This study investigated the effect of the mixing ratio of the B-cyclodextrin B-CD,drying temperatures, and storage conditions on the physicochemical properties andsensory quality of the
LITERATURE RE VIE W q0 ásceaol12200104614010106365548E34533 81568350588 3
Overview of B-cyclodextrin (B-CD) +2 +22 12 11121 Exkrskz 10
2.3.1 Sources and dose of B-cyclodextrin
Cyclodextrin (CD) is a cost-effective, non-toxic cyclic oligosaccharide derived from enzyme-modified starch, making it suitable as a food ingredient B-cyclodextrin (E 459) is produced through a two-phase process involving enzymatic hydrolysis and cyclization, utilizing trichloroethylene as a solvent The catalyst for this process, Cycloglycosyltransferase (CGTase), is sourced from Bacillus circulans and acts on partially hydrolyzed starch The reaction mixture contains suspended B-CD, which is then separated using physical methods The purification process includes filtration and crystallization, followed by washing, drying, and sieving to yield the final commercial food additive.
B-cyclodextrin, upon oral administration in both animals and humans, exhibits poor absorption attributable to its hydrolysis by gut microflora and endogenous amylases in the colon, resulting in the formation of maltose and glucose, thereby maintaining low concentrations of B-CD (< 1%) in tissues and serum Comprehensive carcinogenicity assessments conducted in murine and rodent models yielded no substantiation of carcinogenic effects Additionally, B-CD demonstrates notably low acute oral toxicity, as evidenced by oral median lethal dose (LDS0) values exceeding 3,000 mg/kg body weight in mice, rats, and canine (EFSA Panel, 2016) Addressing regulatory considerations, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has bestowed approval upon cyclodextrins (CDs) as General Food Standard Additives
According to the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for B-cyclodextrin (B-CD) is set between 0 to 5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day (mg/kg bw/d) (Kelanne et al., 2024).
B-cyclodextrin is cyclic oligosaccharides comprised of (a-1,4)-linked a-D- glucopyranose units (Deshaware et al., 2018) According to Roquette (2012), B-CD presents as a white or nearly white, amorphous or crystalline powder Under powder form, the particle size distribution, as determined by laser scattering, is characterized by a mean size of 728 nm, a median size of 599 nm, with the absence of particles measuring less than 100 nm in size Chemical formula and molecular mass are (CeH100s)7, 1.135 g.mol"!, respectively.
B-cyclodextrin (B-CD) has a hydrophilic exterior and a hydrophobic interior, resulting in limited water solubility (about 1.85 g/100 mL at 25°C) Despite this, water effectively facilitates the formation of inclusion complexes with hydrophobic guest molecules, which can exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous states These complexes remain stable without covalent bond formation, as hydrophobic guest compounds occupy the B-CD cavity due to the hydrophobic interior, promoting energetically favorable apolar associations Additional binding forces such as hydrogen bonding, van der Waals interactions, and hydrophobic effects, along with changes in solvent surface tension and reduced ring strain, enhance guest binding However, in anhydrous or non-aqueous environments, B-CD's solubility significantly decreases, making the formation of inclusion complexes less favorable due to diminished interactions.
CD cavity and guest molecules (Kelanne et al., 2024).
Numerous studies indicate that B-cyclodextrin forms 1:1 stoichiometry complexes with flavonoids and volatile aroma compounds, although alternative ratios like 2:1 and 1:2 are also possible (Zhang et al., 2012) The optimal ratio for complex formation is influenced by the structural characteristics of the molecules involved, such as carbon chain lengths and functional group types Techniques like differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) can be utilized to identify the formation of these inclusion complexes (Kelanne et al., 2024).
