Giáo trình: English grammar 2 = Ngữ pháp tiếng Anh 2

The book English Grammar 2 provides the learners with the systematic grammatical knowledge of English sentences in terms of their definition, classification and other finer grammatical p

Course general information

Credit hours: 30 hours (25 hours of theory, 5 hours of practice, 60 hours of self-study)

Course objectives

After this course, students will be able to achieve the following competences:

- Discuss the key concepts in the course English grammar 2, including simple sentences, compound sentences and complex sentences in English,

- Outline and explain the structures of simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences in English,

- Understand the syntactic functions and expressions of sentence elements,

- Identify the role, definition and mechanism of coordination subordination,

- Manage the structures of dependent clauses in English,

- Justify the grammatical correctness of sentences in English,

- Apply the knowledge of the different English sentence types to produce grammatically correct simple sentences, compound sentences and complex sentences,

- Apply the knowledge of the different English sentence types to produce grammatically correct simple sentences, compound sentences and complex sentences

The book consists of three chapters:

Week Lesson Class hours Active participants

2 1.2 Syntactic features of sentence elements

3 1.3 Semantic functions of sentence elements

6 1.5 Sentence classification in terms of communicative functions

3.1.1 Similarities between coordination and subordination

3.1.2 Differences between coordination and subordination

+ Students enjoy the combination between physical class and online resources

+ Students view lessons at home and master materials at school in collaboration with their peers or instructor

+ Students construct knowledge with all means of learning forms at an appropriate proportion as suggested in the learning pyramid below

+ Students are provided authentic scholarly contents

Mid-course assessment 30 % - Written mid-course test

Final course assessment 50 % - Oral examination

AN ENTRY TEST Time allowance: 50 minutes

In the task, you are required to label the underlined parts of the sentences using the specified terms provided in the box This activity focuses on identifying various grammatical components, including a noun phrase, finite and non-finite verb phrases, adverb phrases, adjective phrases, prepositional phrases, conjunctions, and operators Each label corresponds to a specific grammatical function, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of sentence structure By accurately categorizing these elements, you enhance your grammatical knowledge and improve your writing skills.

(1) Maintaining good health doesn't happen (2) by accident It requires work, smart lifestyle choices, (3) and the occasional checkup and test

A healthy diet emphasizes fiber, whole grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, unsaturated fats, and omega-3 fatty acids, which help reduce inflammation that can harm tissues, joints, arteries, and organs Limiting processed foods, including sweets and sugar-sweetened beverages, is crucial, as they can cause blood sugar spikes leading to early hunger Elevated blood sugar levels are associated with an increased risk of diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and dementia.

The Mediterranean diet is recognized for its numerous health benefits, effectively reducing the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and premature death This diet emphasizes the consumption of olive oil, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and fish while limiting red meat intake.

(14) or processed meats; and includes a moderate amount of cheese and wine

(Source: https://www.health.harvard.edu/topics/staying-healthy)

II Match the sentence elements in the left column with its definition in the right column (7 points)

1 Subject (S) a is affected by the verb directly (The girl kissed the flower.)

2 Verb (V) b explains the object (The boy made the girl smile.)

3 Direct object (Od) c often functions as the doer of the action indicated by the verb (The girl kissed the flower.)

4 Indirect Object (Oi) d identifies the subject (The girl is beautiful.)

5 Subject complement (Cs) e appears when there is a direct object, and is often the receiver of the action denoted by the verb (The boy gave the girl a flower.)

6 Object Complement (Co) f adds more information to the verb or the whole sentence (The girl kissed the flower in the garden.)

7 Adverbial (A) g clarifies the action or the status of the subject (The girl kissed the flower.)

III Label the underlined part as S, V, O, C, A (10 points)

1 Money is not an end to happiness but a means to happiness

2 Education can replace an empty mind with an open one

3 Life can treat you a big gift if you deserve it

4 We are in an open world today

5 You can make yourself happier if you know how to be pleased

6 No one knows for sure what will happen tomorrow

7 Let’s think twice before you speak

8 Failures may teach you valuable lessons

9 EQ can be more valuable than IQ to succeed in the social life

10 A modern student should prepare himself with the twenty-first century skills

IV Label the sentence structure as SV, SVC, SVA, SVO, SVOO, SVOA, SVOC (9 points)

6 Put yourself in my shoes then you can speak

9 EQ can be more valuable than IQ to succeed in social life

CHAPTER 1 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:

- Define the concept of a sentence, including a simple sentence and its elements

- Discuss the differences among sentence types in general

- Discuss the syntactic features and semantic functions of sentence elements

- Discuss concord among sentence elements

- Evaluate the grammatical correctness of sentence elements

- Apply the knowledge of sentence elements and sentence types to build a grammatically correct sentence

1 Andersen, S (2014) Sentence Types and Functions Spring

2 Leech, G & Svartvik, J (2013) A Communicative Grammar of English Routledge

3 Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S (1973) A University of English Grammar Pp 166 – 206 Longman

4 Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J (1973) A Comprehensive

Grammar of the English Language Longman

5 The 24 Rules of Concord Retrieved from https://acadel.org/concord/

6 Subject-verb agreement Retrieved from http://guidetogrammar.org/grammar/sv_agr.htm

7 Subject-verb agreement exercise & practice with explanation

Retrieve from https://www.learngrammar.net/practice/23/subject-verb-agreement- exercise-practice-with-explanation

8 Concord Retrieve from https://www.liveworksheets.com/worksheets/en/English_language/Subject_-

_verb_agreement/Concord_sv18370da

9 Sentence Structure Quiz Retrieve from https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/sentence/sentence-structure-quiz.htm

This section explores the concept of a sentence from both semantic and syntactic perspectives, while also categorizing sentences through three distinct classification methods.

A sentence serves as a fundamental unit of communication, conveying facts, questions, or emotions Structurally, it consists of a subject and a predicate A simple sentence is characterized by containing a single verb, which must be finite.

Positive attitudes can boost your inner strength Great leaders don’t create followers

Sentences can be categorized based on three key criteria: first, the arrangement of their elements; second, the quantity and role of clauses within the sentence; and third, their communicative purpose.

1.1.2.1 According to the combination of sentence elements

There are seven types of sentences according to the combination of sentence elements

1 SV Mankind has been trying so much in the battle against SARS-CoV-2

2 SVO Mankind has been fighting against SARS-CoV-2

3 SVC Mankind needs to be wise and fast in the battle

4 SVA SARS-CoV-2 exists in almost all corners of the world

5 SVOO The government is giving their people vaccine

6 SVOC SARS-CoV-2 has made thousands of people die

7 SVOA SARS-CoV-2 has driven thousands of lives into poverty, starvation and death

1.1.2.2 In accordance with the number of clauses and their function in the sentence

Sentences can fall into one of four following types in accordance with the number of clauses and their function in the sentence

1 A simple sentence contains one independent clause

Health is one of the most important values in your life

2 A compound sentence consists of more than one independent clause

Usually, a coordinating conjunction often linked the clauses and is preceded by a comma

Health is one of the most important values in your life, but you sometimes forget it

3 A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more than one dependent clauses

Usually, the clauses in the complex sentence are linked together with a subordinating conjunction

Health is one of the most important values in your life, so you have to try to keep it

4 A compound-complex sentence is composed of more than one independent clause and one or more independent clauses

Health is one of the most important values in your life, but you sometimes forget it, which makes it leave you gradually

1.1.2.3 Based on the communicative function

Sentences can be divided into four types, based on the communicative function

1 A statement to state a fact, a person, or an issue

2 A question to ask for information or confirmation

3 A command to give orders or requests Save time

4 An exclamation to express feelings How fast time flies!

1.2 SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF SENTENCE ELEMENTS

This section examines the syntactic characteristics of five key sentence elements in English, focusing on their linguistic expression, placement within sentences, and grammatical traits Understanding these features enables English language users to utilize them more deliberately The first element discussed is the subject.

Table 1.1 Syntactic features of subject

- Medial: after the operator in the question and inversion (b)

- Final: with an introductory “It" (d)

- has concord in person and number with the verb

Education (a) is the safest way to the destination

Here comes our beautiful bride (b)

That you have done your best (c) is recognised

It is interesting to speak to such a witty guy (d)

S = non-finite to infinitive Cl

Table 1.2 Syntactic features of verb

- has concord in person and number with the subject

Education is (a) the safest way to the destination

Online learning has proved (b) its values not only during the Covid time

Table 1.3 Syntactic features of object

- After another O (in case of Oi + Od) (e)

- Before the verb phrase in questions (f)

She asked her students some interesting questions (b)

Oi = basic NP Od = complex NP

Scientists say that eggs contain high cholesterol (c)

The teacher advised us to be more active in approach knowledge (d)

Od = nonfinite to infinitive Cl

The teacher gave the students a big assignment (e)

Od = basic NP Od = basic NP

What book do you like?(f)

Table 1.4 Syntactic features of complement

+ after an intensive verb when being a subject complement ( SVC) (a)

+ after Od when being an object complement (SVOCo) (b)

- is in co- referential relation with

S or O (denoting the same entity)

What colour are you going to paint the house? (a, f)

I consider you the biggest motivation now (b)

Doing charity is meaningful to not only the beneficiary but the doer as well (c)

The fact is that love is not eternal (d)

My aim in this year is to keep fit (e)

Cs = non-finite to infinitive clause 1.2.5 Adverbial

Table 1.5 Syntactic features of adverbial

- is commonly optional in the sentence structure

- is compulsory in SVA and SVOA

Children often love those who satisfy their basic needs (a)

Save for the rainy day (b)

This year our institution has made remarkable changes (c)

When you are ready, please tell me (d)

We study to have a good job in the future

When in Rome, do as the Roman do (f)

1.3 SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF SENTENCE ELEMENTS

This section explores the characteristics of five sentence elements based on their contextual meanings The same subject within a language expression can assume various semantic roles depending on the accompanying verbs.

A subject can play one of the eight following semantic functions in which AGENTIVE is the most typical function

An agentive subject is the animate causer of the happening denoted by a verb

John can open the door

An instrumental subject expresses the unwitting (inanimate) cause material of an event

This key can open the door

An affected subject often goes with passive and intransitive or intensive verbs

Jack and Jane are walking along the path

A recipient subject experiences advantages through various actions, often associated with verbs of possession such as "have," "own," and "benefit," as well as mental states like "think," "like," and "hate." Additionally, perceptions including "hear," "taste," and "see" play a role, particularly in passive constructions.

My mom thinks I am right

We heard a strange noise downstairs

Good students are given good marks

The recipient subject is distinguished from the agentive subject in the case of perceptual verbs The verbs “look at”, “listen to” have an agentive subject The verbs “smell”,

“taste”, etc can have an agentive subject as well

I saw a dog (recipient) I looked at the dog (agentive)

The cake tasted good (recipient) I tasted the cake (agentive)

The room can hold 50 people

Today is a special day for us

An eventive subject designates arrangements and activities

The meeting will be on Monday

An empty IT subject may lack the semantic content, and is often used to talk about weather or time

The term "pro" it refers to a specific use of "it" that can substitute for a well-known noun phrase In contrast, "prop" it differs from "anticipatory" it, as exemplified in sentences like "It’s nice seeing you again."

