Ward architecture of the renaissance in france potx

IN the title of these volumes the words "Architecture of the Renaissance" are intended to be understood as embracing all thpse styles, whether of building or decoration, which are ultima

09 427

THE

ARCHITECTURE OF

A HISTORY .OF THE EVOLUTION OF

THE ARTS OF BUILDING, DECORATION

INFLUENCE FROM 1495 TO 1830

BY

\KCII1TTCCT ASSOCIATE OF THE ROYALINSTITUTE

IN

the title of these volumes the words "Architecture of the

Renaissance" are intended to be understood as embracing

all thpse styles, whether of building or decoration, which

are ultimately based on Classical Architecture,from the

re-intro-duction of classical forms at the Renaissance to the revival

of Gothic in the nineteenth century, and the word "France," a geographical term of morevaried import than is alwaysrealised,

as corresponding roughly with the Continental possessions of

the French State immediatelybefore or after the Revolutionary

and Napoleonic Wars, i.*.,in 1791 or 1815

Itis not a littleremarkablethatamong the mass ofliterature

Biblio-graphical Note,p.495),no workexists,sofarasIknow,inEnglish,

oreven in French, dealingexclusivelywith the whole Renaissance

groups of buildings, often admirable and exhaustive But the student has not always easyaccess tothem, timetoperuse them,

or sufficient familiaritywith any tongue but his own tobeable

to use them withfull profit. For a generalsurvey-ofthesubject

he is compelled to fall back on the necessarily scanty and condensed sections devotedtoitingeneralhistoriesof European

or French architecture Among these Fergusson, owing tothe

mass of material which has become available since his day,is

now out of date,while his peculiar point of view one scarcely

shared by any one without reserve at the present day

contri-butestodiminish the value ofhis criticism EnglishorAmerican

Renais-sance architecture in any one country can be adetailed one

The present work isan attemptto supply a student who has

reading Anderson andSpiers'"Architecture of Greece and Rome"

PREFACE and of Anderson's "Architecture of the Renaissance in Italy,"

with an account of the main trend ofarchitectural thought and

facts connected with important buildings and architects, set

The executionofthe task has beengreatlyfacilitated by thelate

Baron Heinrich von Geymiiller's "Baukunst der Renaissance

in Frankreich." Although forming part of a so-called

"Hand-buch,"thissomewhat unreadable and confusingly arranged work would be better described as a collection of materials for a

how-ever, a monument of minute and painstaking research, my

indebtedness towhich it would be difficult to exaggerate; and

I avail myself ofthis opportunitytopay atributeof admiration

Even Geymuller does not profess to carry his narrative

beyond 1755, and therefore stops short of some veryinterestingphenomenastill inthedirectlineof Renaissance descent While

thissomewhat arbitrary selectionof a date is particularly

with a completesolution ofcontinuity inthe process of ment, and it is only after much hesitation that I have fixed

develop-upon the year 1830 asthe terminus adquernofthishistory. An

unbroken, ifvaried, sequence ofstyles, each in turn paramount throughout the greater part of France, cametoan end with that

of the Empire, whose existence, feebly prolonged in the midst

of new and disturbing influences, may be said to have died out

about the time of the fall of theelder Bourbons On the other

period is too eclectic to possess the recognisablecharacteristics

of a style,and at the same time perhaps too near our own day

Any conceivable subdivision ofthe subject is open to some

system adopted in the following pages, of-a classification by reigns,is

by no means an exception. Its inevitable drawbackswill,

how-ever, be reduced to a minimum,if it be remembered that each

chapterdeals,not so much with the architectureproduced during

development culminating in that and extending between

PREFACE two approximately assigned dates, and secondly that, chrono-

logically, these periods of development usually overlap,

some-timestoa considerable extent The system has thisadvantage,

that the names of sovereigns have acquired a distinct meaning

in trade and conversational diction, and call up in the mind a

con-temporary events, manners, and costume. It is also justified

by the fact that, in France, the Court and Government have

exerted a moresensible influenceon the evolutionof design than

in lesscentralised states

In the matter of illustration it has been my aim to place

modern drawings of buildings, now, or till recently standing,

butalsothe vanished buildings and unexecuted projectswhich throw an equally strong light on the ideas which inspiredthe

reproducing the drawings of by-gone generations of designers,

is in itself a gain, since the graphic method of presentment

adopted by a du Cerceau, or a Marot, a Neufforgeora Fontaine

isone elementin his conception of design,and should be taken

which he worked.

includes much matter of a controversial nature This turns

to the seventeenth century, whose records are fragmentary or

who, if his conclusions occasionally appear to go beyond the point whichhis argumentwarrants, never fails to setforthwith the utmost candour all the available evidence,together with the

opinions of otherwriters

One of his most notable contributions to scholarship has

beenfinallyto dispel the mists introduced into the subject by

Chauvinistic French writers of the last century, with the late

M L6on Palustre at their head The aim ofthisschoolwasto

reduce the influenceof on the French Renaissance to the

vanishing point Their arguments were chiefly based on the

factthatbuilding accounts of theperiod,which areextant in an admittedly incomplete state, seldom mention the names of

eminent Italians,who were oftenpaid by the grant of benefices

and Courtsinecures, while they doinclude the names of obscure

Frenchmen, whose small daily salaries are often sufficient

evidence of their subordinate positions. Again they laid more

stress on differences ofstylebetween works in France and Italy

thanisfound tobejustified if the provedversatility of Italians

workingin other lands is taken into account A reaction has

French writers of the present dayare, as a rule, ready to agree with the view taken in the following pages, that from the last

years of the fifteenth century, Italy intervenes in a decisive

manner in thedestiniesof French art

W H WARD.