Oo To OH guest molecule (volatile or non-volatile)
B-cyclodextrin with an example guest
(Kelanne et al., 2024) Figure 2.4 B-cyclodextrin structure and its complexation mechanism to reduce unwanted flavors
B-cyclodextrin (B-CD) is a versatile compound with applications across multiple industries due to its unique molecular structure In the food sector, it effectively reduces bitterness and protects volatile compounds, enhancing the sensory qualities of products while safeguarding bioactive components like phenolic compounds and antioxidants, as demonstrated in studies involving bitter melon and orange juices (Deshaware et al., 2018; Marques, 2010; Navarro et al., 2011) In pharmaceuticals, B-CD serves as a complexing agent that improves the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs by forming inclusion complexes, thereby facilitating drug delivery (Hoseini & Allahyari, 2023) Additionally, B-CD is employed in environmental remediation to encapsulate and eliminate pollutants from soil and water through inclusion complexation and adsorption techniques (Sikder et al., 2019) These diverse applications highlight the importance of B-CD in various scientific and industrial fields.
Functional properties of other additives .- 2c 22c 2S xxeresres 13
2.4.1 Hydrocolloids (modified starch, pectin, guar gum)
Hydrocolloids are a class of polysaccharides that function as thickeners, gelling agents, and emulsion stabilizers, as noted by Pirsa and Hafezi (2023) This group includes long-chain polymers that can disperse in water, exhibiting varying degrees of solubility and swelling in aqueous environments Common examples of hydrocolloids include starch, agar, and various gums, which are sourced from plants, animals, and algae, with some being synthesized by microorganisms.
Hydrocolloids are essential in the production of fruit leather, a chewy snack known for its intense fruit flavor They serve as gelling agents, creating a cohesive matrix that binds fruit puree and provides the desired texture, while also ensuring structural integrity to prevent stickiness during processing and storage Additionally, hydrocolloids enhance the viscosity of the fruit puree, promoting even spreading on drying trays for a consistent product They stabilize formulations by preventing phase separation and syneresis, which extends shelf life and maintains quality Moreover, hydrocolloids contribute to desirable sensory attributes like smoothness and flavor release, increasing consumer acceptability Overall, their functional properties are crucial for producing high-quality fruit leather with optimal texture, appearance, stability, and sensory characteristics.
2.4.2 Sugar (sucrose), honey, and corn syrup
Sugar and honey are vital ingredients in fruit leather production, significantly enhancing its sweetness and sensory appeal They contribute to a smooth and pliable texture, which is essential for the product's quality Their hygroscopic properties help retain moisture, preventing the fruit leather from becoming dry and brittle during storage Furthermore, the high osmotic pressure generated by these sweeteners inhibits microbial growth and enzymatic activity, thereby extending the shelf life and ensuring microbiological safety In summary, the functional properties of sugar and honey are crucial in shaping the texture, shelf life, and overall sensory attributes of fruit leather.
Corn syrup is essential in producing bitter melon fruit leather, as it balances the melon’s bitterness with sweetness, enhancing palatability Its humectant properties retain moisture, keeping the fruit leather pliable and chewy instead of hard and brittle Additionally, corn syrup prevents sugar crystallization during drying, resulting in a smooth, uniform texture Overall, its versatility significantly improves the texture, stability, and flavor of bitter melon fruit leather.
Citric acid and vitamin C are essential for improving the quality and stability of fruit leather Citric acid serves as a natural acidifier, adding tartness to the fruit puree while creating an acidic environment that prevents microbial growth and enzymatic browning.
Vitamin C acts as a powerful antioxidant, helping to maintain the color and nutritional quality of fruit by inhibiting oxidative reactions during processing and storage Both citric acid and vitamin C play crucial roles in improving the sensory attributes and nutritional benefits of fruit leather.
2.5‘ Interaction between B-cyclodextrin and other additives
B-cyclodextrin (B-CD) features a unique structure with a hydrophobic cavity and a hydrophilic outer surface, enabling it to form inclusion complexes with various molecules Hydrophilic substances can engage with the hydroxyl groups on B-CD’s exterior through hydrogen bonding and polar interactions, while hydrophobic molecules can penetrate the hydrophobic cavity via non-covalent interactions This characteristic interaction of B-CD with additives such as sugar, honey, hydrocolloids, citric acid, and vitamin C enhances the potential for complex formation in bitter melon leather.