In terms of meaning, a verb can fall into the category of either stative verbs or dynamic verbs

Verbs related to inner perceptions and cognition encompass a wide range of emotions and thoughts, including terms like adore, detest, and hate, which express strong feelings Additionally, verbs such as believe, doubt, and suppose reflect our mental processes and uncertainties Words like perceive, understand, and recognize highlight our ability to comprehend and interpret experiences Other verbs, including imagine, intend, and wish, indicate our aspirations and desires Collectively, these verbs illustrate the complexity of human thought and emotion, showcasing how we interact with our inner world and the perceptions that shape our reality.

Relational verbs play a crucial role in connecting ideas and expressing relationships between subjects and objects These verbs, such as "belong to," "depend on," and "involve," help articulate how entities relate to one another They can indicate possession with verbs like "own" and "contain," or describe characteristics with verbs such as "resemble" and "seem." Additionally, relational verbs like "cost" and "matter" convey value and significance, while others like "require" and "deserve" highlight needs and expectations Understanding and using these verbs effectively enhances clarity and coherence in writing.

- Activity verbs: abandon, ask, beg, call, drink, eat, help, learn, listen, look at, play, rain, read, say, slice, show, etc

- Process verbs: change, deteriorate, grow, mature, slow down, widen, etc

- Verbs of bodily sensation: ache, feel, hurt, itch, etc

- Transitional verbs: arrive, die, fall, land, leave, lose, etc

- Momentary verbs: hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, tap, etc

In language, certain verbs can exhibit both stative and dynamic qualities depending on their context For instance, the verb "think" functions as a stative verb when expressing an opinion, as in "I think that you are right." Conversely, it takes on a dynamic role when indicating an active process of consideration, such as in "I am thinking about moving my house." This duality highlights the flexibility of verb usage in conveying different meanings.

An object can be classified as either direct or indirect A direct object typically serves three semantic roles, with the affect direct object being the most common, followed by the effected and locative roles In contrast, an indirect object has two primary semantic roles, with the recipient role being the most prevalent, alongside the affected role.

An affected direct object is affected by the happening denoted by the verb

Covid 19 has reversed the world in many aspects

An effected direct object refers to the entity which exists by only virtue of the activity indicated by the verb

He made a cup of tea for me

A locative direct object signifies locations and typically accompanies verbs such as turn, reach, surround, penetrate, mount, and cross When a verb inherently implies a preposition, the preposition can often be omitted, transforming the verb into a transitive one and the prepositional complement into a direct object Examples of such verbs include climb (up), jump (over), flee (from), and pass (by).

We reached the city at night

The horse jumped (over) the fence

A recipient indirect object benefits from the happening in some way

The teacher gave him a good mark

He made me a cup of tea

The indirect object can be affected, though rare, when the direct object is expressed by a verbal noun going with give, take, owe, pay

He gave the door a couple of kicks (= He kicked the door.)

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

SENTENCE INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION

2 1.2 Syntactic features of sentence elements

3 1.3 Semantic functions of sentence elements

6 1.5 Sentence classification in terms of communicative functions

I Label the underlined part with the given term in the box (14 points) a a noun phrase c a finite verb phrase e a non-finte verb phrase g a conjunction b an adverb phrase d an adjective phrase f prepositional phrase h an operator

A healthy diet emphasizes fiber, whole grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, unsaturated fats, and omega-3 fatty acids, all of which help reduce inflammation that can harm tissues, joints, artery walls, and organs Limiting processed foods, such as sweets and those made with highly refined grains, is also crucial for maintaining health These foods and sugar-sweetened beverages can cause blood sugar spikes, leading to increased hunger and are associated with the risk of developing diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and even dementia.

The Mediterranean diet is highly regarded for its health benefits, supported by strong evidence demonstrating its effectiveness in reducing the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and premature death This diet emphasizes the consumption of olive oil, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and fish, while limiting red meat intake.

This section explores the concept of a sentence from both semantic and syntactical perspectives, followed by an overview of the various types of sentences classified in three distinct ways.

A sentence serves as a fundamental unit of communication, conveying facts, posing questions, or expressing emotions Structurally, it comprises a subject and a predicate A simple sentence is characterized by containing a single verb, which must be finite.

Sentences can be categorized based on three key criteria: first, the arrangement of sentence elements; second, the quantity and role of clauses within the sentence; and third, the intended communicative purpose.

SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF SENTENCE ELEMENTS

This section examines the syntactic characteristics of five key sentence elements in English, focusing on their linguistic expression, positional placement within sentences, and grammatical attributes Understanding these features enables English language users to apply them more consciously in their writing and communication The first element discussed is the subject.

SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF SENTENCE ELEMENTS

This section outlines the characteristics of five sentence elements based on their contextual meanings A single subject within the same language can assume various semantic roles depending on the accompanying verbs.

A recipient subject experiences advantages from events in various ways, utilizing verbs that indicate possession such as "have," "own," and "benefit," as well as mental states like "think," "like," and "hate." Additionally, perception verbs such as "hear," "taste," and "see" also play a role, along with structures that involve passivisation.

The term "pro it" refers to a specific usage of "it" that can substitute for a familiar noun phrase In contrast, "prop it" serves a different function than "anticipatory it," as illustrated in the example, "It’s nice seeing you again."

Verbs of inner perception and cognition play a crucial role in expressing our thoughts, emotions, and understanding of the world These verbs include a wide range of actions such as abhor, adore, astonish, believe, detest, dislike, doubt, feel, forgive, guess, hate, hear, imagine, impress, intend, know, like, love, mean, mind, perceive, please, prefer, presuppose, realise, recall, recognize, regard, remember, satisfy, see, smell, suppose, taste, think, understand, wish, and want By using these verbs effectively, we can convey our innermost thoughts, emotions, and perceptions, allowing us to communicate more effectively and build deeper connections with others.

Relational verbs are essential in English as they connect subjects to various concepts, indicating relationships and dependencies Common examples include "belong to," which denotes ownership, and "depend on," highlighting reliance Verbs like "include" and "contain" specify components, while "cost" addresses value Others, such as "resemble" and "fit," describe similarity and suitability Understanding these verbs enhances comprehension and communication, making them vital for effective language use.

The verb "think" can exhibit both stative and dynamic qualities, depending on its usage in a sentence In the context of expressing an opinion, as in "I think that you are right," it functions as a stative verb Conversely, when used to indicate a process of consideration, such as in "I am thinking about moving my house," it takes on a dynamic role This illustrates the nuanced nature of verb classifications in English.

In grammar, objects can be categorized as direct or indirect A direct object typically serves three semantic roles, with the affect direct object being the most common, followed by the effected and locative roles In contrast, an indirect object is defined by two primary semantic roles, where the recipient role is the most prevalent, alongside the affected role.

A locative direct object signifies locations and typically accompanies verbs like turn, reach, surround, penetrate, mount, and cross When a verb inherently includes the meaning of a subsequent preposition, the preposition can often be omitted, transforming the verb into a transitive form and the prepositional complement into a direct object Examples of such verbs include climb (up), jump (over), flee (from), and pass (by).

A complement can enhance the subject, known as a subject complement, or the object, referred to as an object complement These complements can function semantically as either current attributive or resulting attributive Current attributive complements are associated with stative verbs, while resulting attributive complements reflect the effects of the action indicated by the verb Common linking verbs for current copulas include appear, be, feel, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, and taste Resulting copulas consist of verbs like become and get.

(chiefly informal), go, grow, turn (N), make (N)

The pit looked a danger to health

We ate the food cold

We painted the walls blue

Adverbials play a crucial role in language, encompassing a diverse range of semantic functions The most common roles include indicating time and place, while they can also express agentive meaning, instrument, reference, concession, purpose, comparison, reason, condition, frequency, and degree This versatility makes adverbials essential for conveying nuanced information in sentences.

Nowadays (a), many positions allow working from home (b)

The President was escorted by two security guards (c)

Students are equipped with the 21 st -century skills (d)

With regards to the Circular (e), you are allowed to stand on your own

We work to earn our living (g)

By comparison (h), a local university can take care of its students better

Due to Covid 19 (i), many businesses were closed down

If you act wisely (j) you will attain your goal

She always goes to work early

Table 1.6 Summary of semantic functions of sentence elements

Agentive Stative Affected Recipient Current Current Time

Instrument Dynamic Effected Affected Resulting Resulting Place

CONCORD

Concord refers to the harmonious agreement between sentence elements concerning number, gender, and person For instance, in the sentence "I like English," the subject "I" aligns with the verb "like," whereas the subject "She" necessitates the verb "likes," as seen in "She likes English."

Concord follows three principles in terms of grammar, notion and proximity

Grammatical concord bases on the grammatical form of the word For example, the sentence “It is a book.” can be compared to “They are books.”

Notional concord emphasizes the concept of number over the grammatical markers typically associated with it This means that collective nouns such as "family," "government," and "team" can be paired with either singular or plural verbs, depending on their contextual meaning For instance, in the sentence "The government have broken all their promises," the focus is on the individual members of the government, while in "The government has released a new circular," the emphasis is on the entity as a whole.

The principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with the noun closely preceding it, sometimes in preference to agreement with the headword of the subject

No one except his own supporters agree with him

One in ten take drugs

Subject-verb concord is the most important type of concord in English grammar The relationship obeys all three concord rules

Apparently, it bases on the grammatical concord with a singular subject followed by a singular verb and a plural subject a plural verb

The indefinite expression of amounts like every/each, none, anyone, neither, either conventionally invites a singular verb

Everyone has finished his or her homework

Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library Neither of the two traffic lights is working

In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these pronouns are followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of This is particularly true of interrogative constructions:

Have either of you two clowns read the assignment?

Are either of you taking this seriously?

This is called "a clash between notional and actual agreement."*

Notional concord is often utilized, particularly when the subject is a clause, which is treated as a singular noun phrase, necessitating a singular verb This highlights the importance of careful consideration in discussions.

“To be or not to be?” is a hard question

When using collective nouns such as "audience," "class," "family," or "team," the verb agreement can vary If the collective noun is viewed as a single entity, a singular verb is appropriate Conversely, when the collective noun is considered as a group of individuals, a plural verb is acceptable.

The audience are enjoying every minute of the performance

If a subject is a coordinated noun phrase, a distinction must be made between an appositional coordination and a non-appositional coordination A coordinated appositional subject goes with a singular verb and vice versa

Her husband and her best friend has supported her greatly in life and career (appositional subject – one person)

Her husband and her best friend are collaborated in the project

(non-appositional subject – two people)

Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require singular verbs

Two and two is four

Four times four divided by two is eight

If the sentence compounds two subjects, joined by accompanied by, along with, as well as, but, not, together with, the verb follows the first subject

The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's Day

It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue

It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot

Concord of proximity occurs in the structures “there + be” and “here + be”

There is a table and two chairs

There are two chairs and a table

Also, the structures “either … or”, “neither …nor” obey this principle

Either you or he is responsible for the plan

Neither he nor you are responsible for the plan

The plural verb form can be natural in spoken or informal language

Either you or he are responsible for the plan

Fractional expressions like "half of," "a part of," "a percentage of," and "a majority of" can be singular or plural based on the noun they modify Similarly, terms such as "all," "any," "more," "most," and "some" also vary in number depending on their subject.

