Research has repeatedly shown that ongoing formative evaluation improves studentprogress A seminal review by Black and William (1998) discovered that frequent use offormative assessment can result in large learning improvements, with effect sizes ranging from0.4 to 0.7 This shows that formative assessment is among the most effective educationalinterventions accessible to teachers (Hattie & Brown, 2010)

The advantages of ongoing formative assessment come from its capacity to offer teacherswith immediate, actionable feedback on student comprehension (Wiliam & Thompson, 2007).Teachers can uncover learning gaps, misunderstandings, and areas of strength by continually

assessing student progress and adjusting their lesson accordingly (Popham, 2008) This enablesmore individualized and responsive instruction, which is critical for fulfilling the differentrequirements of students (Tomlinson, 2014) Furthermore, including students in the formativeassessment process can improve learner autonomy and self-regulation (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick,2006) When students actively participate in defining learning objectives, tracking their ownprogress, and receiving detailed feedback, they become more invested in their learning and moreprepared to take responsibility of it.

15Effective teaching and learning is not merely about imparting knowledge and skills, butrather cultivating an environment where students are actively engaged in the learning process andempowered to take ownership of their own progress At the heart of this approach lies the concept

of ongoing formative assessment - a pedagogical approach that shifts the purpose of assessmentfrom merely auditing learning to actively enhancing it

The primary purpose of formative assessment is to support and elevate student learning inthe moment, rather than simply evaluating it at the end of an instructional period This perspectiveviews assessment as an integral part of the teaching-learning cycle, rather than a separate,culminating event By seamlessly integrating formative assessment into day-to-day instruction,teachers can gain invaluable insights into their students' evolving understanding and use thisinformation to guide their instructional decisions and interventions (Sadler, 1989; Shepard, 2000;2006)

To be truly effective, ongoing formative assessment must meet three crucial criteria First,

it must be intrinsically connected to the teaching and learning process, allowing for frequentmonitoring of student progress and real-time adjustments to instruction Second, the expectedlearning objectives and quality criteria must be made transparent to students, empowering them toactively participate in the assessment process (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Wiliam, 2009) Finally, theinformation gathered through formative assessment must be leveraged to provide students withmeaningful feedback that enables them to enhance their learning and progress towards the goals(Sadler, 1989; Shepard, 2000)

This formative approach is underpinned by a three-part framework (Atkin et al., 2001) thatguides both teachers and students in the assessment process The first step is to clearly identify thespecific learning goals to be achieved The second step is to determine the student's current level

of understanding in relation to those goals And the third step is to address the gap between thegoal and the student's present level, by providing the necessary support and practice

By employing a variety of formative assessment strategies, teachers can gain invaluableinsights into their students' evolving comprehension, allowing them to tailor instruction andinterventions to meet individual learning needs When formative assessment is consistentlyintegrated throughout the instructional cycle, both teachers and students have tangible data toguide their improvement efforts (Rasmussen, 2017)

In contrast to summative assessment, which is primarily used to audit learning at the end of

an instructional period, ongoing formative assessment is a powerful tool for enhancing studentlearning in the moment, while learning is still occurring By shifting the focus from merelymeasuring learning to actively supporting it, formative assessment empowers both

16teachers and students to collaboratively navigate the learning journey and achieve greater academic success.

2.2.3 Feedback

Originally, the concept of feedback can be traced back to the early 20th century, whenlanguage teaching began to move away from traditional grammar-translation methods towardsmore communicative approaches According to Ryan and Deci (2000, p.234), feedback is defined

as "information that is provided by the environment and that allows individuals to adjust theirbehavior to achieve their goals" Teachers recognized the need for learners to receive feedback ontheir language use in order to improve their proficiency and communicative competences.Ferguson (2010) conducted studies on the effectiveness of corrective feedback in second languageacquisition They were among the first researchers who investigated the role of correctivefeedback in second language acquisition, and their studies brought a significant impact on thedevelopment of feedback practices in EFL classes According to them, there is a great differencebetween the learners who received feedback on their language use than those who did not receivefeedback in which learners who received feedback were more likely to improve their proficiency,and different types of feedback were also found, such as explicit correction, recasts, andclarification requests to have varying levels of effectiveness depending on the learner’sproficiency level and the type of language task