B-cyclodextrin (B-CD) interacts with various sugars and honey components, forming inclusion complexes that can modify sweetness perception, enhance solubility, and affect flavor, stability, and viscosity The encapsulation of B-CD with hydrocolloids plays a crucial role in creating structural networks and improving overall system stability, which is significant for food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic applications Furthermore, B-CD's interactions with acidic compounds like citric acid and vitamin C lead to the formation of inclusion complexes that may enhance flavor, stability, and bioavailability These interactions are particularly promising for developing vitamin C-fortified products and pharmaceutical formulations aimed at improving vitamin C delivery and absorption.
Understanding the interactions between ƒ-cyclodextrin and other additives is essential for improving food formulations, enhancing product quality, stability, and functionality These interactions are complex and multifaceted, affecting various aspects of food products Therefore, further research is necessary to clarify the specific mechanisms and applications of these interactions within the food industry.
2.6 Hot air drying and its effect on the natural component of fruits and vegetables
2.6.1 Principle of hot air drying
Hot air drying utilizes convection to effectively remove moisture from materials by circulating heated air As the warm air interacts with the wet surface, it causes moisture to evaporate, thereby lowering the material's moisture content This process involves two types of diffusion: external diffusion, which transfers moisture from the surface of the materials to the dry air, and internal diffusion, which moves moisture from within the materials to their surfaces These diffusions continue until the moisture content reaches an acceptable level, achieving the desired drying effect.
During the drying process, moisture on the surface of materials evaporates as it is heated, transforming into water vapor and dispersing into the air This creates a moisture gradient, where the surface moisture concentration is lower than that within the material, causing moisture to move from areas of higher to lower content Concurrently, the materials experience a temperature gradient, with surface areas heating more than the centers, which aids in the moisture transfer from hotter to cooler regions Thus, both moisture and temperature gradients coexist within the materials throughout the drying process.
Finally, according to Chen (2008), the hot air drying process could be divided into three stages, which were the drying stages of acceleration, constant speed and speed reduction.
The acceleration stage, also known as the adjustment stage, was brief During the constant speed drying stage, the focus was on removing free water between cells, leading to a temperature drop due to the evaporation of surface moisture This created a temperature gradient that facilitated moisture transfer to the surface, maintaining a consistent ratio of tempering to drying time In the speed reduction drying stage, the emphasis shifted to removing physically bonded water, as the moisture movement from within the materials to the surface slowed, resulting in a gradual decrease in drying rate and causing surface evaporation to penetrate deeper into the materials.
2.6.2 The influence of hot air drying on the natural composition of fruits and vegetables
Food is essential for human survival, providing the energy needed for daily activities, with fruits and vegetables being particularly rich in vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber Despite their nutritional benefits, a significant amount of these produce items is wasted due to improper preparation, storage, and consumption Fruits and vegetables have a limited shelf life, as they are highly perishable due to their high water content, which also facilitates bacterial growth and various chemical processes like oxidation To mitigate food spoilage, it is crucial to reduce or remove the water content in these foods.
Drying is the most widely used method for preserving materials, effectively reducing moisture content to inhibit microbial growth This process not only minimizes product volume, leading to lower packing, transportation, and storage costs, but also transforms various food forms—solid, liquid, or semi-liquid—into stable, low-moisture solids By significantly decreasing water activity, drying enhances the shelf life of foods and protects them from deterioration (Oliveira et al., 2016).