2 BEDFORD SQUARE, W.C.

1911

NOTE OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT

various obligations to all thosewho have lent me theiraid in the

friendMr John W.Simpson,towhosesuggestionthework owesitsorigin,and to whose unfailing good nature and unerring judgment I have

frequentlyappealed and never invain at critical junctures. To Mr

ArthurStratton I owe a deep debt forvaluableadviceandcriticism in

the revision of the work and the selection of illustrations, involving

are alsodueto MrArthurTilley, of King's College,Cambridge, andto

Mr R Phene* Spiers, forvarious suggestions, and to the latter for theloan ofa numberof photographs

I am greatlyindebted to Mr Alan Potterfor his admirable

photo-graphs,manyofwhich weretakenexpresslyfor thiswork,andto Messrs

Lawrence Gotch and Philip Hepworth for their excellent measured

Lament'sinvaluablehelpin compilingtheIndex andreading theproof.

Institute of British Architectsforsubjectsfromold books andprints in

theLibrary, andto Messrs Arnottand Wilsonfor Fig 402

ThanksareduetotheFrenchpublisherswhohave withcharacteristiccourtesypermittedmetoreproduceexamplesfromtheirvaluableworks

Details of the subjects and their sources are given in the Index to

Illustrations Their names are as follows: Messieurs F Boissonas,

Geneva; E Twietmeyer,Leipzig; A. Calavas, F, Contet,Ch.Eggimann,

Ch Foulard, A Gu&inet, andE Levy,allofParis

Ican onlyfitly concludethisnotebyexpressingmygratitude tomy

Publishersfortheirkindnessandvaluable helpinmany waysthroughoutthe longpreparation ofthe book,andin particular toMr HarryBatsford

forhislaboriousworkin connection with theillustrationsandprinting.

W H W.

INTRODUCTION.

PAGS

FRENCHGOTHIC ARCHITECTURAL NEEDS OF FRANCE CHANNELS OF

ITALIAN INFLUENCE ON FRENCH ART THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY:

ITALIANAND NATIVE ELEMENTS IN FRENCH ARCHITECTURE ING STYLES . vvCHAPTER I. STYLE OF LOUIS XII (1495-1515).

RESULT-BEGINNINGS OF ITALIAN INFLUENCE ATTEMPTED FUSION

BETWEEN LOMBARD RENAISSANCE AND FLAMBOYANT

GOTHIC.

REIGNS OF CHARLES VIII. AND LOUIS XII. EFFECTS OF ITALIAN

CAM-PAIGNSITALIAN DESIGNERS AND CRAFTSMEN INTRODUCED COLONY

BLOIS, ETC CHURCHES AND TOMBS

CHAPTER II STYLE OF FRANCIS L

(1515-45)-FUSION BETWEEN NATIVE STYLE AND LOMBARD

RENAISSANCE COMPLETED.

BIX>IS,CHAMBORD, ETC ITALIANDESIGNERSANDCRAFTSMEN:

BOCCA-DORO FRENCH BUILDERS OTHER CHATEAUX: MADRID,

FONTAINE-BLEAU, ST GERMAIN HOUSES PUBLIC BUILDINGS CHURCHES AND

Xli CONTENTS

CHAPTER III STYLE OF HENRY II

(i53-9)-INFLUENCE OF ROMAN RENAISSANCE.

PAGE

END OFFRANCIS I.'S REIGN SCHOOL OF FONTAINEBLEAU:.ROSSO,

PRIMA-TICCIO, SERLIO ANCY-LE-FRANC RISE OF NATIVE ARCHITECTS: DU

CERCEAU, GOUJON, LESCOT, DE LJ

OFCOURT-CHARACTER OFADVANCEDRENAISSANCEINFRANCE: SEVERE

AND FREE SCHOOLS THE LOUVRE, ANET, MONCEAUX HOTELS

THECIVILWARS CHARACTEROF LATER RENAISSANCE TUILERIES, NEUIL, CHARLEVAL GARDEN DESIGN HOTELS, ETC ARCHITECTURAL

-113

LOUIS XIII (1590-1660).

UTILITARIAN ARCHITECTURE AND RIVAL TENDENCIES OF

NETHERLANDS BAROCCO AND ROMAN CLASSICISM

REIGNS OF HENRY IV. AND LOUIS XIII. EFFECTS OF POLITICAL AND LIGIOUSSETTLEMENT BOURBON ART POLICY ADVANCE IN PLANNING

MERCIER, LE MUET, F. MANSART WORKS AT THE LOUVRE AND

TUILERIES, FONTAINEBLEAU AND ST GERMAIN; THE LUXEMBOURG,

RICHELIEU, BLOIS, ETC HOTELS TOWN, PLANNING DECORATION

CHURCHES HUGUENOT ANDJESUITARCHITECTS DOMES TOMBS - 206

II.-CHAPTER V STYLE OF LOUIS XIV. (1640-1710).BAROCCO-PALLADIAN COMPROMISE "THE GRAND

MANNER."