Klimova (2015) cited in her study that feedback is the information about currentperformance that can be used to improve future performance Feedback plays a crucial role in anyeducational process since it can significantly improve both learner’s and teacher’s performanceand indicate some key aspects of their performance which can be improved Moreover, Dignen(2014) argued that feedback is the most important communication skill, both outside and insidethe classroom because it is around all the time; it is just another word for effective listening; it is

an opportunity to motivate; it is essential to develop performance; and it is a way to keep learning.Constructive feedback is an important tool for improving academic performance and promotinglearning and effective feedback should be specific, timely, and focused on the task rather than thestudent It should also provide guidance and support for improvement, rather than being critical ornegative (Hattie & Timperley, 2007)

In conclusion, feedback is a crucial component of language learning as it helps learnersimprove their proficiency and communicative competence Corrective feedback, which involvesexplicitly correcting learners' mistakes, has been shown to be effective in promoting languagedevelopment Different types of feedback, such as explicit correction, recasts, and clarificationrequests, can be used to address different learner needs and proficiency levels Effective feedbackshould be specific, timely, focused on the task rather than the student, and provide guidance andsupport for improvement

be provided on each student’s writing, pronunciation, or grammar use It might also be provided

on each other's speaking skills, such as fluency, accuracy, or coherence (Topping, 2018).

According to Ferris & Hedgcock (2013), there are several benefits of peer feedback in EFLclassrooms First, it allows students to practice their language skills in a supportive andcollaborative environment By practicing peer feedback, students’ language fluency, accuracy,and complexity, as well as their critical thinking and analytical skills can be developed Secondly,

a more student-centered learning environment can be built through peer feedback It is true thatthe peer feedback makes great encouragement on students which helps them take responsibilityfor their own learning and to become more engaged and active learners A sense of communityand cooperation among students can also be promoted by peer feedback which can be particularlyimportant in EFL classrooms where students may come from diverse linguistic and culturalbackgrounds Finally, since peer feedback is also an assessment tool, it can be an effective way forteachers to assess students' language skills By observing students' feedback interactions, teacherscan gain insights into their language proficiency, their ability to give and receive feedback, andtheir overall engagement in the learning process

In conclusion, understanding these components of peer feedback could contribute to facilitating the students’ efficacy and skill performance in some ways

2.3 Concepts of self-evaluation

2.3.1 Definition of reflection

Reflection plays a crucial role in learning English as a second language (ESL) or English

as a foreign language (EFL) Reflection can be seen as a process of reviewing and analyzinglearners’ learning experiences and outcomes, with the goal of investigating the strengths andweaknesses and developing strategies for improvement Many scholars have proved theeffectiveness of reflection as an important tool for enhancing language learning, particularly when

it is integrated into the learning process (Moon, 2004) Schön (1983) claimed that reflection canhelp learners to develop metacognitive skills, such as self-

18awareness, self-regulation, and self-evaluation, which are essential for successful language learning

Jannah, et al (2020) found that reflection played a critical role in promoting languagelearning outcomes in a study of Indonesia senior high school students learning English as aforeign language The findings of the study show that reflective activities, such as journal writing,helped students to develop metacognitive awareness and to identify areas where improvementwas needed Students who engaged in reflective activities were also more motivated and engaged

in their learning In another study, the effects of reflective writing on EFL learners' writingperformance and attitudes towards writing was investigated by Nguyen (2022) In this study,reflective writing activities are found to have a positive impact on learners' writing performanceand their attitudes towards writing Learners who engaged in reflective writing were able toidentify areas where improvement was needed and to develop strategies for self-improvement