The advancement of drying techniques has enabled the efficient production of convenience foods and dehydrated products that meet quality and stability standards at competitive prices Various drying methods, including direct sun drying, freeze drying, and hot air drying, offer unique benefits and challenges Among these, hot air drying is the most commonly used in industrial settings due to its established technology, ease of operation, and cost-effectiveness However, it presents drawbacks such as slower drying rates, nutrient loss, diminished natural colors, high energy consumption, and potential structural damage to food To maintain product quality and optimize drying resource utilization, it is essential to fine-tune hot air drying processes for specific food items and equipment, as a universal approach is ineffective.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS - Ác SH hưe 34
Effect of drying temperature on the quality of the bitter melon leather
4.3.1 Drying kinetics of bitter melon leather
The drying process involves removing water from a material's surface through heat, leading to a reduction in weight as moisture transitions from liquid to vapor This process is driven by diffusion, which facilitates moisture movement via internal and external mass transfer Additionally, heat transfer occurs due to temperature differences between the material and its surroundings, resulting in energy exchange (Iqbal et al., 2019).
The moisture content (MC) and moisture ratio (MR) of bitter melon leather samples decreased as drying time increased, with final moisture content values recorded at 12.25%, 12.04%, and 11.10% after 90, 135, and 180 minutes at drying temperatures of 55 °C, 65 °C, and 75 °C, respectively, from an initial MC of 75.22% Similar findings were reported by Marey and Shoughy (2016) regarding the moisture reduction in citrus peels during drying at temperatures ranging from 40 °C to 70 °C Furthermore, a rise in drying temperature was associated with a reduction in drying time under the same conditions.
The drying rate exhibited a consistent decline over time, with varying transformation rates observed at three specific temperatures throughout each stage Notably, at 55 °C, the drying rate curve showed a gradual reduction from the beginning until approximately 80 minutes.
The rate of decline in g.g'.min varied significantly over time, starting from 0.011 to 0.009 g.g'.min, followed by a rapid decrease from 0.007 to 0.002 g.g'.min between 90 and 120 minutes After this period, the rate gradually approached zero, dropping from 0.002 g.g'.min to 0 g.g'.min over 120 to 180 minutes At a temperature of 65 °C, the rate initially decreased sharply from 0.018 to 0.010 g.g'.min within 20 to 45 minutes, followed by a continued decline from 0.010 to 0.002 g.g'.min during the 60 to 105-minute timeframe.
!.min}), and at 135 minutes, it finally got toward 0 The drying rate curve at 75 °C steadily declined from 0.018 to 0.002 g.g"!.min"! during a duration of 30 to 90 minutes.
Figure 4.6 Variation of (A) Moisture content, (B) Moisture ratio and (C) Drying rate of bitter melon leather samples as a function of drying time at temperatures ranging from 55 to 75 °C.
Research on orange peel oven drying indicates a continuous decline in drying rate over time (Marey and Shoughy, 2016) In contrast, Li et al (2020) observed that the drying rate of Hongjv (Citrus reticulata Blanco) peel initially increased before declining, likely due to water molecules becoming more energetically active at higher temperatures, which aids in reducing moisture content (Londofio et al., 2010) Higher drying temperatures enhance the drying rate, thus reducing the drying duration by facilitating effective heat transfer and accelerating water migration (Falade and Solademi, 2010) Additionally, the water content in fruits and vegetables is classified into free, immobilized, and bound water, with free water evaporating more readily during the initial stages of hot air drying (Xu et al.).
2017) As a result, the drying rate rapidly declined initially and gradually slowed down towards the end.
In summary, the drying rate was influenced by both internal and surface moisture diffusion throughout its various stages of increase and decrease The differences observed in the drying rate curve between the reference study and the current research indicate that the mechanisms of water and heat transfer vary based on the material's characteristics.
4.3.2 Calculation of the effective moisture diffusivity
The Derr values of bitter melon leather, as indicated in Table 4.5, demonstrate that higher drying temperatures result in increased Derr values, with samples dried at 75°C exhibiting the highest values and those dried at 55°C showing the lowest Niamnuy et al (2011) suggest that this phenomenon can be attributed to the increased heating energy at higher temperatures, which enhances the activity of water molecules and improves effective moisture diffusivity.