REIGNAND ARTPOLICYOFLOUISXIV.ANDHIS MINISTERS THEACADEMIES

MAN-SART, LE VAU PARISIAN HOTELS CHATEAUX: MAISONS, VAUX, ETC

J. H.MANSART COMPLETION OF LOUVREANDTUILERIES; VERSAILLES,

BERAIN, DE COTTE CHURCH

SOR-BONNE, VAL-DE-GRACE, INVALIDES, VERSAILLES CHAPEL

CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER VI STYLE OF LOUIS XV. (1710-70).

Rococo-PALLADIAN COMPROMISE.

PAGEREGENCY REIGN OF LOUIS XV SOCIALATMOSPHERE COMFORTAND ELE-GANCEDECORATION: "REGENCE," ROCOCO, "ROCAILLE," "CHINOI-

SERIES" DECOTTE,WATTEAU CURVILINEARANDASYMMETRICALDENCIES:OPPENORDT, MEISSONN1ER ACADEMIC TRADITION:BOFFRAND,

-356

CHAPTER VII STYLE OF LOUIS XVI. (1730-90).

PURISTIC REACTION BEGINNINGS OF

ARCHAEO-LOGICAL TENDENCY.

END OF LOUIS XV.'$ REIGN AND REIGN OF LOUISXVI CAUSESOFFRENCH

ANGLOMANIA SERVANDONY, J A. GABRIEL, SOUFFLOT STRAIGHT

LINES AND SYMMETRY RESTORED CLASSICAL PURISM PALATIAL AND

GARDEN HOTELS DECORATION TOWNPLANNING PUBLIC BUILDINGS,

4O7

CHAPTER VIII STYLE OF THE EMPIRE

(1790-1830)

ARCHAEOLOGICAL CLASSICISM

TRA-DITIONSINCREASEDINTERESTINCLASSICALANTIQUITY PERCIERAND

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE

RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE

INTRODUCTION

DURING the fifteenth andsixteenth centuries the peoples of Europe,

led by Italy, passed from their mediaeval to their modern stage of

extent inspired by the New Learning, or recovered lore of ClassicalAntiquity, is known as the Renaissance The value of its character

and workhasbeen variouslyestimatedat differentperiods, butwehave

now emerged from the controversial era, and with the growth of the

historical spirit it can be viewed dispassionately, as an inevitablestep in the advanceof civilisation, not more exempt from defect than

others The twentieth century may, in fact, be content to strike a

previously regarded

Its historyhas beentold, and told exhaustively, from almost everypoint ofview. Thetaskattemptedinthesepages isto traceits effects,

bothimmediate and secondary, onthe art of architecture in France,a

in European civilisationthat no aspectof its own civilisation can fail

tobeof importanceforitsneighbours

character, theresultantof an endeavour to clothe structuresadaptedto

derivedfromthearchitectureof classicalantiquity to recasta national

style in a classical mould Thp character ofthe outcome of such a

process of assimilation naturally varies in proportion to the force of

resistance exerted bythe national style. But it is not less interesting

or valuable tostudyitwhen, asin the caseof France, thatresistance is

strong,than when, as inthecaseofItaly,ithardly existed.

In Italy the distance traversed by the national styles from the

common classical starting pointwas butsmall And nothingismore

striking in her mediaeval architecture than the persistence in it of

classical traditions ofwalland space composition, of horizontalityand

influencetheyexerted uponexoticstylesof diverseoriginimportedinto

difference betweenthe later Romanesque buildingsandthose affected

principally manifested by a closer systematisation of design andincreasedrefinementofdetail

In France, where the national style had reached a stage of

development which constituted the almost direct antithesis of its

remote classical origin,thefusionwas effectedwith far less ease; and,

if for that reason its results but seldom rival the best works of the

ItalianRenaissancein idealcharm, theyyet possessa hauntinginterest,and offer perhaps even more suggestion for the modern world by

reason of thetracesofstrugglewhichthey bearuponthem

civilisation as Italy herself, but theproportion of thenorthern invaders

Visigoths, Burgundians, Franks,and Northmen to the Romanised

populationhad beengreater, andtheinfluenceof Germanicinstitutions

more powerful. In thenewstatewhich emerged there after centuries

of obscure conflicts, the civilisation of mediaeval Europe reachedits fullest, its most characteristic, expression. From the twelfth to the

fourteenth century,andespecially in the reignsof

PhilipAugustus and

Saint Louis, this statewas gaining in consistency,

power,andterritory,and Francetookaleadingpartnot onlyinthe political,butalso inthe

spiritual, intellectual, andartisticlife of Europe. Thiswas the heroic

religious ordersand the guilds,

of scholastictheology and cathedral building. Itwas followedby one

of growingprosperityand

refinement,butdeclining vigour, which ended

inthedisastersof theHundredYears'War

INTRODUCTION. xvii

After sufferingthe miseries and degradation consequent on foreign

invasion and internal strife, thecountrywas gradually restored to pendence and unity by the heroism of Joan of Arc and the astutepolicy of thereigns of Charles VII (1422-61)andLouisXL (1461-83).