Some of the voters are still angry

A large percentage of the older population is voting against her

Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle

Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire

Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy

Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy

More than a thousand inhabitants have signed the petition

More than a person has protested against the proposal

The cleft structure “It + be + S + relative clause” has the verb in the relative clause in concord with its antecedent

It is I who am responsible for the task

In informal contexts, saying "It's me who is responsible for the task" is perfectly acceptable However, there is a unique situation regarding mandative subjunctive concord: when a sentence includes a prayer, suggestion, wish, demand, recommendation, or resolution, the verb that follows must always be in its base form, regardless of whether the subject is singular or plural.

It has been suggested that he go

The board has recommended that the manager resign

I pray that God help me on my upcoming examination, not God

Subject-object concord of number, person and gender is necessary, as well as subject- complement concord, where the second element is a reflexive noun

In British English, collective noun subject permit plural concord

The navy congratulated themselves on the victory

Personal pronouns in the third person agree with their antecedents both number and gender (with the singular pronouns he, she, and it)

English lacks a gender-neutral third-person singular pronoun, leading to the informal use of the plural pronoun "they" as a solution to the challenge of choosing between "he" or "she."

Everyone thinks they have the answer

No one could have blamed themselves for that

The formal pronoun will be he

Everyone thinks he has the answer

There is a still more pedantic alternative, the rather cumbersome device of conjoining both masculine and feminine pronouns

Everyone thinks he or she has the answer.

SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION IN TERMS OF COMMUNICATIVE

Sentences can be divided into four types in accordance with the communicative functions, which are statements, questions, commands and exclamations

Statements are the sentences which give information with a subject before the verb A full stop ends a statement in written English

Statements can be positive or negative A negative statement contains “not” or other negative forms

Grammar is necessary to express the idea clearly

Grammar is not as complicated as you may think

A contracted form of “n’t” for “not” is informal in English

In English grammar, "some" is used in positive sentences, while "any" is typically found in negative constructions Other negative terms that start with "n" include "no," "nowhere," "never," and "neither nor." Additionally, there are words that convey a negative sense without having an overtly negative form, such as "hardly," "scarcely," "barely," "few," "little," "rarely," "seldom," and "only."

There is some good news about the battle

There isn’t any good news about the battle

Questions are sentences which are marked in one or more of these ways

(i) The operator is placed right before the subject

(ii) The sentence begins with an interrogative word

What can I do for you?

(iii) The sentence has a rising intonation in spoken English or a question mark in written English

It is noted that when a question becomes indirect in the sentence, no subject-operator inversion is required

Andrea: Are you ready, Peter?

Arthur: Andrea wants to know whether/if Peter is ready

Harry: Why does the sun move around the earth?

Rose: Harry asks why the sun moves around the earth

Questions can be categorized into three main types based on the anticipated response: Yes/No questions, which expect a simple affirmation or negation; Wh-questions, which seek specific information; and alternative questions, which require a choice among given options Additionally, questions often favor negative constructions, such as using "any." To enhance politeness, phrases like "Please" can be included, and the introductory phrase "Could you tell me" serves a similar purpose in making inquiries more courteous.

Yes/No questions in English are characterized by subject-operator inversion and a rising intonation They primarily fall into three categories: general Yes/No questions, declarative questions, and tag questions, with two additional types being rhetorical and exclamatory questions Importantly, the response to a Yes/No question is based on the underlying meaning rather than the grammatical structure of the question itself.

Isn’t it the correct answer?

Yes, it is (It’s the correct answer.)

No, it isn’t (It is not the correct answer.)

General Yes/No questions have subject-operator inversion and a rising intonation Normally the questions can contain a negative item, but positive orientation questions carry a positive form

Do you know anything about him?

(the speaker just wants either a Yes or No answer)

Do you know something about him?

(the speaker just expect a “Yes” answer) Don’t you know anything about him?

(the speaker just expect a “No” answer)

In conversations, a question in form but an offer, a request or a command in meaning will have the positive form

Would you like some tea?

Can I have some more, pleas?

Declarative questions are an exceptional type of Yes/No questions with the rising tone but no subject-operator inversion

He will be there, I suppose

A negative form of “any” is not acceptable in this question type

The students have some books?

*The students have any books?

Tag questions consist of two components: a statement (the assumption) and a tag, which includes an operator and a pronoun, with or without the negative particle "not." These elements are typically in contrasting forms The assumption is generally delivered with a falling tone, while the tag may use either a falling or rising tone based on the speaker's expectations A falling tone in the tag indicates that the speaker anticipates agreement with the assumption.

Falling tone Expectation You want a good mark, don’t you? Yes, I do

You don’t want a good mark? do you? No, I don’t

By comparison, the speaker uses the rising tone when he/she is not sure about the answer

Rising tone Expectation You want a good mark, don’t you? -Yes, I do

- No, I don’t You don’t want a good mark, do you?

A less common type of tag question features both the statement and the tag in the positive form, often conveying a conclusion drawn by the speaker from the situation This structure can sometimes carry a sarcastic tone.

So you did that, did you?

Rhetorical questions function as forceful statement In other words, a positive rhetorical question is like a strong negative assertion, while a negative question is like a strong positive one

Is it the reason for your choice? (Surely that is not a reason…)

Can anyone double the motive? (Surely no one can doubt…)

Is no one going to defend me? (Surely someone is going to defend me.)

A wh- rhetorical question will have the rise-fall tone

What differences does it make? (It makes no difference.)

Exclamatory questions are questions in form, but are functionally like exclamations They are marked by falling instead of rising tone

These invite the listener’s agreement to something on which the speaker has strongly positive feelings

A positive Yes/No question with a falling tone and with emphatic stress on both operator and subject is another way of expressing a strong positive conviction

Wh-questions are typically structured with wh-words placed at the beginning of the sentence These wh-words include two categories: pronouns and adverbials When the wh-word does not serve as the subject, a subject-operator inversion occurs Additionally, wh-questions usually feature a falling intonation.

(i) Wh-words as S, Od, Oi, Cs, Co & modifier in NPs: who/whom/whose, what, which, how + adjective

Which books have you lent him? (Od)

Who did you give the book to? (Oi)

What is your name? (Cs)

How wide did you make the bookcase? (Co)

Which drink would you prefer? (premodifier in a NP)

In formal style, the preposition can precede the complement In this case, wh-word functions as a prepositional complement

To whom did you give the book? (Cprep)

(ii) Wh-words as adverbial

When, where, how (long/often), why

When will the course finish?

Where did you buy the car?

How long have you been waiting here?

Why do we need to change? (= What do we need to change for?)

A question can contain more than one wh-word

Who’s bringing what? (I’m bringing water and sandwiches.)

How and when are you coming? (I’m coming by train, on Sunday.)

There are two types of alternative questions, the first resembling a Yes – No question, and the second a Wh-question

(i) “Yes/No” resembling alternative questions have subject-operator inversion but have the rising tone on all the alternative except the last The last choice has the falling tone

Yes – no: Are you ready?

Alternative: Are you ready or not?

Is it raining or has it stopped?

There is a type of alternative Yes/No question which expect a positive or negative answer Such questions have a rather impatient tone

Are you coming or not?

"Wh"-questions that resemble alternative questions start with a "wh" word and use intonation similar to that of "yes-no" questions For example, inquiring about a preference can be framed as, "Which shirt do you prefer: the green one or the blue one?"

Commands are sentences with the verb in the imperative (i.e the base form) and usually without subject In some special cases, a command can take a subject A full stop ends a command

According to the first word in the sentence, there are four types of commands commands without subject, which is dominant, with subject, with Let and with Do

Commands without a subject have the base-form verb Commands are apt to sound abrupt; therefore, a signal of politeness please can be used

In fact, there is an implied subject You in a command without a subject This is shown clearly in case a reflexive pronoun or a tag occurs

Commands with a subject are usually admonitory in tone, and frequently express strong irritation As such, they cannot go with a marker of politeness please

Subject You is used with the stress on, which distinguish this command from a statement

In other way, the appearance of a subject helps single out the addresses

A negative command takes Don’t like in the command without a subject

Don’t anybody arrange the table

First person imperative can be by preposing the verb let, followed by a subject in the objective case

Let us eat out tonight (= Let’s – informal)

A third subject can be used

A negative command also takes Don’t or Let’s not

Don’t let’s open the door = Let’s not open the door (informal in Br.E)

Commands with Do take another name as persuasive commands Do is preposed with the nuclear tone

Do, don’t, and let’s are used in isolation as elliptical commands

A: Shall I open the door? B: Yes, do./ No, don’t

A: Shall we watch the film? B: Yes, let’s

Exclamations are sentences beginning with what or how, without the subject- operator inversion In written English, an exclamation ends with an exclamation mark

Exclamations can have the full form and short form, beginning with How or What

Full exclamations begin with What and a noun phase or How and an adjective phrase or an adverb phrase, then (a subject) and a verb,

What an enormous crowd came! ( SV) What a day we’ve had today! ( Od SVA) How wonderful she was! (Cs SV)

Short exclamations have ellipted subject and verb

What or How can be omitted as well

Table 1.7 Summary of sentence types in terms of communicative functions

Negative Wh- Full form With subject

Summary of simple sentences

Chapter 1 has provided the learners with the knowledge about the simple sentence from a wide range of grammatical aspects including the definition, elements, structures, types and features The simple sentence contains a subject and a finite verb Five sentence elements of S, V, O, C, A help to form seven sentence structures of SV, SVA, SVC, SVO, SVOO, SVOA, SVOC It is interesting to see the crosscut between syntax and semantics while each sentence element contains a number of semantic role The grammatical agreement among the sentence elements is a part in this chapter Four types of sentences in terms of communicative functions are presented in detailed as statements, questions, commands and exclamations All these contents are compulsory for the users of English language to be able to produce grammatically correct simple sentences which strongly support meaningful communication

A simple sentence, consisting of an independent clause, serves as the fundamental building block of sentence structure This essential unit lays the groundwork for understanding more complex sentence types explored later in this book.