2.3.2 Types of reflection

Boud, Keogh, and Walker (1985) identified several different types of reflection, includingself-reflection, peer reflection, and teacher-led reflection, and provides examples of reflection invarious contexts, such as education, medicine, and social work They also discussed thechallenges and barriers to effective reflection, such as resistance to change and the need forsupportive environments One of the key contributions of their work is its emphasis on the role of

reflection in professional practice and development The authors argue that reflective practice isessential for ongoing learning and improvement in professional contexts, and provide guidance onhow to integrate reflection into daily practice In this proposed study, the reflection discussed ismainly about the self-reflection or self-evaluation only

Mezirow (1990) introduced a framework for transformative learning, which emphasizesthe importance of critical reflection in promoting personal growth and development Mezirowdefines transformative learning as "the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new orrevised interpretation of the meaning of one's experience in order to guide future action" Heargues that critical reflection is a key component of transformative learning, as it allowsindividuals to examine their assumptions, beliefs, and values and to consider alternativeperspectives Mezirow identifies 10 phases of transformative learning, which include disorientingdilemmas, self-examination, critical assessment of assumptions, recognition of alternativeperspectives, a new perspective, testing implications of the new perspective, taking action on thenew perspective, building competence and self-confidence, planning a course of action, andreintegration He emphasized that critical reflection involved more than simply thinking aboutone's experiences, but also involves questioning assumptions, examining underlying values and

19beliefs, and exploring multiple perspectives Through critical reflection, individuals cantransform their understanding of themselves and the world around them and develop newperspectives and ways of being

Overall, reflection is an important tool for personal and professional growth It enablespeople to reflect on their experiences, learn from their mistakes, and gain new ideas Criticalreflection is especially crucial for transformational learning because it allows people to questiontheir assumptions and build new ways of thinking

2.3.3 Main functions of students’ reflection (self-evaluation) in EFL classrooms There are

several benefits to incorporating reflection into English as a foreign language (EFL) class The following are some of the benefits of students’ reflection in EFL class, supported by research

Firstly, it can improve language learning outcomes It is true that reflection can helpstudents recognize areas where they need to improve their language skills and develop strategies

to address these areas (Nguyen, 2022) Reflective writing and other activities have been found toenhance language learning outcomes by promoting deeper thinking and more effective languageuse (Jannah, et al., 2020)

Secondly, it can also enhance metacognitive awareness It can be denied that reflectiveactivities can help students develop metacognitive awareness, which involves monitoring one'sown thinking and learning processes (Jannah, et al., 2020) This can help students become moreself-directed learners and improve their overall language learning

Thirdly, enhancing learner autonomy is also one of the most important roles of reflection

in EFL classes Reflection can promote learner autonomy by encouraging students to takeownership of their learning and develop the skills and strategies needed for successful languageacquisition (Jannah, et al., 2020) This can help students become more motivated and engaged intheir learning

Finally, reflection is also crucial since it can improve skill performance According toNguyen (2022), reflective writing activities have been found to be an effective tool for enhancingEFL learners' writing performance and attitudes By reflecting on their writing, students can

identify areas for improvement and develop strategies to enhance their writing skills.

2.4 Effect

There are different definitions of effects According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, effect

is most often used as a noun, usually indicating a result But effect can also be a verb, as in “toeffect change.” “An effect is a change that is caused in a person or thing by another person orthing” (Sinclair, 1990, p 451) In other words, an effect is a noun used to denote a

20consequence, an outcome, a result, or an influence In short, an effect is a change that is produced

by a cause It is a consequence, result, or outcome Effects can be positive or negative, intended orunintended Effects can be observed in all areas of life and in education, and research, effects play

a vital role It is important to carefully consider the potential effects of any action before taking it