inde-A new France then arose.from her ashes with the feudal and asticalideals oftheMiddle Agesgreatly shaken Asuccessfulstruggleagainst the invader had awakened a new sense ofnationality and of

ecclesi-solidaritywith the crown, the one mediaeval institutionwhich emerged

unweakened from the anarchy. The kings set on foot a work ofreorganisation, bydeveloping the central administrative,judicial, fiscal,

andmilitary system atthe expense of thelocal and feudal ones They madethemselvesparamountoverallconflictingpowers: theycontrolled

the Church and the municipalities, and deprived the nobles of theirindependent authority, absorbing their territories and enrolling their

the restoration of order and prosperity, which permitted the rise of

an influential middle class oflawyers, bankers, and manufacturers, was accompanied by the growth of the capitalist principle in commerce.

The newly invented printing press favoured the spread of education.Literary activity and classical studies revived, and the growth of

Humanism went handinhandwiththatof individualism

This national history had been accompanied by a highly

char-acteristicarchitectural development, culminating, when the mediaevalmonarchy was at its height, in a noble austere style with simplestructural forms and symbolic sculpture, architectonicin its character

Inthe ensuing eraof material progress, the structural problems being

embellishment; whilelosing in virility,architecturalformsgrew richerand more graceful, sculpture more purely decorative With the

national disorganisation and impoverishment during the HundredYears' War, came a moral and artistic decline Architecture was reduced to embroidery on old themes, and lost itself in ingenuities

of design and dexterities of execution,while sculpture fell intoan

ex-travagantnaturalism. This wasthestateofaffairsinthesecondhalfofthefifteenthcenturywhenthenational revival and renewed prosperity

calledfora newoutburst ofarchitecturalactivity.

France under Louis XL produced work of considerable

magnifi-cence, but the Dukes of Burgundy,thelastof the great vassals tobe

subdued,werefarmore liberalpatrons ofartthan theFrenchking. In

their territories,which included alargepart of thepresent Belgiumaswell as the easternprovinces of France,and which hadtoagreat extent

upon a phaseof exceptional splendour, inwhichall thecharacteristics

pushed to extremes It might have seemed as if the national style

itself the germs of decay, and manycauses contributed to render it

unsuitable to meet the requirements ofacivilisationwhich was being

likemanner.

Itwas an inevitablecondition of mediaevalart to be moulded by

activity; andthestrenuouslifeof mediseval Europenaturallyfoundits

artisticexpressioninthe buildingand decoration of churches, whether

the immediate motivewere spiritual fervour, localpatriotism, orfamily

pride Such was thesplendour of the results, that all contemporary

buildingwas moulded to the ecclesiastical style, even in the caseof

military architecture, which in the main was the outcome of the

utilitarian considerations of warfare But in the late fifteenth

Gorgeousceremonial and a multiplicityof observancestook the place

of zeal and faith. The lives of the clergy were often worldly, if not

scandalous,andtheynotinfrequentlyranged themselves on thesideof

weakening their hold on men's minds The ascetic conception of

life of the Middle Ages had already broken down in practice

j thehumanistic gospelofself-cultivationandthe joy of lifenowsweptaway

the embargo which the Church had laid on the free exercise of all

bodilyandmental powers

Sincethe ideal medisevalchurchconsisted, asithasbeensaid, of astoneroof, orrather

ceiling, andofglass walls,theeffortsofthebuilders

had been concentrateduponthe

carrying ofribvaultsonthe minimum

of direct support bya nicely calculated system of thrust and

counter-thrust But this system had outlived its reason d'etre France was

well equipped with places of worship; and the mysteries of vaultingheld no secrets for the maitres d'&uvres* No further progress was

possible in that direction, and the need was for systems of wider

adaptability

In sofarasGothic architecturewas militaryithadalso survivedits

use and efficiency. The knell of feudalism and private warfare had

rung, and the towered stone-built castle could not resist artillery.

Since fortificationwas now controlled bythe central

government and

applied almost exclusively to citiesand frontier fortresses,and sinceit

consisted more and more of earthworks,its design provided an

ever-diminishing scope for architecture proper, whose missionwas ingly thehousing ofpeacefulcitizens Then medieval architecturewas

increas-in large measure the result of corporate

energies, the outcome of a

focussed upon the rebuilding of St Peter's, made Rome a centre

of Italy, arid,in the SilverAge which followed, architecture split into

two schools, tending respectively toastrict andafree interpretationof

antiquity On the one hand men of strong personal geniuslike San

Gallo, San Michele, or Peruzzi began to be succeeded by others less

original intheirconceptions,suchas Serlio, Vignola, andPalladio,who

minuter study ofantiquity Theydisplayed great literary activityand

reducedconstruction andcompositiontoanexact science,withdetailed

rules, not merelyfor the proportions of the Orders, but for designing

though still capable of works of considerable grandeur, dignity, and

even charm

charge ofSt Peter's,headed a revolt against classical purism and thedead hand in architecture His titanic genius, disdainful of rule,