Task 1 Fill into each blank with ONE best word

1 A sentence is a complete unit of (a) to state a fact, to question a situation or to express a feeling A (b) _ sentence contains only one independent clause while other types (c) at least one independent clause and dependent clauses

2 A subject and a(n) (d) _ has the same expression An adjective only occurs as the expression of a(n) (e)

3 Agentive, instrument or eventive is the semantic role of (f) _ A complement has either one of two semantic role as current and (g) _

4 A subject and a complement has a(n) (h) _ relationship

5 (i) is the agreement among sentence elements The most popular type of concord is the one between subject and (j) _

6 A question can fall into one of (k) _ types One distinctive feature of a question is the subject – verb (l)

7 A negative statement often goes with (m) words like any, hardly any, never, etc

8 A tag question can have the (n) _ on the tag if the speaker expects an agreement On the other hand, the (o) _ is applied

9 An alternative question has the (p) on all the items before the last in the alternative list and the (q) on the last item to show the completion of the list

10 An exclamatory sentence ends with an (r) mark, while a command ends with a stop

Task 2 Indicate the sentence types like simple, compound, complex, compound- complex ones

1 I made an airplane out of stone

2 I put a piece of cantaloupe underneath the microscope

3 Oaties stay oaty, and Wheat Chex stay floaty, and nothing can take the puff out of Puffed Rice

4 While fishing in the blue lagoon, I caught a lovely silverfish

5 They say if you step on a crack, you will break your mother's back

6 They just had a contest for scariest mask, and I was the wild and daring one who won the contest for scariest mask—and (sob) I'm not even wearing one

7 My voice was raspy, rough, and cracked

8 I opened my eyes and looked up at the rain, and it dripped in my head and flowed into my brain

9 They say that once in Zanzibar a boy stuck out his tongue so far that it reached the heavens and touched a star, which burned him rather badly

10 I'm going to Camp Wonderful beside Lake Paradise across from Blissful

Mountain in the Valley of the Nice

11 I joke with the bats and have intimate chats with the cooties who crawl through my hair

12 The animals snarled and screeched and growled and whinnied and whimpered and hooted and howled and gobbled up the whole ice cream stand

13 The antlers of a standing moose, as everybody knows, are just the perfect place to hang your wet and drippy clothes

14 We'll walk with a walk that is measured and slow, and we'll go where the chalk- white arrows go

15 If I had a brontosaurus, I would name him Horace or Morris

16 I am writing these poems from inside a lion, and it's rather dark in here

17 A piece of sky broke off and fell through the crack in the ceiling right into my soup

18 The grungy, grumpy, grouchy Giant grew tired of his frowny pout and hired me and Lee to lift the corners of his crumblin' mouth

19 If you were only one inch tall, you'd ride a worm to school

20 The traffic light simply would not turn green, so the people stopped to wait as the traffic rolled and the wind blew cold, and the hour grew dark and late

(source: https://www.thoughtco.com/identifying-sentences-by-structure-

Task 3 Indicate the syntactic function and the semantic function of the underlined sentence element

1 21 st Century Skills are the building blocks to 21 st - century learning and citizenship

2 Our students need to be more globally aware of 21 st - century skills

3 Digital literacy helps students understand their rights and responsibilities online

4 As teachers, we support 21 st - century learning at school

5 When employees communicate poorly, whole projects fall apart

6 Technology literacy gives students the basic information they need

7 Universities can provide students with 21 st - century skills

8 Lessons or workshops can help increase students’ literacy of 21 st - century skills

9 Preparing students with 21 st - century skills certainly demands great efforts of all stakeholders

10 We believe although it is not easy we can do it

Task 4 Decide whether the underlined part optional or obligatory and state the sentence structure as SV, SVA, SVC, SVOO, SVOC

1 George's father greeted the headmaster warmly

3 That made me very annoyed

4 It made me thoroughly annoyed

5 George’s work was always thorough

6 Let me give you a drink

7 Let me explain the difficulty

8 The burglar stood the ladder against the wall

10 You are being rather stupid

11 I get impatient with stupid people

12 He convinced us of his innocent

13 I always regarded him as innocent

14 A difficult problem arises in this sentence

16 The old lady grew bitter

17 The luggage weighed twenty kilos

19 Please answer this letter by return of post

20 It gets dark earlier in winter

Task 5 Indicate the sentence structure as SV, SVO, SVA, SVC, SVOO, SVOC, SVOA

2 Meaningfulness is actually a component of happiness

3 A meaningful life may sound like a high aspiration

4 Your idea of a meaningful career may include social justice work

5 Your neighbor may see a meaningful life as quitting his day job to pursue a lifelong passion for music

6 What makes your life meaningful?

7 According to Emily Esfahani Smith, a meaningful life comprises four pillars: belonging, purpose, transcendence, and storytelling

8 Belonging improves when you dedicate your energy to nurturing your relationships and expanding your community

9 Identifying your purpose begins with an exploration of your gifts, passions, and values

10 Transcendence comes from nature, creativity, or spiritual practices

11 Storytelling brings you the ability to reflect what you have done and what you intend to reach

12 You may choose to dedicate this year to meaningful

(http://takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/make-year-meaningful-living) Task 6 Choose an acceptable verb, giving two answers if necessary, basing on concord

1 Every one of us {has/have} his own burden to shoulder

2 It is on each individual effort that the safety and happiness of the whole {depends, depend}

3 What are often regarded as poisonous fungi {is/are} sometimes safety edible

4 What are these things doing here {is/are} what I’d like to know

5 War and peace {is/are} a constant theme in history

6 War and peace {is/are}alternatives between which man must constantly choose

7 ‘War and Peace’ {is/are} a fascinating novel

8 The people outside {is/are} getting very impatient

9 The public {is/are} demanding an official enquiry

10 The Seven Sisters {is/are} a line of chalk cliffs on the coast of Sussex

11 The seven wonders of the world {was/were} well-known in ancient times

12 ‘The Three Bears’ {is/are} a well-known nursery story

13 The Philippines {is/are} a large group of islands

14 None but the brave {deserve/deserves} the fair

15 Neither John nor Mary {has/have} replied to my letter

16 I wrote both to John and to Mary Neither{has/have} replied

17 Physics, as well as chemistry, {is/are} taught at this school

18 The employment of girls under sixteen {is/are} forbidden

19 Everybody {know/knows} what they have to do

20 How is it that your answer and your neighbour’s {is/are} identical?

Task 7 Make the question for the underlined part

1 To see Inca architecture at its most impressive, one must go to Macchu Picchu

2 Europeans knew nothing about this ancient city before 1911

4 An American, Hiram Bingham, discovered it

7 The city had been buried for hundreds of years

8 It was protected by a canyon 2,000 feet deep

9 Its temples had been built from huge granite stones

10 The stones were fitted together without mortar

Task 8 Indicate the grammatically incorrect part and give the solution to make it correct

1 The assumption (A) that smoking has bad (B) effects (C) on our health (C) have been proved

A that B effects C on D have been proved

2 Mrs Stevens, along with her cousins from Canada, are planning to attend the firework display in Da Nang, Vietnam

A with B her cousins C are D to attend

3 What we know about certain diseases are still not sufficient to prevent them from spreading easily among the population

A What we know B are C from spreading D among

4 Developing new technologies are time-consuming and expensive

A developing B technologies C are D time-consuming

5 People in every part of the world readily and easily communicates by means of electronic mail

A every part B readily C communicates D by means

6 Each of the beautiful cars in the shop was quickly sold to their owner

7 Mrs Loan, along with her talented students, are going to be on the summer camp to the USA

A along with B talented C are going D summer

8 There are many different ways of comparing the culture of one nation with those of another

A There are B of comparing C those D another

9 Little have people done to alleviate the sea pollution caused by the factories in central Vietnam, haven’t they?

A have people done B caused C in central D haven’t they

10 The teacher asked him why hadn’t he done his homework, but he said nothing

A why B hadn’t he done C but D said nothing

11 One of the best ways to encourage your children to read are to provide interesting titles for them to enjoy

A the best B to read C are D for

12 English, together with Literature and Maths, are compulsory subjects in the national curriculum

A English B with Literature C are D national curriculum

13 The teacher asked what are the students doing while she was busy talking with Jack’s parents

A asked B are the students C she D with

14 You will never reach high achievements if you don’t make great efforts, don’t you?

A reached B achievements C don’t make D don’t you

15 Neither those books or this one mention the development of the city in that period

A Neither B mention C development D in that period Task 9 Build the sentence which contains the required grammatical features

1 A statement with a notional – concord subject

2 A yes/ no alternative question of three options

3 A statement of a resulting subject complement

4 A tag question which expects a confirmation

5 A yes/no question with a positive item

6 A sentence which contains an indirect wh- question

7 A sentence with a locative direct object

8 A sentence with an effected direct object

10 A sentence with an obligatory adverbial

Online resources for further practice: https://www.learngrammar.net/practice/23/subject-verb-agreement-exercise-practice- with-explanation https://www.liveworksheets.com/worksheets/en/English_language/Subject_-

_verb_agreement/Concord_sv18370da https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/sentence/sentence-structure-quiz.htm

ELLIPSIS and COORDINATION

ELLIPSIS

I Label the underlined part with the given term in the box (14 points) a a noun phrase c a finite verb phrase e a non-finte verb phrase g a conjunction b an adverb phrase d an adjective phrase f prepositional phrase h an operator

A healthy diet emphasizes fiber, whole grains, fresh fruits, vegetables, unsaturated fats, and omega-3 fatty acids, which help reduce inflammation that can harm tissues, joints, artery walls, and organs Limiting processed foods, including sweets and those made with refined grains, is crucial for maintaining health, as these can cause blood sugar spikes leading to early hunger Elevated blood sugar levels are associated with an increased risk of diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and even dementia.

The Mediterranean diet is highly regarded for its health benefits, effectively reducing the risk of heart attack, stroke, and premature death This diet emphasizes the consumption of olive oil, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and fish, while limiting red meat intake.

This section explores the concept of a sentence from both semantic and syntactical perspectives, followed by an overview of the different types of sentences categorized in three distinct ways.

A sentence is a complete unit of meaning used for communication, whether to state facts, ask questions, or express feelings Structurally, it consists of a subject and a predicate A simple sentence features a single verb, which must be finite.

Sentences can be categorized based on three key criteria: the combination of their elements, the number and function of the clauses they contain, and their communicative purpose.

1.2 SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF SENTENCE ELEMENTS

This section examines the syntactic characteristics of five key sentence elements in English, focusing on their linguistic expression, positional placement within sentences, and grammatical attributes Understanding these features enables English language users to utilize them more effectively and with greater awareness.

1.3 SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF SENTENCE ELEMENTS

This section outlines the characteristics of five sentence elements based on their contextual meanings The same subject can assume various semantic roles depending on the verb used in the sentence.

A recipient subject experiences advantages from various occurrences, often associated with verbs of possession such as "have" and "own," mental states like "think" and "like," and perception verbs including "hear," "taste," and "see." Additionally, these benefits can be expressed through passive constructions.

The term "pro" it refers to a specific use of "it" that can replace a familiar noun phrase In contrast, "prop" it differs from the "anticipatory" it found in sentences such as "It's nice seeing you again."

Verbs of inner perceptions and cognition encompass a wide range of emotions and thoughts, including terms such as adore, detest, and hate, which express strong feelings, while words like believe, doubt, and suppose indicate varying levels of certainty Additionally, verbs such as imagine, perceive, and understand highlight the cognitive processes involved in interpreting experiences Other important verbs, like feel, remember, and recognize, reflect personal connections and awareness, while terms like intend, wish, and want convey desires and intentions Collectively, these verbs provide a rich vocabulary for expressing the complexities of human emotions and thoughts.

Relational verbs play a crucial role in expressing connections and relationships between subjects and objects These verbs, such as "belong to," "depend on," and "involve," highlight how entities relate to one another They can indicate possession, as seen in "own" and "possess," or describe characteristics through verbs like "resemble" and "seem." Additionally, relational verbs can convey necessity and value, demonstrated by terms like "need," "deserve," and "matter." Understanding and effectively using these verbs can enhance clarity and coherence in communication.

The verb "think" demonstrates a dual nature, functioning as a stative verb when expressing an opinion, as in "I think that you are right," and as a dynamic verb when indicating an active process of consideration, exemplified by "I am thinking about moving my house."

An object in a sentence can be classified as either direct or indirect A direct object primarily serves three semantic roles, with the affect direct object being the most common, followed by the effected and locative roles In contrast, an indirect object typically fulfills two semantic roles, with the recipient role being the most prevalent, alongside the affected role.

A locative direct object signifies locations and commonly pairs with verbs like turn, reach, surround, penetrate, mount, and cross When a verb inherently includes the meaning of a subsequent preposition, the preposition can often be omitted, transforming the verb into a transitive one, with the prepositional complement acting as a direct object Examples of such verbs include climb (up), jump (over), flee (from), and pass (by).