Table 4.5 Regression results of effective moisture diffusivity at different drying temperatures
1 -0.00070 0.9308 0.025 44.32804 k: Kinetic rate constants; R*: Coefficients of determination; H (m): Height or thickness of samples
In this experiment, the Derr values of the product were measured at 38.00, 39.26, and 44.33 x 10² m s⁻¹ for drying temperatures of 55 °C, 65 °C, and 75 °C, respectively Previous studies have also demonstrated that increasing temperatures lead to higher Derr values, such as those observed in apple leather, which showed values of 4.75 x 10², 5.58 x 10², and 7.44 x 10² m s⁻¹ at 50 °C, 60 °C, and 70 °C (Demarchi et al., 2013), and in orange peel, where Derr values were 1.01 x 10², 1.57 x 10², and 1.60 x 10² m s⁻¹ at 55 °C, 65 °C, and 70 °C (Deng et al., 2020) These findings collectively confirm that higher drying temperatures positively influence Derr values, resulting in increased measurements.
4.3.3 Effect of drying temperature on the quality of the bitter melon leather
4.3.3.1 The effect of drying temperatures on biochemical characteristics
Statistical analysis revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) in the biochemical contents of BML samples, including phenolic compounds, flavonoid compounds, and antioxidation activity, when dried at three different temperatures: 55 °C, 65 °C, and 75 °C (refer to Figure 4.7).
Dehydration negatively affects the retention of bio-compounds in dried samples, with total phenolic content (TPC) significantly lower than the raw material's 867.42 mg/100g dm Specifically, TPC values for dried samples were 324.89 mg GAE/100g dm, 278.20 mg GAE/100g dm, and 275.34 mg GAE/100g dm at drying temperatures of 55 °C, 65 °C, and 75 °C, respectively, with the highest value observed at 55 °C (p < 0.05) This trend is supported by findings from Ozsan et al (2023), who noted maximum TPC in dried bitter melon at the lowest drying temperature of 60 °C Furthermore, Sousa et al (2018) reported reduced phenolic compounds in Phyllanthus amarus when air-drying temperatures exceeded 60 °C due to thermal degradation.
A significant difference (p < 0.05) in total flavonoid content was observed at three different temperatures, with the highest value of 10.12 mg QE/100g dm recorded at 55 °C and the lowest at 9.17 mg QE/100g dm at 75 °C This trend aligns with a study on Hongjv (Citrus reticulata Blanco), which found that total flavonoid content decreased as temperature increased from 50°C to 80°C (Li et al., 2020) In contrast, research by Deng et al (2020) reported no significant differences in the flavonoid content of orange peel samples when drying temperatures were increased.
Promoting higher drying temperatures significantly reduced the antioxidant activity (AA) in bitter melon leather samples, with values recorded at 291.35, 257.86, and 269.75 mg AAE/100g dm for temperatures of 55, 65, and 75 °C, respectively (p < 0.05) This reduction in AA is hypothesized to be due to heat treatment damaging antioxidant components, aligning with findings from Ozsan et al (2023), which indicated that maintaining a drying temperature of 60 °C preserved antioxidant activity, while 80 °C led to significant decreases Additionally, a study by Li et al (2020) on Hongjv confirmed that higher temperatures correlate with lower AA values The research suggests that phenolic compounds may significantly influence antioxidant activity, indicating that a decrease in phenolic content could contribute to the observed loss of antioxidant activity.
In conclusion, the drying temperature significantly affects the biochemical compounds in BML, leading to a noticeable decrease in phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity as the drying temperature increases.
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Figure 4.7 Results of TPC (A), TFC (B), and antioxidant activity (C) of bitter melon leather samples at different drying temperature.
The results of sensory evaluation of bitter melon leather processed using three different drying temperatures are shown in Table 4.6 In general, the sensory properties of the samples were acceptable.