By understanding the potential effects, we can make more informed decisions and reduce the risk

of unintended consequences

In short, the concept of "effect" a wide range of meanings It signifies a change orinfluence brought about by a preceding action or cause Effects can manifest in various aspects oflife, including education, research, and everyday decisions Understanding the potential effects ofour actions is crucial for making informed choices and minimizing the likelihood of unintendedconsequences

2.4.1 Hierarchy of effect theory

Lavidge & Steiner (1961) introduced the hierarchy of effects which is a marketing modelthat describes the six stages that a consumer goes through before making a purchase decision.According to them, the six stages consist of awareness, knowledge, liking, preference, conviction,and purchase These stages are aligned with the three domains which are cognitive, affective,conative

While the HOE provides a useful structure, it has certain drawbacks Consumers may notnecessarily take a straight path; they may repeat stages, move back and forth, or even skip sectionsentirely Furthermore, the approach focuses on traditional advertising and promotion, ignoring theimportant role of social media, online reviews, and word-of-mouth marketing in today's society.Furthermore, the HOE recognizes "liking" but does not completely capture the emotionalconnection that customers might have with brands or goods

Despite its drawbacks, the HOE is nevertheless a useful tool for analyzing customerbehavior It emphasizes the need of developing a clear and consistent message that answersconsumers' demands throughout the decision-making process Marketers that understand thenuances of the customer journey and can tailor their strategy to each step have a better chance ofinfluencing consumer behavior and, ultimately, boosting sales

The Lavidge & Steiner hierarchy of effects is a valuable tool for businesses that want tounderstand the customer journey and develop marketing campaigns that are more likely to besuccessful In education, the hierarchy can also be used to investigate the stages in students' orteachers'/ educators' thinking, feeling, and doing to make a decision on choosing applying someapproaches, techniques, tools to improve the learning and teaching

21

2.4.2 The AIDA Model

The AIDA model is a well-known framework in marketing and advertising that outlinesthe many stages a consumer goes through before making a purchase decision There are fourstages in this model:

1 Attention (Awareness): The first step requires the marketer to attract the consumer'sattention and make them aware of the product or service Eye-catching commercials,attractive slogans, and conspicuous branding are some of the strategies utilized at thisstage

2 Interest: Once the consumer's attention is captivated, the marketer must build interest inthe product This entails offering additional in-depth information about the product'sfeatures, advantages, and unique selling factors Techniques like as storytelling,emphasizing unique selling points, and displaying social proof can all assist to generateinterest

3 Desire: At this stage, the objective is to instill a strong desire in the consumer topurchase or use the product Marketers may use methods such as stressing emotionalappeals, instilling a feeling of scarcity or urgency, and using aspirational messaging topique the consumer's interest

4 Action: In the last step, the consumer is persuaded to perform the desired action, which

is often a purchase Marketers may help by lowering friction in the purchasing process,creating incentives, and making clear calls to action

22

The first stage is to think about how to capture customers' attention

The second stage is to stimulate the potential

customers' interest.

The third stage aims to instill desire of the customers to shift the mentality from "I like it" to "I want it"

The last stage is to get the recipients to buy the products

or service

Figure 2.2 The AIDA four – stage model (Rawa, 2013)

According to Rawa (2013), the AIDA model is a marketing communication model thatidentifies the stages that an individual goes through during the process of purchasing a product orservice The stages are attention, interest, desire, and action Priyanka (2013) also emphasizes theimportance of tailoring marketing communication to each stage of the AIDA model For example,

at the attention stage, marketers may use eye-catching visuals or catchy slogans to grabconsumers' attention At the interest stage, marketers may provide more detailed informationabout the product or service, or highlight its benefits in a way that is relevant to the targetaudience At the desire stage, marketers may use testimonials from satisfied customers or create asense of urgency to encourage consumers to take action And at the action stage, marketers mayoffer a discount or make it easy for consumers to purchase the product or service The AIDAmodel is a simple but effective framework for understanding the customer journey and developingmarketing communications that are more likely to be successful In the context of the study, theresearchers aimed to apply the AIDA model to understand how teachers, as customers, go throughthe process of becoming aware of, interested in, desiring, and taking action on the RISE model(supposedly an educational framework or product), which researchers used the model as the mainpart to understand the demand and the rationale choices of teachers by considering the RISEmodel as a product being investigated and chosen by the teachers-customers This gives us insightinto how their target participants make decisions