COORDINATION

Coordination involves connecting words, phrases, or clauses of similar types to ensure they receive equal emphasis and significance This technique helps maintain the fluidity and coherence of speech or text.

Core subjects of linguistics include phonetics, grammar and semantics

Listening is important, and so is speaking

According to Nordquister (2018), coordination enables writers to convey intricate ideas seamlessly without the disruption of periods, making it particularly effective for comparison and comparative essays Additionally, coordination facilitates ellipsis, allowing for the omission of certain elements within a sentence, which enhances conciseness.

My daughter can play the piano, and my son can play the violin can be shortened as:

My daughter can play the piano, and my son the violin

Coordination can be classified in terms of two ways, the presence of the coordinator in coordination and the units in coordination

Syndetic coordination means the coordinator is present in coordination while asyndetic coordination means its absence

Slowly and steadily, he crept towards his victims

Slowly, steadily, he crept towards his victims

Coordinated units are termed conjoins

Phrasal coordination coordinates phrases of equal status

Noun phrases are commonly conjoined

David and Mary were going out

If I (me) is one of the conjoins, the convention of politeness requires I (me) appear last, and it is also common for you to appear first

You and I, you and they, my friend and me, you, Jane, and me

Within the noun phrase, there may be ellipsis of the head

Old (men) and young men were invited

In contrast, there is no ellipsis in the following sentence

Honest and clever students always succeed

This sentence has conjoined adjectives In this case, and can be ellipted

Honest, clever students always succeed

*Old, young men were invited is considered grammatically incorrect

Phrasal coordination involving numerals can indicate approximation without the use of ellipsis, as seen in examples like "one or two reasons," "a bottle or two," "ten or eleven students," and "three or four hundred students."

There is a similar set of coordinate expressions of approximation with a pro-form in the second conjoin

He waited ten or so years

He had a dollar or so to spend

An article realised in the first conjoin of a noun phrase is often ellipted in the second conjoin a boy or (a) girl the boy or (the) girls

When premodifiers are present, there can also be ellipsis of the head of the noun phrase in the first conjoin

The old (men) and (the) men

The ellipsis usually occurs to the second conjoin

The young men and (the young) women

In addition to the conjoins as noun phrases, other units can be in coordination

The attack in June and (the attack) in July failed (prepositional phrases)

He climbed up (the wall) and over the wall (prepositional phrases)

You can wash it manually or by using a machine (adverbials)

She is young and beautiful (adjective phrases)

If and when the agreement is signed, we can look forward to a period of peace and cooperation (conjunctions)

There are stereotyped coordinations where the conjoins are in virtually irreversible order

Odds and ends, bread and butter, law and order, by hook or by crook, through thick and thin, knife, fork, and spoon

Clausal coordination coordinates clauses of equal status

The clauses in coordination can be independent

You want to get a good mark in the exam, and you have to work hard

Subordinate clauses are conjoined as well

I am ready to help you and to

Coordination is categorized into two types: combinatory and segregatory Combinatory coordination occurs when the elements cannot be separated into distinct clauses, while segregatory coordination allows for the separation into two or more independent clauses.

John and Mary major in engineering

This sentence can be paraphrased into two sentences as

John majors in engineering, and Mary majors in engineering, too

In contrast, the following sentences are combinatory when the conjoin cannot stand as an independent subject of a new independent clause

John and Mary make a perfect couple

Jack and Jane are siblings

Our flag is red, white, and blue

Certain markers explicitly indicate that the coordination is segregatory: both, each, neither… nor, respective (formal), respectively (formal)

While John and Mary have won a prize is ambiguous, we are left in no doubt that two prizes were won in

John and Mary each have won a prize

John and Mary have each won a prize

John and Mary have each won a prize each

John and Mary both have won a prize

John and Mary have both won a prize

Similarly, while John and Mary didn’t win a prize is ambiguous, the sentence Neither John nor Mary won a prize makes it clear that two prizes are involved

John and Bob each visited their own uncles, indicating that John went to see his uncle(s) while Bob visited his uncle(s) Similarly, in the sentence where John, Peter, and Robert engage in sports, it specifies that John plays football, Peter plays basketball, and Robert plays baseball.

Coordination is explicitly seen via coordinators, i.e coordinating conjunctions, which link conjoins

The most common coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so (FANBOYS) Note that a comma precedes the coordinating conjunction when joining two clauses

I will not be attending the dance for (indicates a reason or cause)

I have no one to go with

I will not be attending the dance, for I have no one to go with

I plan to stay home and (joins two ideas)

I will complete an essay for class

I plan to stay home, and

I will complete an essay for class

Jessie isn’t going to be at the dance nor (indicates a negative)

Tom won’t be there either

Jessie isn’t going to be at the dance, nor will Tom be there

The fundraisers are hoping for a record- breaking attendance but (indicates a contrast)

I don’t think many people are going

The fundraisers are hoping for a record- breaking attendance, but

I don’t think many people are going

I might go to the next fundraising event or (offers an alternative)

I might donate some money to the cause

I might go to the next fundraising event, or I might donate some money to the cause

My parents are worried that I am antisocial yet (indicates a reason)

I have many friends at school

My parents are worried that I am antisocial, yet

I have many friends at school

Buying a new dress is expensive so (indicates a result)

Buying a new dress is expensive, so by staying home I will save money

Besides FANBOYS, there are conjunctive adverbs with a semicolon before them

Addition also, furthermore, moreover, besides

Alicia was late for class and stuck in traffic; furthermore, her shoe heel had broken and she had forgotten her lunch

Recycling aluminum cans is beneficial to the environment; similarly, reusing plastic bags and switching off lights reduces waste

Most people do not walk to work; instead, they drive or take the train

The Siberian tiger is a rare creature; indeed, there are fewer than five hundred left in the wild

Effect accordingly, consequently, hence, thus

I missed my train this morning; consequently,

I was late for my meeting

Time finally, next, subsequently, then

Tim crossed the barrier, jumped over the wall, and pushed through the hole in the fence; finally, he made it to the station

Correlatives are conjunctions used in pairs to connect ideas across different parts of a sentence, linking words, phrases, and clauses effectively Common examples include "both and," "either or," "neither nor," and "not only but also."

Both and, not only … but also recommend addition

Both the teacher and the students agree the online mode

They not only stole his book, but they also tore up his manuscripts

(Not only did they steal … but they also tore up ….)

Either…or is used together to link two positives and suggest an alteration

Either Mr Brown or Mrs Brown will make the speech

(Mr Brown will make the speech, or Mrs Brown will go, not both of them.)

Neither…nor expresses additional negative

He neither has long hair nor wears jeans

(He doesn’t have long hair and he doesn’t wear jeans.)

Nor/neither- correlative has actual or implied negative in the previous clause

He did not want to ask them for help; nor could he do without their help

The clause coordinators are restricted to the initial position in the clause or phrase

John plays the guitar, and his sister plays the piano

In addition, the clause with the coordinator is fixed after the preceding clause

They are living in England, or (they are) spending a vacation there

A coordinator is impossibly preceded by other conjunctions It also allows ellipsis of the subject of the clause it introduces (to avoid repetition)

I may see you tomorrow or (I) may phone later in the day

And, or can link subordinate clauses:

I asked him who he was, and why he had come

I wonder whether you should speak to him personally, or whether it is better to write to him

2.2.3.4 Meanings of coordinators AND, OR, BUT

And denotes a relationship between the contents of clauses, which can be made explicit by adding an adverbial Eight semantic implications and can denote as follows

(1) And allows a consequence or result

He heard an explosion and (therefore) phoned the police

(2) And introduces addition of a chronological sequence

She washed the dishes and (then she) dried them

Diana is secretive and (in contrast) David is candid

(4) And refers to the second clause as a comment on the first

They didn’t come - and that’s not surprising

(5) And introduces an element of surprise in terms of the content of the first clause

He tried hard and (yet) he failed

(6) And allows the first clause to be a condition of the second

Give me some money and then I’ll help you escape

(7) And makes the second clause mean a point that is similar to the first:

A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural exchange could be arranged

(8) And introduces the second clause as a “pure” addition to the first

She has long hair and (also) she wears a uniform

Or has four semantic implications

(1) Or implies an exclusive choice

You can stay here, or you can leave

You can either boil an egg, or you can make some cheese

(2) Or is sometimes understood as inclusive, allowing both choices

You can either boil an egg, or you can make some cheese, or you can do both

(3) Or can express a restatement or correction of a previously-mentioned idea

She stopped going out with him, or she left him

(4) Or may imply a negative condition

Marry me, or I’ll kill myself _(= If you don’t marry me, I’ll kill myself.)

(1) But introduces an unexpected contrast

Jack is well qualified, but he gets no promotion

(2) But may show the contrast as a restatement in an affirmative term of the previously- mentioned negative clause

Alan didn’t waste his time in the week before the exam, but he studied very hard every evening

Quasi-coordinators are expressions that connect two equal-status phrases or clauses, functioning similarly to conjunctions but acting more like prepositions Examples include "along with," "as well as," "as much as," "more than," "rather than," and "with." These expressions enhance sentence structure by providing nuanced relationships between ideas.

He publishes as well as prints his own books

As well as printing the book, he publishes them

Rather than cause trouble, I’m going to forget the whole affair

In the subject position, quasi-coordinators do not make the plural concord if the subject before them is singular

Jack, as well as his siblings, has home education from their mother

The chairman, with his wife, is having a business trip in America.

Chapter summary

Chapter 2 has presented the knowledge of ellipsis and coordination to learners Both ellipsis and coordination enhance the grammatical and semantic relationship between/ among parts of the sentence Ellipsis refers to the deletion of the part which is normally identical to another part in the sentence It can depend on the text or merely occurs freely in informal speech In block language or in spoken language, various grammatical words like determiners and pronouns are omitted to highligh key information Coordination helps to join units of the same grammatical status Within units of coordination, ellipsis can occur It can be classified into syndetic/ asyndetic coordination, phrasal/ clausal coordination, or combinatory/ segregatory coordination The chapter suggests the appropriate interpretation of the meaning of the sentence with coordination and ellipsis The application of these grammatical phenomena is enhanced in the subsequent practice part

Task 1 Fill into each blank with ONE best word

1 Ellipsis is the (a) of some elements in the sentence which can be understood in the context In coordination, the identical part in the subsequent unit can be (b) _

2 Various (a) _ elements can be omitted in both the textual and situational ellipsis The sentence “Got it?” can be understood as “Have you got it?” where the (b) _ and subject are omitted

3 The omission of some elements in coordination can cause (a) in communication For examples, the sentence “John and Mary got married” can be understood as “John got married to a woman, maybe (not) Mary”, or “Mary hot married to a man, maybe (not) John” To make the meaning explicit, certain markers can be added If the coordination is (b) _ , “to each other” can be used; therefore, the sentence is “John and Mary got married to each other.” In contrast, of the coordination is (c) _, “both” can be a marker In such a case, the sentence becomes “Both John and Mary got married.”

The conjunctions “and,” “or,” and “but” are essential coordinators in English, each with distinct semantic implications The word “and” primarily signifies addition, while “or” offers alternative meanings, presenting choices or options.