made arbitrary use of architectural forms to produce an imposing

setting for sculpture, and as a means of magnificent display. His

love of strong contrasts, violent effects, and exaggerated scale were

insufficiently tempered by attention to structural appropriateness

styles of the seventeenth century, culminating in Bernini and

classical features in strange perversions, or replaced architectural by

sculpturalforms; itsdetail was often coarse and its general character

emphatic and pretentious, but these defects are often redeemed by

a true,if over sumptuous,decorative and plastic instinct,anda vigour

of conception, not devoid of impressiveness, picturesqueness, or even

poetry The

doseofjhe^figfttttce^ilhiuiLui/-wKiiUb&Edthca-iicfrof.tho

Rococo styT,""a.nfQ^biopt of theJjajcoccQ.^,Jtismarked by analmost\

exclusive'iiseof curved lines, bothinplanandelevation,andisseenatJ

its best in a type ofinternal decoration, often of great elegance and/

daintiness, consisting principally inacapricious collocationofscrolls. /

The strict classic school meanwhile, though throwninto the shade,

begantoswingback once moretowardsclassical purism,largelyhelped

bythe impression produced bynewly discovered remains of antiquity;

andarchitecturebegan to assumea more archaeological characterthan

atanyprevioustime.

Duringthe threeand ahalf centuriesofFrencharchitecturalhistory,

which volume were not confined

thatofItaly. France-frequentlyattractedcraftsmenand designersfrom

northernandTeutoniccountries, especially Flanders,butthiswasoften

but an indirectway of absorbing Italian influence, though it reached

tendedasarule toreinforcethe freer and more naturalistic tendencies

athome Thusthegrowth ofBarocco and Rococoschools waslargely

assistedby Belgian, Dutch,and Germanartists, while in garden designEnglishinfluencewasthe chief factorinthe revolution against theclassicaltraditioninthe eighteenth century But, in architecture at this time,

Englishand Dutchinfluence,ifnot verypowerful, contributedsomething

tothepuristic reaction.

The metaphorcontainedin theword Renaissance is veryapplicable

to the architecture of France, re-born of the marriage of Gothic and

Italian artat the close of the Middle Ages. But it was a blending

changing results Thefirst andgreatest fusion took place inthelatefifteenth and early sixteenth centuries The elements in this caseWere the Flamboyant Gothic of France and the almost equallyfloridJEarlyRenaissancestyleof northernItalyintroducedwith thecolony oflAmboise Theresult, aftera period oftransitionwhose workisknown by

thenameoftheLouis XII Style, wastheEarly Renaissance of France,

orFrancis I. Style It is to thesefirst thirtyor fortyyears thatWalter

Paterreferswhen he says:* "WhatiscalledtheRenaissanceinFrance

is notso muchthe introduction of a whollynewtaste ready-made from

Italy,butrather thefinestandsubtlest phase ofthe Middle Ageitself,

its last fleeting splendour and temperate Saint Martin's summer";

and again:

"

In this way there was produced a new and peculiar phase oftaste with qualities and a charm ofits own, blending the somewhat

attenuated graceof Italian ornamentwith thegeneral lines of northern

design."

In the middle ofthe sixteenth

century thebreakwith the Middle Ages became more pronounced A second fusion took place, thistime between the Francis I. Styleon the one side, and onthe otherthe mature or Roman Renaissance ofItalyintroduced by the colony

of Fontainebleau, and by Frenchmen who had visited Italy,

produc-ing the mature Renaissance of France, or Henry II Style By this

one handa French school of free Classic grew out of the school of

rather coarse forms of the Style of Louis XIII Compelled into

* "

TheRenaissance: StudiesinArt and 2nd

INTRODUCTION XXV

coalitionwith the strict classic school under LouisXIV., but keeping

intouch withItalian Barocco, it re-emerged in his later years,gaining

seeminglylawless, elegance oftheLouisXV. Style.

Thus thoughGothic detailwas eliminated in secularworkas early

as about 1540, the native, free,naturalisticspirit,which it represented,

remainedpotent in design bycoalescingwith the free classictendency

of Italy. In churcharchitecture Gothic designandeven Gothicdetail

influenceistraceableevenintheeighteenth.

On the other hand, the pure classic school,after falling somewhat

intoabeyancein thelatersixteenth century, revivedintheseventeenth,

when the direct study of ancient Roman art lent its aid towards the

latter,simultaneous with that in Italy, and the utilisation of material,

being thestylesofLouisXVI andtheEmpire

In this long architectural evolution, which resulted from the

partsplayed byeachsideare equally important,if not equally obvious.

