RICE CULTURE IN THE ORIENT ppsx

RICE CULTURE IN THE ORIENT The basal food crop of the people of China, Korea and Japan is rice, and the mean consumption in Japan, for the five years ending 1906, per capita and per annu

RICE CULTURE IN THE ORIENT

The basal food crop of the people of China, Korea and Japan is rice,

and the mean consumption in Japan, for the five years ending 1906,

per capita and per annum, was 302 pounds Of Japan's 175,428 square miles she devoted, in 1906, 12,856 to the rice crop Her average

yield of water rice on 12,534 square miles exceeded 33 bushels per

acre, and the dry land rice averaged 18 bushels per acre on 321

square miles In the Hokkaido, as far north as northern Illinois,

Japan harvested 1,780,000 bushels of water rice from 53,000 acres

In Szechwan province, China, Consul-General Hosie places the yield

of water rice on the plains land at 44 bushels per acre, and that of

the dry land rice at 22 bushels Data given us in China show an

average yield of 42 bushels of water rice per acre, while the

average yield of wheat was 25 bushels per acre, the normal yield in

Japan being about 17 bushels

If the rice eaten per capita in China proper and Korea is equal to

that in Japan the annual consumption for the three nations, using

the round number 300 pounds per capita per annum, would be:

Population Consumption

If the ratio of irrigated to dry land rice in Korea and China proper

is the same as that in Japan, and if the mean yield of rice per acre

in these countries were forty bushels for the water rice and twenty bushels for the dry land rice, the acreage required to give this

production would be:

the square miles of canalized land in China, as indicated on pages

97 to 102, would indicate an acreage of rice for her quite as large

as estimated

In the three main islands of Japan more than fifty per cent of the

cultivated land produces a crop of water rice each year and 7.96 per cent of the entire land area of the Empire, omitting far-north

Karafuto In Formosa and in southern China large areas produce two crops each year At the large mean yield used in the computation the estimated acreage of rice in China proper amounts to 5.93 per cent

of her total area and this is 7433 square miles greater than the

acreage of wheat in the United States in 1907 Our yield of wheat, however, was but 19,000,000 tons, while China's output of rice was certainly double and probably three times this amount from nearly the same acreage of land; and notwithstanding this large production per acre, more than fifty per cent, possibly as high as seventy-five per cent, of the same land matures at least one other crop the same year, and much of this may be wheat or barley, both chiefly consumed

as human food

Had the Mongolian races spread to and developed in North America instead of, or as well as, in eastern Asia, there might have been a Grand Canal, something as suggested in Fig 148, from the Rio Grande

to the mouth of the Ohio river and from the Mississippi to

Chesapeake Bay, constituting more than two thousand miles of inland water-way, serving commerce, holding up and redistributing both the run-off water and the wasting fertility of soil erosion, spreading

them over 200,000 square miles of thoroughly canalized coastal

plains, so many of which are now impoverished lands, made so by the intolerable waste of a vaunted civilization And who shall venture

to enumerate the increase in the tonnage of sugar, bales of cotton, sacks of rice, boxes of oranges, baskets of peaches, and in the

trainloads of cabbage, tomatoes and celery such husbanding would make possible through all time; or number the increased millions

these could feed and clothe? We may prohibit the exportation of our phosphorus, grind our limestone, and apply them to our fields, but this alone is only temporizing with the future The more we produce, the more numerous our millions, the faster must present practices speed the waste to the sea, from whence neither money nor prayer can call them back

If the United States is to endure; if we shall project our history

even through four or five thousand years as the Mongolian nations have done, and if that history shall be written in continuous peace, free from periods of wide-spread famine or pestilence, this nation must orient itself; it must square its practices with a conservation

of resources which can make endurance possible Intensifying

cultural methods but intensifies the digestion, assimilation and

exhaustion of the surface soil, from which life springs Multiple

cropping, closer stands on the ground and stronger growth, all mean the transpiration of much more water per acre through the crops, and this can only be rendered possible through a redistribution of the

run-off and the adoption of irrigation practices in humid climates

where water exists in abundance Sooner or later we must adopt a national policy which shall more completely conserve our water

resources, utilizing them not only for power and transportation, but

primarily for the maintenance of soil fertility and greater crop

production through supplemental irrigation, and all these great

national interests should be considered collectively, broadly, and with a view to the fullest and best possible coordination China,