“but” (c) respectively The meaning of alternative goes with “or”, while the implication of (d) _ is distinctive with “but”

5 There are items called (a) _ which are more like prepositions than coordinators When they coordinate with a subject, the subject-verb agreement depends on the subject before them For instance, the sentence “The president, along with his family, is having a business trip in America” has “the president” as a singular subject; hence, the verb is (b) _ “is”, too

Task 2 Rewrite the following sentences omitting whatever can be ellipted without change of meaning

1 When you are in Rome, do as Rome does

2 When he was pressed to take part in politics, he firmly refused

3 There were no stores of boots that were readily available

4 He threw himself from his horse and lay still as if he had been shot

5 Any foreigner, however innocent he might be, was attacked

6 If you were left alone on a desert island, what would you do first?

7 If other people are willing to make and use machines for my benefit, I am not less willing to let them make and use machines for my benefit

8 I do not wish to take part in this protest, and I do not intend to take part in it

9 Unless you are traveling by coach, please let the Secretary know when you expect to arrive

10 The castle, which was built in the twelfth century, has dominated the valley ever since

11 Much of the earth's surface is formed by sedimentary rocks - that is to say, rocks which were formed by the deposition of sand silt and clay

12 Our atmosphere, while it is beneficial for life in general, prevent us from seeing the universe in any but a very restricted range of light

Task 3 Expand the following ellipted sentences so as to make their meaning clearer

6 Sorry, had to find my coat

7 Sorry you didn't come with us?

8 Thought you were never coming

10 Anything on the news last night?

11 Anything the matter with your foot?

12 Surprised you didn't hurt yourself more seriously

Task 4 Omit the subject only, in any clause other than the first , when such ellipsis would be acceptable

1 The Director took a dislike to us and he did not attempt to conceal it

2 He took a dislike to us because he objected to our being together so much

3 He made life difficult for us, because he guessed we knew of his involvement in the conspiracy and because he thought we would report him

4 We knew all about the plot, yet we said nothing to our comrades

5 He was not sure of this, so he kept an eye on us continually

6 We pretended to whisper to our colleagues, so that we gave him the impression that we were talking about him

7 One morning, he waited for us , then he asked us to come into his office

8 We told him we had both been on the premises that evening; however , we didn't say that we had seen him there

Task 5 Explain the ambiguity in the following sentences, basing on combinatory and segregatory coordination

1 Red, white and blue flags were flying from every balcony

2 George and Mary are married

3 George and Mary won a cup

4 John and Elizabeth didn't win anything

5 George and Mary went home to their parents

Task 6 Make the sentence with

1 an ellipted subject in the second conjoin

5 a phrasal coordination of adjective phrases

6 a clausal coordination with an ellipted lexical verb

10 ô and ằ implying the first clause as a condition of the second

Online resources for further practice: https://test-english.com/grammar-points/b2/ellipsis-and-substitution/2/ https://elt.oup.com/student/solutions/advanced/grammar/grammar_05_022e?cc=vn&se lLanguage=en

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

COORDINATION & SUBORDINATION

This section introduces the concepts of coordination and subordination, which are essential for understanding complex sentences in English Coordination leads to the formation of compound sentences, as discussed in Chapter 2, while subordination is the key to creating complex sentences, the main focus of this chapter Coordination is referenced here only to highlight its relationship to subordination, which is crucial for the development of complex sentence structures.

Coordination and subordination are two techniques of combining simple sentences into compound and complex sentences respectively

Tom saw Mary Tom saw Mary and he ran away (coordination)

He ran away When Tom saw Mary he ran away (subordination)

Table 3.1 Coordination and subordination in comparison

Symmetrical (equal) relation holding between two or more independent clauses

Non-symmetrical relation between one independent/ superordinate clause and one or more dependent/ subordinating clauses

We tried and we won

Independent/ superordinate finite cl + dependent/ subordinate finite/non- finite/verbless cl(s)

We won because we had tried

We won when we nearly lost

To win, we had to try a great deal Doing exercise everyday helps you keep fit

Result Compound sentences Complex sentences

Indicators (1) Simple coordinators: and, or, but

(2) Correlatives: both … and, either … or, nether … nor, not only … but also

Subordination helps to form complex sentences It is indicated by obvious indicators named subordinators or hidden in wh-elements or other subordinating structures

Subordinating conjunctions, often referred to as subordinators, serve as key indicators of subordination in sentences They can be categorized into simple subordinators, which are single words; compound subordinators, which function similarly to simple ones; and correlative subordinators, which connect elements in both the subordinate and superordinate clauses While many subordinators permit finite clauses to follow them, others may accept non-finite or verbless clauses, showcasing their versatility in sentence structure.

(al)though as because before if once since that until when where while etc

- ending with “that”: in that so that such that except that in order that

- ending with optional “that”: now (that), provided (that), supposing (that), considering (that), seeing (that), etc

- ending with “as”: as far as, as long as, as soon as, so long as, so as (to + infinitive clause)

- ending with “than”: sooner than (+infinitive clause), rather than (non-infinitive or verbless clause)

In various contexts, expressions such as "as if" and "as though" convey hypothetical scenarios, while "in case" introduces conditional situations The structure "if… then" establishes cause and effect, and "although…yet" or "nevertheless" presents contrasting ideas Comparisons are drawn using phrases like "as…so" and "more/er/less…than," highlighting similarities and differences The equivalence of two items can be expressed with "as…as," while "so…as" indicates a degree of quality Additionally, "such…as" and "such…(that)" specify examples or results, and "no sooner…than" emphasizes a sequence of events Finally, the phrase "whether…or" presents alternative possibilities, while "the…the" denotes a correlation between two variables.

After we decided, we wanted to know their opinions (simple subordinator/ wh- element)

We work hard in order that we have a better future (compound subordinator)

Provided (that) you complete all the tasks correctly, you will get the full score

Rather than eat out, we cooked (compound subordinator)

No sooner had she graduated than she got a post in MB (correlative subordinator)

I don’t mind whether she will help me or I will help myself (correlative subordinator)

Apart from explicit subordinators mentioned above, other forms of subordinating clauses can show subordination

Do you know where I can take the bus?

I never told me what to do

Had he came earlier, he would have met her

Sad though I was, I still had to try

Subordinators are absent in non-finite clauses functioning as S, O, or C (a), in contingent adjectival clauses (b), and in comment clauses (c)

The world wants to have peace (a)

They informed the engagement, happy (b)

DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Dependent clauses are the most intricate components of complex sentences due to their nuanced structures that convey meaning This section aims to define dependent clauses and categorize them from various viewpoints.

A dependent clause, also referred to as a subordinate clause, contains a subject and a verb but cannot function as a complete sentence on its own It may lack a subject, and its verb can be finite, non-finite, or even absent altogether Dependent clauses rely on independent clauses for meaning; leaving them isolated in writing creates confusion and results in incomplete sentence fragments.

As long as you love me, I’ll be your platinum (a)

*As long as you love me

I want to be your soul (b)

When sad, you can rest on my shoulders (c)

Dependent clauses can be categorized based on three key aspects: the presence of a verb, their function within a sentence, and their overall role They can be classified as finite, non-finite, or verbless depending on their grammatical features Additionally, dependent clauses serve specific functions, such as acting as subjects The most advanced classification distinguishes them as nominal clauses or adverbial clauses, reflecting their significant roles in sentence structure.

3.2.2.1 According to the presence and form of the verb element in the dependent clause

Three types of dependent clauses can be seen according to the presence and form of dependent clauses They are finite, non-finite and verbless dependent clauses

(i) Finite dependent clauses have a finite verb with subject, obvious tense, aspect, voice and mood

If you believe it, you will have it

Had you followed my advice, you would have got it

Non-finite clauses are verb phrases that do not indicate tense and are commonly found in subordinate clauses Their timing is often inferred from the context of the main clause Typically, non-finite clauses share the same subject as the main clause and can either include or exclude the subject These clauses can feature verbs in various forms, including the “-ing” form, “-ed” form, to-infinitive, or bare infinitive.

(-ing participle dependent clause without subject)

I don’t like you coming late

(-ing participle dependent clause with subject)

If given a bad mark, he got upset

(-ed participle dependent clause without subject)

If John given a bad mark, he got upset

(-ed participle dependent clause with subject)

Do you want to be rich?

(to-infinitive dependent clause without subject)

Do you want your parents to be rich?

(to-infinitive dependent clause with subject)

Rather than complain, you should act

(bare infinitive dependent clause without subject)

They made the professor forget their mistake

(bare infinitive dependent clause with subject) (ii) Verbless dependent clauses contain no verb element, and often also no subject The verb can be understood as “be”

Happy, we signed the contract

When tired, I want to sleep

3.2.2.1 In terms of the syntactic function of dependent clauses in the independent clause

Dependent clauses play various roles within independent clauses, serving as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, and adverbials Additionally, they can function as post-modifiers in noun phrases, prepositional complements, adjectival complements, and appositives, enhancing the overall meaning and complexity of sentences.

S: That grammar is the skeleton of language is undeniable

Od: I believe that you will pass

Oi: I gave whoever it was a hand in case he was in need

Cs: The point is that I can do it

Co: I encouraged him to try harder

A: When possible, come to visit me

Post-modifier in a noun phrase: I know him who is my friend’s father

Cprep: Your life depends on how you view it

Cadj: I am too busy to enjoy myself

Appositive: The fact that he truly dedicated is obvious

3.2.2.1 Based on the functional similarity of dependent clauses with nouns, adjectives and adverbs

If classified in terms of their functional similarity with nouns, adjectives and adverbs, of dependent clauses can be nominal clauses, relative clauses and adverbial clauses

I know what you are thinking now (nominal clause)

He is the man who is very kind-hearted (relative clause)

= He is a very kind-hearted man

When we are in summer, we love going to the beach (adverbial clauses)

= In summer, we love going to the beach.

NOMINAL CLAUSES

A nominal clause is a clause that can function as a noun It is also called a noun clause

A nominal clause starts with words like that, the fact that, whether, when, and many other subordinating conjunctions

Nominal clauses are categorized into finite and non-finite types, with finite clauses including that-clauses, wh-interrogative clauses, yes/no interrogative clauses, and nominal relative clauses Non-finite nominal clauses consist of to-infinitive clauses, bare-infinitive clauses, and –ing participle clauses In terms of syntax, nominal clauses can serve eight functions: subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, prepositional complement, object complement, adjectival complement, and indirect object However, not all nominal clause types can fulfill every function; while some major functions are universally applicable, certain minor functions are limited to specific types of nominal clauses.

A that- clause is made by the conjunction “that” and a clause

S: That this book helps you much is clear

Od: I think (that) you can pass the exam well

I told him (that) he was wrong

Cs: The assumption is that things will improve

Appositive: Your assumption, that things will be improved, is unfounded

Cadj: I am sure (that) you will win

That-clauses cannot occur as prepositional complement, indirect object or as object complement

In English grammar, the conjunction "that" can be omitted in clauses functioning as objects or when the clauses are brief and straightforward, which is known as a zero that-clause However, when the clause serves as the subject, "that" cannot be omitted and is often expanded to "the fact that," except in very formal contexts.