They may be compared to the stock and the graft. 7The native

elementsupplies the sap, thelife, withoutwhich the graft mustperish.But it is by virtue of the graft, an importation from outside, yet

remotely of its ownkin,that the tree is saved fromrunningto waste,

Though the detail and typical features of the native element soon

disappeared, yet the principle, which underlay them, remained It

vertically,in endeavoursto express actual constructionandplan inthearchitectural treatment,andin the consequent soaringand picturesqueeffects The imported element brought with it the love of thehorizontalline, the idealismwhichdoes notscruple to imitate orretain,

for their intrinsic beauty, forms once originated by structural needs,

butafterwardselaboratedinto objects of admirationfor theirownsake

Holding that utilitarian considerations of plan and construction arenecessities to be subordinated to the beauty of the total design, it

strove after regularity, symmetry,andrepose While the former, with

purposeof exhibiting clever solutions of self-set problems, the latterwas inclined to the other extreme of sham construction and dulluniformity

of thehumanmind Each foundits counterpartindomainsother than

that of art. Underthe aspect ofits insistence on lawandorder the

classical influence, may be regarded as associated with the growth ofthe organisedmodernState Itwasliabletodegenerateintoadespotic

system of rules, evenas the Statedevelopedinto an absoluteand cruelautocracy The other element, the Gothic and native influence, may

be regarded and in this respect it found an allyin the individualistsideof the Renaissance asstandingforfreedom fromrule,andthusasassociated with those forces in the national life which opposed the

encroachments of authority whether in Church or State But, like

them, itwasliabletofosterlicenceandanarchy.

Since it is the task of the followingpages to tracetheinteractions

ofthesetwinforcesinthearchitectural world,andto describe thestyles

towhichtheygavebirth, the narrativebeginsin the openingchapteratthemoment whenthe dynasticwarsof thelate fifteenthcenturybrought France into direct contact with Italy, and provided an opportunityforthe Renaissanceinfluence to burst upon Frencharchitecturelikeafertilising flood

4. PERIGUEUX: HOUSESON THE QUAY.

edifices were often built by, or at the expense of, corporations,

ecclesiastical, social, orindustrial Theguilds, which so largelyreared

capitalism and individualism, which were sapping their foundations,

were forces which would have to be reckoned with in a newarchitecturaldevelopment

genius of theNorthexpressingitssubjective,analytic, realisticbent all,

in fact, that was most opposed to the classical spirit. But French

society was now again coming under the sway of classical thought,anditwas natural thattheSouthern or Gallo-Roman element should

exert a more decisive influence on the nationalart This could not,however, proceedfromthesouthern provinces of France,whereclassical

culture had been a power in the twelfth century, for the life was

languageandpoliticalsupremacy.

Lastly,Gothicarchitecturewasofpurely nativegrowth. Originating

withit,and beyondit, to all western Europe A nation cannotgo on

indefinitely creating and exporting ideas French art in the latefifteenth centuryhad exhausted, not indeed its skill or vigour, but its

stock of creative ideas Itwastimethat the debt shouldberepaid by

theimportation of anewinspirationfromabroad

The architecture of thefuture,then, would be mainlysecular and

newnationallife, the nobilitynow taking their part as servantsof the

State, and the middle classes enriched by the newly established

security The ch&teau and hdtel would be its standard, not the

church or the keep. It would be the product of individual genius,andfreedfrom the pre-occupation of a single structural problem Itwould be tinged by humanistic ideas and give expression to the

objective, synthetic, idealistic tendencies of classical civilisation; and,

since southern France was not in a condition to supply the impulse

soughtinaforeign land.

Now Italy, and Italy alone, could supply what was lacking in

French architecture under the changing conditions of the times, by

providingitwith a fresh unexploited sourceof inspiration. Already a

number of agencies were busy introducing the new influence, and

with others, soon to come into operation,were to continue to do so

forseveral centuries

Travellers are inthe spreadof a

XX INTRODUCTION.

culture But in the fifteenth century those passing between Italy

andartists.

The relations between the French Church and the Holy See produced a constant interchangeof visits Frenchclericsof standing,

to Rome, and great political Churchmen, like the Cardinals of

Amboise,passed frequentlytoand fro. Again,French benefices were

a convenient provision for Italian younger sons and "nephews" of

dutiesdischargedwhentheyhad drawnthe revenues

Then,too, therewere frequent embassies from Paris to thevarious

Italian courts, such as that conducted, in 1495, toVenice byPhilippe

de Comines, who was greatlyimpressed by the beauty of that"most

triumphantcitiethateuerI sawe." "Sureinmyopinion,"heexclaims,

the Grand Canal "is the goodliest streete in theworld and the best

built." Norwas helessstruckbytheCertosaof Pavia "Thisgoodly

Charterhouse Church,which invery deed is thefairestthat euer I saw,

forit is all offine marble."* Meanwhile

equipment much money was lavished Ambassadors andtheirretinuesdisplayedItalianfashionsand broughtcostly

gifts,whileItalianbankers

andmerchantsinFrench towns tookanot unimportant,if less

ostenta-tious,shareinthedissemination oftheircountry'sart.

At this early stage the sight of articles of Italian workmanship,

findingtheirwayintothecountryinthetrain ofanyofthese categories

of travellers, such as goldsmiths' work, medals and cameos, books,pictures,furnitureandintarsias, castsand bronzework,terra-cottas andmaiolicaallhelped toaccustom FrencheyestoRenaissanceforms,andtheveryfactthatItalian quarrieswerethe sourceofthemarble supply

necessitated thatsuchlargerobjects as fountains or

tombs, ifofmarble,

should beItalianmade.