- Tier One (Reflect) – associated with remembering in Bloom’s taxonomy, in the first tier, reflection of the student’s post helps to draw out specific points made by the student

- Tier Two (Inquire) – associated with understanding and applying in Bloom’s Taxonomy, a question is posed to the student and class to seek out information and introduce idea

- Tier Three (Suggest) – associated with analyzing and evaluating in Bloom’s taxonomy,

suggestions are made to improve the current ideas presented in the student’s post

- Tier Four (Elevate) – associated with creating in Bloom’s Taxonomy, the discussion is elevated

by presenting how concepts can be expanded to a higher purpose or in the future interactions.

2.5.2 Phases in the RISE Model for peer feedback and self-evaluation

The RISE model for peer feedback

Stage 1: Reflect In this stage, peer may try to give opportunities for others to reflect onthemselves by letting them recall, ponder, and articulate, then they will share what stood out tothem and the reason why they mention it

Stage 2: Inquire The peers use this stage of the RISE model to gather data on the student'swork and the topic or issue addressed This might involve reading the work closely, conductingresearch on the topic, or seeking additional information from the student or other sources

Example stems:

Can you further explain X?

What is the relationship between X and Y?

How would addressing X with Y impact Z?

Stage 3: Suggest The peers use the Suggest stage of the RISE model to generatesuggestions or solutions based on the data gathered in the previous stage This might involvehighlighting areas of strength in the work, identifying areas for improvement, or offeringsuggestions for further development

24Stage 4: Elevate The peers use the Elevate stage of the RISE model to evaluate their ownthinking and actions in relation to the feedback process This might involve reflecting on thequality and effectiveness of their feedback, considering how they can improve their own feedbackskills, or setting goals for future feedback sessions

The RISE model for self-evaluation

Stage 1: Reflect This is the first and basic stage in which students may recalls, ponders,and articulates They think about their work and identify what they did well, what they couldimprove on, and what they learned by asking themselves these questions:

How did your attitude, logic, and behaviors influence your performance or contribution? What worked? What did not?

Stage 2: Inquire In this stage they try to seek information and provide ideas throughquestioning They ask themselves questions about their work to help them to understand it better.Some stems can be used to guide their thinking at this stage are:

What do you need to revisit to master the material?

What resources are available to you?

Stage 3: Suggest In this stage, they introduce ideas for improvement at the CURRENTiterations They make suggestions for how he can improve his work in the future Somesuggestions they might make include:

How could you improve your performance or contribution?

What if you had more time?

Stage 4: Elevate In this stage, one tries to raise to a higher degree or purpose in FUTURE

iterations In fact, they will take action to improve their work in the future by using these stems:

How will you approach similar situations in the future?

How does this inform your personal and professional goals?

2.5.3 Benefits of RISE

According to Wray (2011), the RISE model's valuable approach to learning and

performance enhancement offers several key benefits

Firstly, the RISE model encourages a growth mindset Individuals develop a betterawareness of their own strengths and weaknesses when they are encouraged to reflect (Reflect)and inquire This enables people to play an active, ownership-driven role in their personal andprofessional development The model's framework further empowers people by

25offering a clear path for managing the challenges of learning and transformation Individuals whofollow a planned strategy are less likely to become overwhelmed or lose concentration, allowingthem to move forward with confidence