(The fact) that she got mark ten surprised everybody

Also, when the complex sentence is loaded with adverbials and modifications, that is obligated to appear

The fact is, to our surprise, that they were not a couple

In the above, to our surprise, and the omission of that will make the sentence unclear

The dependent wh-interrogative clause occurs in the whole range of functions available to the that-clause, and in addition can act as prepositional complement

S: What caused the fire is unknown

Od: I don’t know who you are

Cs: The problem is not who will go

Appositive: My original question, why you treated me like that, has not been answered

Cadj: I wasn’t certain who I could believe

Cprep: I am not sure about what caused the fire

As regards meaning, these clauses resemble wh-questions in that they leave a gap of unknown information, represented by the wh-element

The dependent yes-no interrogative clause is formed with if or whether The dependent alternative question has whether or, but if … or Also if cannot introduce a subject clause

S: Whether he comes or not doesn’t matter

*If he comes or not doesn’t matter

Od: I don’t know whether/if he comes or not

Cs: The question is whether he comes or not

Co: You should told him whether he should come or not

Appositive: The question, whether he comes or not, has been not answered Cadj: I am not sure whether he comes or not

Cprep: I am wondering about whether he comes or not

A clause beginning with whether cannot be made negative, except as the second part of an alternative question

The teacher asked us whether we had completed homework

The teacher asked us whether we had completed homework or not

*The teacher asked us whether we hadn’t completed homework

The nominal relative clause is also introduced by a wh-element like wh-interrogative clause

S: What he is looking for is a wife

Od: I want to know who can go with me

Oi: I will give who is in need my help if I can

Cs: Happiness is what is defined variously

Co: You can call me whatever you want

Appositive: Let me know your hobby, what you like to do in your free time Cadj: I am sure who he is

Cpre: I believe in what you are talking about

The nominal relative clause functions similarly to a noun phrase, allowing for easier paraphrasing into a noun phrase that includes a nominal element along with a post-modifying relative clause.

I believe in what you are talking about

= I believe in the thing that you are talking about

The commonest type of participle clause is the participle clause without subject

Od: He enjoys playing football

Cs: My hobby is playing football

Co: I saw him playing football with his son

Appositive: His hobby, playing football, keeps him fit

Cadj: He is busy playing football

Cpre.: I’m interested in learning English

In the other case, when the participle clause requires a subject, there is sometimes a choice as follows The genitive case is used in the formal style

I’m worried about Jane’s getting married to Joe and the objective case in the informal style

I’m worried about Jane/ her getting married to Joe

However, the genitive is particularly unsuitable when the subject is an inanimate or abstract noun phrase or a “group” genitive phrase For example,

*He is upset about her plan’s coming to nowhere is not suitable because “his plan” is a noun phrase

Another note is that a pronoun in the objective case shouldn’t be used in subject position

*Him singing in the shower is an interesting hobby

The most prevalent form of a to-infinitive clause is one that lacks a subject Typically, the subject in a to-infinitive clause is introduced by "for," functioning more like a conjunction than a preposition.

S: To complete the task neatly is your task today

For the task to be completed neatly is your duty today

Od: I want to equip you with not only knowledge but skills

I want you to complete the task now

Cs: My wish is to become a pilot

The plan is for us to buy a new house this year

Co: I want you to stop

Appositive: His wish, to be a pilot, never becomes true

My plan, for my son to go abroad, is being carried out

Cadj: I am happy to see you here

A bare infinitive occurs when the "to" of the infinitive is omitted This type of nominal clause is utilized when the infinitive clause serves as a predication similar to the use of the verb "do." Notably, when the infinitive clause appears at the beginning of a sentence, the "to" must be omitted.

S: Turn off the gas was all I did

Cs: All I did was turn off the gas

Co: He made me work harder

Table 3.3 The summary table of the functions of nominal clauses

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

An adverbial clause, or adverb clause, is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb within a sentence These clauses include a subject, a predicate, and a subordinating conjunction Similar to traditional adverbs, adverbial clauses modify adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs, enhancing the overall meaning of the sentence.

Adverbial clauses of time usually have subordinators like after, before, since, until, when, while, as soon as, as long as, whenever, etc

When you finish, please tell me

(ii) Adverbial clauses of place

Adverbial clauses of place usually have subordinators like where, wherever

S Od Oi Cs Co Cprep Cadj App

You sign where I put the dot

(iii) Adverbial clauses of condition

Adverbial clauses of condition are introduced by subordinators like if, unless, on condition that, provided that, as long as, so long as

Unless you tell the truth, we cannot help

(iv) Adverbial clauses of concession

Adverbial clauses of concession have subordinators as although, though, even if, even though, while, whereas

Although he was aged, he still had a job

Conditional concessive clauses have subordinators like whether … or, wherever, whatever, whenever, whoever, no matter what, no matter who, etc

Whatever I suggest, he always disagrees

(vi) Adverbial clauses of manner

Adverbial clauses of manner with subordinators as, exactly as

(vii) Adverbial clauses of comparison

Adverbial clauses of comparison have subordinators like than, as if, as though

He talked as if he knew the matter well

(viii) Adverbial clauses of purpose

Adverbial clauses of purpose have subordinators like in order that, so that

I wake up early so (that) prepare breakfast for my family

(ix) Adverbial clauses of result

Adverbial clauses of result are introduced h subordinators: in order that, so that

I wake up early so that I can finish my task early

Adverbial clauses of proportion usually begin with subordinators like as (… + so), the

The more you do it, the less you hate it

* Purpose: with or without subordinators: in order to, so as to (most important function)

I wake up early to prepare breakfast

* Preference: with subordinator “rather than”

You should work hard rather than sit complaining

* Time: with or without subordinators: When, while, whenever, after, before, since, until

* Preference: with subordinator: rather than

Leaving the room, he was angry

* Time: with subordinators: once, until, when, whenever, while

* Place: with subordinators: where, wherever

* Condition: with subordinators if, unless

* Time: with subordinators: as soon as, once, when, whenever, while

When happy, he sang a song

* Concession: with subordinators: though, although

Although tired, she tried to complete all before going to bed

A relative clause, often referred to as an "adjective clause," is a type of dependent clause that provides additional information about a noun Typically, it begins with a relative pronoun that replaces a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun when combining sentences.

Post-modifying adjective clauses can serve as restrictive or non-restrictive elements within noun phrases or sentences Additionally, there are nominal relative clauses that lack a head noun, as discussed in section 3.3.2.4.

(i) Features of oost-modifying relative clauses

- antecedent: NP/ with or without relative words

- status: restrictive or non-restrictive

- pronouns: which, who, whom, whose (of which), that

He was the man I needed

The man, who is wearing a red T-shirt over there, is her new boyfriend

In relative clauses, when a noun serves as the object of a preposition, both the noun and the preposition typically shift to the front of the clause However, in less formal English, it is often acceptable to only move the pronoun to the beginning of the clause.

I spent hours talking with a person last night I hope to hear from her

= I hope I hear from the person with whom I spent hours talking last night

I hope to hear from the person whom I spent hours talking with last night (less formal)

Table 3.4 Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses

Restrictive relative clauses Non-restrictive relative clause

Pronoun wider choice: who(m), which, that, whose, zero narrower choice: who(m), which, whose

Punctuation With commas Without commas

Examples I like the paintings that hang in the SASB North lobby

I like the paintings which hang in the SASB North lobby

(Again, this is acceptable, but some people object to using

“which” in a restrictive relative clause “That” is preferred.)

Students who study hard, will do well in my class (Only this group of students will do well.)

Uncle Ho, who is the Father of Vietnam, was born in 1890

My mother, who is an excellent cook, is thinking of opening a restaurant

(iii) Punctuation: comma before which

He passed the exam, which made him happy

(i) Features: no antecedent but can be paraphrased by a noun phrase containing a post- modifying relative clause

Happiness is what we all seek in life

= Happiness is the thing that we all seek in life

S: What he is looking for is a wife

Od: I want to know who can go with me

Oi: I will give who is in need my help if I can

Cs: Happiness is what is defined variously

Co: You can call me whatever you want

Appositive: Let me know your hobby, what you like to do in your free time Cadj: I am sure who he is

Cpre: I believe in what you are talking about

Certain relative clauses can be reduced for conciseness and variety in writing By removing the relative pronoun and possibly other words, sentences become more streamlined Additionally, subject pronouns may be omitted, allowing the active verb to take on an -ing form.

I like the paintings that hang in the SASB North lobby

= I like the paintings hanging in the SASB North lobby

Subject pronouns and auxiliaries can be deleted and the passive verb remained

I like the paintings that were painted by To Ngoc Van

= I like the paintings painted by To Ngoc Van

Object pronouns can be deleted

I like the bike that my father gave me

= I like the bike my father gave me

Subject pronouns with “be” verbs can be deleted in non-restrictive clauses

I am moving to Louisville, KY, which is home to the Muhammad Ali Museum

= I am moving to Louisville, KY, home to the Muhammad Ali Museum

My mother, who is an excellent cook, is thinking of opening a restaurant

= My mother, an excellent cook, is thinking of opening a restaurant.

Chapter summary

Chapter 3 has provided English students with a thorough systematic syntactic characteristics of complex sentences in English in order to assist them in understanding and using the complex sentences in English appropriately The chapter begins with a comparison between coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions which respectively form compound sentence and complex sentences Various types of subordinating conjunctions have been discussed The most complicated component of a complex sentence, dependent clauses, accounts almost all the chapter contents They are investigated in terms of the structures and the function in a sentence or the function resembling nouns, adjectives and adverbs Finite clauses, non-finite clauses and verbless clauses have been presented in detailed Moreover, nominal clauses, adverbial clauses and relative clauses with their grammatical sophistication have been analysed and evaluated The chapter closes the textbook English Grammar 2 with a view to supporting the accuracy in the students’ English language use

Task 1 Decide whether the following statement true (T) or false (F)

1 Coordination is a technique which results in complex sentences

2 A subordinate clause can be finite, non-finite or verbless

3 A dependent clause can function as the verb element in the sentence

4 A nominal clause has all the syntactic functions of a noun phrase

5 A nominal clause cannot function as indirect object

6 An wh-interrogative clause resembles a wh-nominal relative clause in form but the former leave a gap of information

7 An –ing participle clause can function as indirect object

8 An adverbial clause can be finite, non-finite or verbless

9 A post-modifying finite relative clause can be reduced to a non-finite ing participle clause or a non-finite –ed participle clause

10 The relative word “that” is restricted to a restrictive relative clause

Task 2 Decide whether the underlined clause is dependent or independent

1 If you don't fix the car, IT WILL CONTINUE TO LEAK OIL a.) dependent clause b.) independent clause

2 WHILE THE CAR IS BEING FIXED, we will need to take the bus a.) dependent clause b.) independent clause

3 It isn't necessary to cram all night IF YOU HAVE STUDIED A LITTLE EACH DAY a.) dependent clause b.) independent clause

4 Before you begin studying for the exam, YOU WILL PROBABLY WANT TO REST a.) dependent clause b.) independent clause

5 I can't go to the movies SINCE I DON'T HAVE ANY MONEY a.) dependent clause b.) independent clause

6 WHETHER HE ATTENDS THE PARTY OR NOT, I have decided to go a.) dependent clause b.) independent clause

7 I WILL STOP PLAYING THE DRUMS when you go to sleep a.) dependent clause b.) independent clause

8 SINCE YOU'VE TAKEN YOUR EXAM IN BIOLOGY, you probably don't feel like studying for tomorrow's exam in math a.) dependent clause b.) independent clause

9 Until he apologizes to me for his rude behavior, I REFUSE TO SEE HIM a.) dependent clause b.) independent clause

10 I wore my boots BECAUSE IT LOOKED LIKE IT MIGHT SNOW a.) dependent clause b.) independent clause

I don't know!