Korea and Japan long ago struck the keynote of permanent agriculture but the time has now come when they can and will make great

improvements, and it remains for us and other nations to profit by their experience, to adopt and adapt what is good in their practice and help in a world movement for the introduction of new and

improved methods

In selecting rice as their staple crop; in developing and

maintaining their systems of combined irrigation and drainage,

notwithstanding they have a large summer rainfall; in their systems

of multiple cropping; in their extensive and persistent use of

legumes; in their rotations for green manure to maintain the humus

of their soils and for composting; and in the almost religious

fidelity with which they have returned to their fields every form of waste which can replace plant food removed by the crops, these nations have demonstrated a grasp of essentials and of fundamental principles which may well cause western nations to pause and

Great as is the acreage of land in rice in these countries but

little, relatively, is of the dry land type, and the fields upon

which most of the rice grows have all been graded to a water level and surrounded by low, narrow raised rims, such as may be seen in Fig 149 and in Fig 150, where three men are at work on their foot-power pump, flooding fields preparatory to transplanting the rice If the country was not level then the slopes have been graded into horizontal terraces varying in size according to the steepness

of the areas in which they were cut We saw these often no larger than the floor of a small room, and Professor Ross informed me that

he walked past those in the interior of China no larger than a

dining table and that he saw one bearing its crop of rice,

surrounded by its rim and holding water, yet barely larger than a good napkin The average area of the paddy field in Japan is

officially reported at 1.14 se, or an area of but 31 by 40 feet

Excluding Hokkaido, Formosa and Karafuto, fifty-three per cent of the irrigated rice lands in Japan are in allotments smaller than one-eighth of an acre, and seventy-four per cent of other cultivated lands are held in areas less than one-fourth of an acre, and each of these may be further subdivided The next two illustrations, Figs

151 and 152, give a good idea both of the small size of the rice fields and of the terracing which has been done to secure the water level basins The house standing near the center of Fig 151 is a good scale for judging both the size of the paddies and the slope of the valley The distance between the rows of rice is scarcely one foot, hence counting these in the foreground may serve as another measure There are more than twenty little fields shown in this

engraving in front of the house and reaching but half way to it, and the house was less than five hundred feet from the camera

There are more than eleven thousand square miles of fields thus graded in the three main islands of Japan, each provided with rims, with water supply and drainage channels, all carefully kept in the best of repair The more level areas, too, in each of the three

countries, have been similarly thrown into water level basins,

comparatively few of which cover large areas, because nearly always the holdings are small All of the earth excavated from the canals and drainage channels has been leveled over the fields unless needed for levees or dikes, so that the original labor of construction,

added to that of maintenance, makes a total far beyond our

comprehension and nearly all of it is the product of human effort

The laying out and shaping of so many fields into these level basins brings to the three nations an enormous aggregate annual asset, a large proportion of which western nations are not yet utilizing The greatest gain comes from the unfailing higher yields made possible

by providing an abundance of water through which more plant food can

be utilized, thus providing higher average yields The waters used, coming as they do largely from the uncultivated hills and mountain lands, carrying both dissolved and suspended matters, make positive annual additions of dissolved limestone and plant food elements to the fields which in the aggregate have been very large, through the persistent repetitions which have prevailed for centuries If the

yearly application of such water to the rice fields is but sixteen

inches, and this has the average composition quoted by Merrill for

rivers of North America, taking into account neither suspended

matter nor the absorption of potassium and phosphorus by it, each ten thousand square miles would receive, dissolved in the water, substances containing some 1,400 tons of phosphorus; 23,000 tons of potassium; 27,000 tons of nitrogen; and 48,000 tons of sulphur In addition, there are brought to the fields some 216,000 tons of

dissolved organic matter and a still larger weight of dissolved

limestone, so necessary in neutralizing the acidity of soils,

amounting to 1,221,000 tons; and such savings have been maintained

in China, Korea and Japan on more than five, and possibly more than nine, times the ten thousand square miles, through centuries The phosphorus thus turned upon ninety thousand square miles would aggregate nearly thirteen million tons in a thousand years, which is less than the time the practice has been maintained, and is more phosphorus than would be carried in the entire rock phosphate thus far mined in the United States, were it all seventy-five per cent

pure

The canalization of fifty thousand square miles of our Gulf and

Atlantic coastal plain, and the utilization on the fields of the

silts and organic matter, together with the water, would mean

turning to account a vast tonnage of plant food which is now wasting into the sea, and a correspondingly great increase of crop yield There ought, and it would seem there must some time be provided a way for sending to the sandy plains of Florida, and to the sandy lands between there and the Mississippi, large volumes of the rich silt and organic matter from this and other rivers, aside from that which should be applied systematically to building above flood plain

the lands of the delta which are subject to overflow or are too low

to permit adequate drainage

It may appear to some that the application of such large volumes of water to fields, especially in countries of heavy rainfall, must

result in great loss of plant food through leaching and surface

drainage But under the remarkable practices of these three nations this is certainly not the case and it is highly important that our

people should understand and appreciate the principles which

underlie the practices they have almost uniformly adopted on the areas devoted to rice irrigation In the first place, their paddy

fields are under-drained so that most of the water either leaves the soil through the crop, by surface evaporation, or it percolates

through the subsoil into shallow drains When water is passed

directly from one rice paddy to another it is usually permitted some time after fertilization, when both soil and crop have had time to

appropriate or fix the soluble plant food substances Besides this, water is not turned upon the fields until the time for transplanting the rice, when the plants are already provided with a strong root system and are capable of at once appropriating any soluble plant food which may develop about their roots or be carried downward over them