Strangely, however, it was to soldiers that France owed the

greatest impetus towards the Renaissance, for the

ofseeing and admiring Italian art. Thesebegan with the expedition

ItalyandTuscany, toNaplesin

1495,

followed byothers under LouisXII., FrancisI.,and Henry II,up to

1559 Then afteralulltherewere freshwars under LouisXIII,andagain under Louis XIV and XV., but these were of less artistic

importanceasanart centre

,

*

"HjstoneofPhilip de Comines,"translated byThos Danett, London, 1601

Travel for pleasure and information is, as a general practice, a

onwards it became increasingly common for French gentlemen,

scholars, and men of lettersto visit Italy, to mention only such

well-known namesasRabelais and Montaigne.

Ifthe invasionswereallon oneside, Italy madeapeacefulconquest

French art by their Italian predilections, and by keeping up artistic

intercoursewiththeir native land Within a centurytwo princesses of

became regents. Both showed Italian proclivities in their art

the handsofanItalianChurchman, continued the sametradition*

in Italyand Italian artists taughtin France, During the greater part

of the fifteenth century the two countries probably looked askance

at each other's art, and few artists crossed the frontier in eitherdirection Among the exceptions were the miniaturist, Jehan

both found employment at Rome But from the early sixteenth

tospend sometimein Italy. Jean Perre*al under Louis XII travelled

in that country, du Cerceau, de rOrme, and Bullant followed his

example under Francis I. The training of young architects in Italy,and especially at Rome atthatperiodthefirst school of architecture

in Europe consisted not only in visiting, measuring, and sketching

resultsof their studies were embodied The practice of Italian travel

became ageneralonefor youngartistsandhaspersisted to thepresent

day Under Louis XIV. it was erected into a system under State

Archi-tects and others were also sent on missions by several of the kings,

especiallyFrancisI.andLouisXIII., tocollectworks ofart,sketchand measure buildings,andtakecasts

Italians in France were rare in the fifteenth century; but fromits

closing years onwards acontinuous stream of architectsandengineers,

summoned to assist in architectural work These were mostly

decorators, but included such architects as Guarini and Bernini

The but no means the of the agencies for

xxii INTRODUCTION.

spreading RenaissanceprinciplesinFrancewas thatof direct oralandliterary instruction. Among Italian architects who taught in France wereFra Giocondo inthe fifteenth,andSerlio inthesixteenth century

works in their numerous editions and translations is onlyrivalled by

that of a long series of works by French architects, beginning with

ortranslatedfromtheItalian,sketches,measured drawingsanddesigns.

The influence affecting French architecture from outside throughthesevariouschannels was,broadly speaking, thatof classicalantiquity.But since direct study of ancient monuments was not the first nor

simultaneouslyin differentpartsofItaly

In Tuscany, the cradleoftheRenaissancein theearlyquattrocento,

architectureproper maintained a certain austerity,andthe (Jelicateandrather minute type of ornament, evolved by a race of architects of

such as doorways or tombs. But when, in the third quarter of the

century, the movement spread to Upper Italy, the style assumed a

richer, more fantastic, dress, and the forms of the local styles of

Lombardy and Venetia Gothic, Byzantine or Romanesque were

translated intothe new language. Thisproduced a style of exquisite

charm and delicacy,and prolificinthe invention of new features, butproneto seek its effects too exclusively in the profusion of ornament

quarter of the century a third stage of development was reached, of

which Rome was the centre, and Bramante, with Raphael and his

otherpupils,thechiefexponent. Itresultedfrom thatmore systematic

study oftheancientmonuments whichinspiredthe writings of Alberti;

and received an impetus from the appearance of the first printed

edition of Vitruvius (c. 1486). This work, which is in the nature

of a handbook containing a code of formulae by means of which

engineersengaged on the public works of the Roman Empire might

clothe any structure in an architectural garb, was accepted by the

tounderlieclassical architectureandaccountforitsbeauty

whatitlostinyouthfulvitalityandvarietyof decorative motives The

pontificates of Julius II. (1503-13) and Leo X (1513-21) were the

"Golden Age of the Renaissance,"in which the concourse of

CHAPTER I.

STYLE OF LOUIS XII (1495-1515).

KINGS.

CHARLES VIII (1483-1498). Initial

K Motto "Si deuspro nobis^

quis contra nos?"

Louis XII (1498-1515). Initial

L Emblem Porcupine. Motto

"

Commitseteniimts."

QUEENS.

Emblem (I) Ermine Motto

"Afafo mori quam fadari," (2)

Ropegirdle. Motto**fai

dtlti"

CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS.

HENRYVII.(1485-^09). HENRYVIII (1509-1547).