1 Are you really enjoying yourself? I wonder

2 Are you really enjoying yourself? He asked me

3 Are you enjoying yourself or not? I don't care

4 Does it cost too much? That depends on how badly you want it

5 Does it cost too much? My decision will depend on that

6 Is it too expensive or not? That is the crucial question

7 Can it be easily resold? I'm not interested

8 Is it properly insured? I am not sure

9 Have you completed the task? The boss wants to know

10 Is it the best you have? He wondered

Task 4 Say which of the wh-clauses below are wh-interrogative clauses, and which are nominal relative clauses

1 What caused the fire remains a mystery

2 What caused the fire was a cigarette end

3 We never discovered what caused the fire

4 Who first reported the fire is still uncertain

5 Whoever reported the fire was only doing his duty

6 Can you tell me where your friends are?

7 Home is where your friends and family are

8 Do you remember when Columbus discovered America?

9 Do you remember when we first came here, darling?

10 What we all need is a spell of warm sunshine

Task 5 Say (a) what function the infinitive clause fulfils in the superordinate clause below; and (b) what is the subject of each of the two clauses

1 I expect to be there this evening

2 I expect everyone to be punctual this evening

3 I promise you not to be late

4 The plan is for us all to meet outside at eight

5 The plan for us all to meet outside was absurd

6 To speak in public for the first time can be a terrifying experience

7 For Osbert to appear in public at such a time was rather courageous

8 Nice to see you again

9 His hope, to be offered the job, was fulfilled

10 His hope is to be offered the job

Task 6 Say what function the -ing clauses fulfil in the superordinate clauses below

1 I always enjoy listening to chamber music

2 Listening to chamber music is my greatest pleasure

3 His greatest pleasure, climbing mountains, had to be abandoned

4 Was he, then, so given to climbing mountains?

5 He was always happy scaling almost perpendicular cliffs

7 I am into living in my neighbourhood

8 Speaking can be easier than doing

9 His hobby is playing badminton after work

10 My teacher is busy doing assessment now

Task 7 Reduce the finite time clauses to non-finite or verbless time clauses whenever such reduction would be acceptable without change of voice

1 When I last saw you, you lived in Washington

2 When you lived in Washington, did you ever meet Robert H Davidson?

3 Since I met you, I have been reading your book

4 Once your book is published, it will sell very rapidly

5 When you are in Rome, do as Rome does

6 Until you are asked to speak, you would be well advised to remain silent

7 Before he served in the army, he was much too fat

8 While he was in the army, he learnt a great deal about electricity

9 When you enter the town, you will see the monument straight in front of you

10 After he had travelled round the world, Forbes settled down peacefully in his native village

Task 8 State the syntactic function and the expression of the underlined part

1 We are living in a chaotic and unsafe world where anyone of us might fall victim to sexual harassment, street scams or even bloody violence

2 (a) To go out safely, I think each individual should equip themselves with self-defense techniques in case of (a) being attacked by strangers

3 Pollution caused by travelling globally can be seen in plenty of well-known natural sites

4 You should always consider your audience (a) to be someone with no specialist knowledge in this area (b) when you address them

5 The most practical solution to this problem is the government should sponsor an awareness campaign

6 A possible solution to the problem of sea-level rise would be to build flood barriers

7 Taking public transportation can be considered a way to reduce traffic congestion in big cities

9 Rather than prohibit children from using the Internet, parents should guide them the good webs and lock the bad ones

10 Many crimes such as identity theft and child abuse result from the ease with (a) which criminals can operate anonymously online

11 An (a) I-am-the-only-one attitude is being practiced among a number of the youth, which can cause their difficulties in integrating into the society

12 It seems that children born to more prosperous and experienced parents can receive better and more comprehensive education

13 A few reasons can be given to justify the trend of giving birth at later stages of life

14 (a) Although commercials bombard TV viewers daily, the last decision of (b) buying something belongs to the viewers

15 Expected to support the campaign, the authority enacted a new law against trade on wildlife

1 with nominal that - clause as subject complement

2 with an adverbial non-finite clause of purpose

3 with a nominal relative clause as an object complement

4 with a non-finite to infinitive clause with subject as direct object

5 with a nominal –ing participle clause with subject as direct object

6 with a finite adverbial clause of condition

7 with a nominal finite that-clause as direct object

8 with a non-finite to infinitive clause with subject as direct object

10 with a nominal relative clause as direct object

11 a nominal non-finite clause as an object complement

12 Y/N interrogative clause functioning as object

13 with a non-finite to infinitive clause as subject complement

14 with a Wh-interrogative clause functioning as object

15 with a Wh- interrogative clause functioning as subject complement

16 with an adverbial expressed by a verbless clause

17 with a to-infinitive clause functioning as subject complement

18 with a nominal that clause as appositive

19 with coordinated independent clauses of contrast

20 with an –ing participle clause with subject as direct object

For additional practice on relative and adverb clauses, explore various online resources that offer exercises and worksheets Notable links include Live Worksheets for sentence transformation, the English Advanced blog for relative clauses, and English Grammar for adverb clause exercises Additionally, ThoughtCo provides identification exercises for adverb clauses, while Learn English Feel Good and English Grammar feature resources focused on noun clauses These tools are valuable for enhancing your understanding and application of complex sentence structures in English.

Theory

Task 1 Answer the questions within three given lines

1 What is a sentence in English?

2 How many types of sentences are there in English?

3 Name seven sentence structures in English

6 Why are ellipsis and coordination treated together?

7 What is a complex sentence in English?

8 Why does the subordinate clause account for a large room of discussion compared to the dependent clause?

9 What are the syntactic functions of a nominal clause?

10 What are the differences between a restrictive relative clause and a non-restrictive relative clause?

Practice

Task 1 Circle the wrong part in the sentence and make the correction

1 The workers went on strikes because of they thought their wages were low

2 Despite she was in her middle age, she looked very graceful and charming

3 The police is looking for the bank robbers who stole a large sum of money from the bank

4 Anyone reproducing copyrighted works without permission of the holders of the copyrights are breaking the law

5 To reduce pollution, we have to stop using many things that makes our life comfortable

6 My mother doesn’t care how much does the washing machine cost because she is going to buy it anyway

7 The Oxford English Dictionary is well known for including many different meanings of words and to give real examples

8 The student must have her assessment form fill in by the examiner during the oral exam

9 I like the fresh air and green trees of the village which I spent my vacation last year

10 Looking from afar, the village resembles a small green spot dotted with tiny fireballs

Task 2 Indicate the syntactic function and expression of the underlined part

1 (a) In recent years, parents have had to adapt to (b) various changes in our societies

2 Equal rights movements have made great progress, and it has become normal for women to gain qualifications and pursue a career

3 It has also become socially acceptable for men to stay at home and look after their children

4 At the same time, the rising cost of (a) living meant (b) that both marriage partners usually need to work and save money before starting a family

When couples have children, they often make decisions about work and childcare based on personal preferences or the income levels of each partner.

6 To stay home or not is a question for women who are expected to stay home to take care of the baby

7 No one can help them decide which is the best choice, but them

8 Equality is indeed something which is being struggled

Task 3 Indicate the sentence structure

1 Teachers have always tried to make their lessons relevant to the world outside the classroom

2 Anxiety about the future is not new

3 Gone are the days where students could assume specific education will lead to a specific job

4 Teachers need to visit workplaces with their students

5 Arnold wants students to understand the logistics of running a business

7 Industry mentors provide them with resources

8 Even students with little interest in engineering or science participate

9 Anyone who is graduating from our high schools without robotics literacy is going to have a hard time finding a job

10 Perhaps the greatest problem students will encounter in the workplace is one the education system has helped create: fear of failure

(Preparing students for future careers https://teachmag.com/archives/10552) Task 4 Build a sentence

2 with a quasi-coordinator in subject

3 with nominal non-finite –ing participle clause as subject

4 with ellipted subject in the brackets

5 with a wh-clause as prepositional complement

7 with a nominal finite wh- interrogative clause as subject

8 with an –ing participle clause as postmodifier in a noun phrase

9 with a verbless adverbial clause without subordinator

2 Aish, F & Tomlinson, J (2005) Grammar for IELTS Glassgow

3 Downing, A., Locke, P., & Downing, A (2005) English Grammar: A University Course (2nd ed.) Routledge

4 Huddleston, R., Pullum, G K (2015) A student’s Introduction to Grammar Oxford

5 Huddleston, R () Introduction To The Grammar Of English Cambridge University Press

6 Jacobs, Roderick (1995) English Syntax – A Grammar for English Language Professionals Oxford University Press

7 Leech, G & Svartvik, J (2013) A Communicative Grammar of Englis Routledge Miller, J (2002) An introduction to English syntax Edinburgh University Press

9 Swan, M., & Walter, C (2001) The good grammar book: A grammar practice book for elementary to lower-intermediate students of English Oxford: Oxford University Press

10 Trần, Hữu Mạnh (2008) Fundamentals of English traditional syntax: Giáo trình ngữ pháp dành cho sinh viên đại học chuyên Anh ĐHQGHN

11 Nordquister, R (2018) Grammatical Coordination Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-coordination-grammar-1689931

12 Dependent clauses: definition and examples Retrieved from: https://www.thoughtco.com/dependent-clause-grammar-1690437

13 Coordination and subordination Retrieved from https://writing- center.phsc.edu/grammar/sentence-structure/problems-sentences/coordination-and- subordination

14 Identifying Dependent Clauses: Definition, Examples, & Exercises Retrieved from https://www.albert.io/blog/dependent-clauses/

15 Theory and practical application of nominal clauses Retrieved from https://text.xemtailieu.net/tai-lieu/theory-and-practical-application-of-nominal-clauses- 175820.html

16 Adverbial Clauses Explained: 9 Types of Adverbial Clauses Retrieved from https://www.masterclass.com/articles/adverbial-clause-explained

17 Relative clauses: What is a relative clause? Retrieved from https://www.perfect- english-grammar.com/relative-clauses.html

18 Relative clauses: defining and non-defining Retrieved from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/vi/grammar/british-grammar/relative-clauses- defining-and-non-defining

19 Coordination and subordination Retrieved from: https://open.lib.umn.edu/writingforsuccess/chapter/7-2-coordination-and- subordination/

20 Correlatives Retrieved from: https://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/conjunctioncorrelatives.html

5 What are quasi coordinators? Retrieved from: https://www.usingenglish.com/forum/threads/what-are-quasi- coordinator.205823/#:~:text=The%20word%20%22quasi%2Dcoordinator%22,the%20 subject%20noun%20is%20singular

21 Ellipsis Retrieved from: https://www.englishreservoir.com/advanced-english- grammar/ellipsis/

22 Ellipsis in English Grammar Retrieved from: https://www.grammarwiz.com/ellipsis-in-english-grammar.html

Tiêu đề	English Grammar 2
Tác giả	T.S Đinh Minh Thu, Th.S Nguyễn Văn Phi
Trường học	Haiphong University
Chuyên ngành	Foreign Languages
Thể loại	Textbook
Năm xuất bản	2022
Thành phố	Hải Phòng

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Số trang	96
Dung lượng	596,62 KB