Furthermore, the RISE Model develops critical thinking skills, which are required forsuccess in the modern world The emphasis on reflection (Reflect) encourages people to examinetheir experiences, whereas the "Inquire" and "Suggest" stages foster research and assessment.This method develops a culture of problem-solving and data-driven decision

making, preparing personnel to face problems and adapt to a fast changing environment.Lastly, the RISE Model promotes efficient communication and cooperation Byemphasizing clear and practical feedback (Suggest) and connecting learning to real-worldapplications (Elevate), the RISE Model fosters a collaborative learning environment in whichindividuals can learn from and build on one other's abilities

In conclusion, the RISE model provides plenty of benefits to students and make learning ameaningful journey for them, which helps them grow the 21st century skills – 4Cs (creativity,communication, critical thinking, cooperation) and develop a growth mindset

2.6 Theoretical framework underpinned the study

2.6.1 The Rational Choice Theory

Rational Choice Theory (RCT) is a widely used framework for investigating and modelinghuman decision-making across various fields, including economics, political science, sociology,and criminology (Becker, 1976; Elster, 1989; Ostrom, 1998) The foundations of RCT can betraced back to the work of 18th-century Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith

Smith argued that individuals are motivated by self-interest and make choices they believewill maximize their own utility He also proposed that the free market is a system that allowsindividuals to pursue their self-interest in a way that benefits society as a whole Smith's ideaswere further developed by other influential thinkers, such as Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill,Vilfredo Pareto, and Gary Becker

The core premise of RCT is that individuals make decisions by rationally weighing thecosts and benefits to maximize their personal utility or advantage (Becker, 1976) Thisassumption of rationality is central to the theory, which posits that people have well-definedpreferences that guide their choices, and these preferences are both complete and transitive(Elster, 1989)

Individuals are assumed to operate within certain constraints, such as limited resources(time, money, information) and external restrictions (laws, social norms), which shape the range

of available options and influence the decision-making process (Simon, 1955) RCT

26further suggests that individuals aim to maximize their expected utility by considering the probability and value of different outcomes (Becker, 1976)

The theory also emphasizes the importance of strategic interaction, particularly in thecontext of game theory, where the outcome depends not only on one's own choices but also on thechoices of others (Ostrom, 1998)

Numerous empirical studies have demonstrated the applicability of RCT across variousdomains In economics, the theory has been used to explain consumer behavior, market dynamics,and institutional functions (Becker, 1976) In political science, RCT has been employed toanalyze voting behavior, coalition formation, and policy decisions (Ostrom, 1998) Sociologicalresearch has explored the utility of RCT in understanding social phenomena, such as crime,marriage, and social networks (Elster, 1989) In criminology, RCT has been applied to understandcriminal behavior, suggesting that individuals commit crimes based on a rational calculation ofrisks and rewards (Simon, 1955)

Despite its widespread application, RCT has faced several critiques One of the primarycriticisms is that the theory oversimplifies human behavior by assuming rationality and completeinformation Critics argue that people often make decisions based on heuristics, emotions, andincomplete information (Simon, 1955) Another criticism is that RCT fails to adequately accountfor the influence of cultural and social factors on individual decision

making (Elster, 1989)

Behavioral economics has emerged as a field that challenges the assumptions of RCT byintegrating insights from psychology Researchers in this area have demonstrated that individualsfrequently exhibit systematic biases and irrationalities in their decision-making processes(Ostrom, 1998)

Ongoing debates in the literature focus on the need to reconcile the insights of RCT withthe complexities of human behavior, incorporating the influence of social, cultural, andpsychological factors Some scholars advocate for the integration of RCT with other theoreticalperspectives to provide a more comprehensive understanding of decision-making (Elster, 1989)

In conclusion, Rational Choice Theory (RCT) has been a widely influential framework forunderstanding and modeling human decision-making across a range of academic disciplines.Rooted in the ideas of Adam Smith and other influential thinkers, RCT posits that individualsmake choices in a rational manner, weighing the costs and benefits to maximize their personalutility