Although the drains are of the surface type and but eighteen inches

to three feet in depth, they are sufficiently numerous and close so that, although the soil is continuously nearly filled with water,

there is a steady percolation of the fresh, fully aerated water

carrying an abundance of oxygen into the soil to meet the needs of

the roots, so that watermelons, egg plants, musk melons and taro are grown in the rotations on the small paddies among the irrigated rice after the manner seen in the illustrations In Fig 153 each double row of egg plants is separated from the next by a narrow shallow trench which connects with a head drain and in which water was standing within fourteen inches of the surface The same was true in the case of the watermelons seen in Fig 154, where the vines are growing on a thick layer of straw mulch which holds them from the moist soil and acts to conserve water by diminishing evaporation and, through decay from the summer rains and leaching, serves as fertilizer for the crop In Fig 155 the view is along a pathway

separating two head ditches between areas in watermelons and taro, carrying the drainage waters from the several furrows into the main ditches Although the soil appeared wet the plants were vigorous and healthy, seeming in no way to suffer from insufficient drainage

These people have, therefore, given effective attention to the

matter of drainage as well as irrigation and are looking after

possible losses of plant food, as well as ways of supplying it It

is not alone where rice is grown that cultural methods are made to conserve soluble plant food and to reduce its loss from the field, for very often, where flooding is not practiced, small fields and

beds, made quite level, are surrounded by low raised borders which permit not only the whole of any rain to be retained upon the field when so desired, but it is completely distributed over it, thus

causing the whole soil to be uniformly charged with moisture and preventing washing from one portion of the field to another Such provisions are shown in Figs 133 and 138

Extensive as is the acreage of irrigated rice in China, Korea and

Japan, nearly every spear is transplanted; the largest and best crop possible, rather than the least labor and trouble, as is so often

the case with us, determining their methods and practices We first saw the fitting of the rice nursery beds at Canton and again near

Kashing in Chekiang province on the farm of Mrs Wu, whose homestead

is seen in Fig 156 She had come with her husband from Ningpo after the ravages of the Taiping rebellion had swept from two provinces

alone twenty millions of people and settled on a small area of then

vacated land As they prospered they added to their holding by

purchase until about twenty-five acres were acquired, an area about ten times that possessed by the usual prosperous family in China

The widow was managing her place, one of her sons, although married, being still in school, the daughter-in-law living with her

mother-in-law and helping in the home Her field help during the

summer consisted of seven laborers and she kept four cows for the plowing and pumping of water for irrigation The wages of the men were at the rate of $24, Mexican, for five summer months, together with their meals which were four each day The cash outlay for the seven men was thus $14.45 of our currency per month Ten years

before, such labor had been $30 per year, as compared with $50 at the time of our visit, or $12.90 and $21.50 of our currency,

season, one fertilization answering for the two crops She stated that her annual expense for fertilizers purchased was usually about

$60, or $25.80 of our currency The homestead of Mrs Wu, Fig 156, consists of a compound in the form of a large quadrangle surrounding

a court closed on the south by a solid wall eight feet high The

structure is of earth brick with the roof thatched with rice straw

Our first visit here was April 19th The nursery rice beds had been planted four days, sowing seed at the rate of twenty bushels per acre The soil had been very carefully prepared and highly

fertilized, the last treatment being a dressing of plant ashes so

incompletely burned as to leave the surface coal black The seed, scattered directly upon the surface, almost completely covered it and had been gently beaten barely into the dressing of ashes, using

a wide, flat-bottom basket for the purpose Each evening, if the

night was likely to be cool, water was pumped over the bed, to be withdrawn the next day, if warm and sunny, permitting the warmth to

be absorbed by the black surface, and a fresh supply of air to be drawn into the soil

Nearly a month later, May 14th, a second visit was made to this farm and one of the nursery beds of rice, as it then appeared, is seen in Fig 159, the plants being about eight inches high and nearing the stage for transplanting The field beyond the bed had already been partly flooded and plowed, turning under "Chinese clover" to ferment

as green manure, preparatory for the rice transplanting On the opposite side of the bed and in front of the residence, Fig 156,

flooding was in progress in the furrows between the ridges formed