The study revealed that the acceptability of leather color diminished with increasing drying temperatures, with significant differences in panelists' preferences (p < 0.05) The sample dried at 55°C received the highest ratings (5.93/7) due to its retention of a slight green hue However, drying temperatures exceeding 40°C led to a marked decrease in chlorophyll pigment, which is responsible for the green color in bitter melon, resulting in a significant loss of this hue at higher drying temperatures.
The aroma of the sample at 55 °C had the lowest acceptance score compared to BML at
A significant difference in aroma scores was observed between samples heated at 65 °C and 75 °C, with the latter achieving the highest score of 5.50 out of 7 (p < 0.05) The aroma of these products is attributed to volatile compounds found in fresh food, including esters, ketones, terpenes, and aldehydes (Starowicz et al.).
Effect of storage temperature on the moisture content and biochemical properties
During a 35-day storage period at temperatures of 10 ± 2 °C and 30 ± 2 °C, the moisture content of BMLs increased from an initial 10.16% to 13.92% and 13.97%, respectively, indicating significant moisture absorption This rise in moisture content is a key factor affecting the shelf life of dried products (Mokapane et al., 2017) However, moisture levels between 10-15% are deemed safe for the storage of dried goods, as noted by Zuluaga et al (2010) Therefore, BMLs with a moisture content within this range are expected to retain their quality during storage.
Data were analyzed by 2-factor ANOVA with Temperature*Storage Time (p = 0.41), according to Fisher’s LSD In a chart, means with different letters (a-f) were not significantly different.
Figure 4.9 Increasing in moisture content of samples during storage at 10 + 2 °C and room temperature (30 + 2 °C)
4.4.2 Biochemical properties of BMLs during storage
The total phenolic content (TPC) showed a slight decline from an initial value of 304.98 mg GAE/100g dm to 250.19 mg GAE/100g dm at 10 + 2 °C and 240.72 mg GAE/100g dm at room temperature (RT), with no significant difference observed (p > 0.05) After 35 days, the remaining TPC content was 82.05% at 10 + 2 °C and 78.92% at RT.
The total flavonoid concentration (TFC) exhibited a significant difference during storage at two temperatures (p < 0.05) Initially measured at 8.80 mg QE/100g dm, the TFC increased to 10.72 mg QE/100g dm at room temperature, while samples stored at 10 ± 2°C showed no change, remaining stable at 8.64 mg QE/100g dm over 35 days According to Do et al (2024), dried soursop fruit tea maintained stable TFC levels during storage at 5 °C, 15 °C, and 30 °C At the end of the storage period, the TFC at room temperature was significantly higher than that at 10 °C, reaching 121.99% and 98.21%, respectively.
The antioxidant activity of the samples significantly decreased from the initial content of 397.29 mg AAE/100g dm, dropping to 212.35 mg AAE/100g dm at 10 + 2 °C and 157.12 mg AAE/100g dm at room temperature (RT), with a notable difference (p < 0.05) This decline may be attributed to the loss of key antioxidants such as polyphenols and ascorbic acid As illustrated in Figure 4.10F, the remaining antioxidant activity was 52.99% at 10 + 2 °C and 41.81% at RT by the end of the storage period.
In this study, the retention of total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) in dried soursop fruit tea stored at two temperatures remained significantly higher compared to room temperature (30 ± 2 °C) after 4 weeks, with values of 41.9% and 45.7%, respectively Similar trends were observed in research by Sidor et al (2020) on dried black chokeberry fruits, where TPC increased by 111.47% after 3 months at 20 °C, while TFC rose by 117.58% Furthermore, the antioxidant activity (AA) of dried soursop fruit tea was recorded at 71.1% after 4 weeks at 30 °C, surpassing previous findings Conversely, Singh et al (2019) noted a significant decrease of 46.1% in AA content of dried cabbage leaves after 60 days at 30 °C These results highlight the typical fluctuations in biochemical compounds during storage, with both increases and decreases observed.