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

REIGN OF CHARLES VIII Charles VIII succeeded his father

House ofAnjou and his marriage with Anne of Brittany, two large

nobility eager

spiritfull of romantic ambitions Hisill-balanced mind had received

nobetter training than a course of romances ofchivalry. The claim

to the crown ofNaples, bequeathed by his kinsman Rene" of Anjou,

andtheinvitationof Florenceandother Italian states to chastise localtyrants,gave Charles an opportunity, eagerly seized byhimselfandhis

RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE FRANCE.

people, of realising these dreams of adventure An expedition was

organised tomake good histitleto Naples and lord it over the cities

nobilityand gentry, gathered round the kingat Lyonsin the springof

1494 TheAlps werecrossed,and the French begana triumphalgressthrough Italy Within ayear,andalmost withoutstrikinga blow,

thespoilsof Naples

and manyart

treas-uresvaluedatabout

half a million ling

ster-Charles did notlongsurvive the war,

Amboise in

1498,

and was succeeded

byhiscousin,Louis

of Orleans, who

in-heritedhis

entangle-ments in Italian

affairs and married

hiswidow in order

toretainher duchy

VTT REIGN OF Louis

XII Louis XII ("Father of the People") endeared himselfto hissubjects as much by his simple life and bourgeois tastes as by his

interest in their welfare and the reduction of taxation, resulting from

Bloistotheroyaldomains. Tohis predecessor's pretensions to Naples

he added claims of his own to Milan, and, to enforce them, waged

By Francesco Laurana (1479-81).

THE STYLE OF LOUIS XII 3

but his armies werefinallydriven from thePeninsulain 1513,and his

reignended amiduniversal peace

These two reignswere long looked back upon as an age of gold.

Stable government and immunity from invasion, internal security andprosperitywere the needs most stronglyfelt,and, obtaining these, the

nation acquiesced in the -restriction of its liberties and the growing

absolutism of the monarchy

FORERUNNERS OF THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance, at anyrate inarchitecture,iscommonlydated from CharlesVIIL's Italiancam-

paign Inageneralsense thisis fairlyaccurate SpecimensofClassic

andItalian art had, however, begun to find theirwayacross theAlps

nearly a century before 1495. John, Duke of Berry (1340-1416),

his interest in antiquity led him to collect Roman coinsandcameos,and heprobablyemployed Italian miniaturists The Houseof Anjou,

which ruled in Provence, followed his example Francesco Laurana

made a series of coins and medals for Duke Rene, titular King of

Naples and Jerusalem, and his brother, Chartes of Maine (1460-67),and with the co-operation of the sculptors, Thomas of Como and

Thomas of Somoelvico, rebuilt the chapel of St Lazarus in the old

cathedral at Marseilles(1479-81)(Fig. 6),and atthesametimecarried

out a reredos(nowinthechurchofStDidieratAvignon), in the

back-ground of which buildings of Italian design occur. Among other

Cathedral (1475),the so-called"Niche ofKing Rene," and thetomb

of Jean de Cossa (1476) at Tarascon. King Ren also employed

Luca della Robbia, a panel by whom, with the king's arms,is in the

VictoriaandAlbert MuseumatSouth Kensington

Italians; but being comparatively small, they'could easily be carried

out to suit the taste ofpatrons with a leaning to Italian artwithoutbringing them into conflict with native prejudices orwith the guilds,

immediateimitators

EFFECTS OF ITALIAN CAMPAIGNS The work oftransformation in

thearts,hitherto sporadic,needed amore powerful impetus to bringit

into general operation Thiswas provided bythe Neapolitan

expedi-tion,whichgaveanopportunityfor largenumbersofmenofall classes

to see with their own eyes the triumphs ofan alien culture Italy

receivedtheminhergayestmood and most festal attire. In the first

fewmonths theFrench armypassedfromffitetofete. Naturalbeauties

and marvels ofartwereunrolled beforetheminanever-shiftingpageant

4 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE FRANCE.

muddyalleysofFrenchcities,withtheircrowdinggables,thegrimblank

wallsoffeudal keeps, thegrey stoneand darkenedtimber of the north,

pavedstreetslined with palaces whichglowedwith marble andfrescoes,

or thatairyvillasamongterraced gardens,setwithfountainsandstatues,

orange treesand vine pergolas, shouldseemofmorethanearthlybeauty

to theirnew northern owners?

Philippe de Cpmmines, though used to the sumptuous court of

"

Madame, Iwouldthat you might have

seenthis city,and the fair things which are therein,forit isanearthly

paradise." Theking himself wrote home in enthusiastic terms of the

into the central current of theworld's artwouldalso createa profound

crossed theboundsoftheirprovince

Thematerial and political fruits of the campaign were lamentably

small] butone thingwas effected the idea of Italyas the source of

Promised Land, the home of all delights of mind and sense,and it

becamethe ambition ofeveryFrench gentlemantoreproduce at home

the palaces and gardens of Italy, and to people them with paintings,

statuary, and marble fountains The work thus begun by Charles

II in thelastyear of hisreign

What wasitthat socaptivatedthesesoldiersandstatesmenin Italy?

andgilding, andfittedwith carved furniture and costlyhangings. Nor

isitaltogether truethat theconception ofthe countryseat as apleasure

house rather than as a fortress was new to them The comparative

securityof Louis XL's later years had permitted therisein France of

a certain number of undefended manor houses,and gardens laid outwithartwere by no means unknown in mediaeval France,thoughtheywere smallin scale, anddesignedin asomewhatutilitarian spirit.

bythe beautyofthe land and climate,then bythe magnificence of thedesignanddecoration of gardensandtherichness of buildingmaterials,

andfinallybyItalianpaintingandsculpture,then almostat their zenith

no doubt found in