The study observed a slight but statistically insignificant decrease in total phenolic content and remaining TPC at both storage temperatures In contrast, total flavonoid content showed a minor increase at room temperature (30 ± 2 °C), while no significant change was noted at 10 °C ± 2 °C However, antioxidant activity and remaining content experienced a notable decline of about 50% at both temperatures.
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Data were analyzed by 2-factor ANOVA with Temperature*Storage Time, according to Fisher’s LSD.
In a chart, means with different letters (a-h) were significantly different (p < 0.05) for each factor.
Figure 4.10 The modifies of (A) TPC, (C) TFC, (E) Antioxidant activity (DPPH), and remaining (%) of (B) TPC, (D) TFC, and (F) DPPH during storage at 10 + 2 °C and room temperature (30 + 2 °C).
After 35 days of storage at two different temperatures, the color of the bitter melon leather at room temperature ranged from green-yellow to yellow-brown (Figure 4.11), whereas the sample at 10 °C nearly remains unchanged in color According to Rosselló et al (1994), dried apricots at room temperature showed an obvious increase in browning, even though samples at 4 and 11°C almost confirmed any color loss.Ngammongkolrat et al (1985) concluded that non-enzymic browning was negligible at4°C but increased rapidly above 20°C Both enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning reactions can happen to stored BMLs at room temperature Therefore, there needs to be preservation in different packaging so that the leather could possibly be stored effectively at room temperature.
Figure 4.11 Bitter melon leathers before and after storage under different storage temperatures: (A) Day 0 at 10+2°C, (B) Day 35 at 10+2°C, (C) Day 0 at room temperature (30 + 2 °C), (D) Day 35 at room temperature
This study utilized FTIR analysis and SEM to reveal modifications in compound binding and microstructure when incorporating β-cyclodextrin in bitter melon leather Despite this, β-CD did not affect the total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), or antioxidant activity Sensory evaluation identified the 100:0.75 formulation as the optimal choice for finished leather Bitter melon leather was produced using a hot air drying method at 55°C, which maximized customer satisfaction while preserving TPC, TFC, and antioxidant activity Drying kinetics indicated that both moisture content and drying rate decreased more rapidly with increased temperature, with effective moisture diffusivity values of 38.00, 39.26, and 44.33 x10^-9 m²/s at 55, 65, and 75 °C, respectively Storage experiments revealed that bitter melon leather maintained its color better at 10 ± 2 °C compared to room temperature (30 ± 2 °C), although TPC and TFC experienced slight changes during storage Conversely, moisture content increased over time, and antioxidant activity decreased by nearly 50% at both storage temperatures, highlighting the significant impact of storage temperature on antioxidant activity and color retention in bitter melon leather.
To ensure the longevity and color preservation of bitter melon leather, it is crucial to use packaging materials that resist water, oxygen, and light, such as vacuum packaging with laminated aluminum foil Modern analytical techniques like HPLC are vital for understanding how B-cyclodextrin and storage temperature affect the retention of biochemical compounds in the product Additionally, further research is needed to accurately determine the deterioration rate based on storage temperature over an extended survey period For bitter melon leather to achieve commercial viability, it is essential to evaluate its microbiological stability and conduct a proximate nutritional analysis.
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1 Standard calibration curve for the determination of TPC, TFC, and antioxidant activity
Absorbance ^ y =0,0091x - 0,0291 of gallic acid đi =5 28 7 R? = 0,9963
Concentration of gallic acid (ug/ml
60 0.519 Figure A.1 Standard curve of gallic acid
Table A.1 Absorbance of standard (Quercetin) 1,2 4
Concentration 14 y = 0,0346x + 0,004 sorbance tas of Quercetin = og 4 R’=0,9975
30 1.052 Figure A.2 Standard curve of quercetin
2 Sensory assessment form ô+ Antioxidant activity
Concentration of ascorbic acid ( pg/ml)
Figure A.3 Standard curve of ascorbic acid
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