The effect of psychosocial factors on risky driving behaviors among cambodian adolescents

Combining these reviews indicates that these psychosocial variables: risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial deviant behaviors are among the most powerful vari

Focus and title of this dissertation

This dissertation, titled “The Effect of Psychosocial Factors on Risky Driving Behaviors among Cambodian Adolescents,” examines the psychosocial statistical predictors that influence risky driving behaviors in Cambodian youth The study aims to identify key factors that contribute to unsafe driving practices among adolescents in Cambodia.

The term "effect" in the title refers to statistical effects rather than causal effects due to the cross-sectional nature of the study, which is part of the PhD Clinical Psychology Program at VNU University of Education Risky driving behaviors are closely linked to various forms of psychopathology, making them significant in clinical psychology For example, the DSM-5 identifies reckless or self-destructive behaviors, including dangerous driving, as symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Bipolar Disorder Antisocial Personality Disorder is characterized by a blatant disregard for safety, manifesting in risky driving behaviors like speeding and driving under the influence Similarly, Borderline Personality Disorder includes impulsive actions such as reckless driving Research on risky driving is frequently published in clinical psychology journals, such as Karras et al (2023), which explores the relationship between psychopathic traits and driving behaviors in French offenders.

Clinical psychology encompasses a range of studies, including the work of Zinzow and Jeffirs (2018), which explores the connections between driving aggression and anxiety Their research focuses on assessment methods and interventions to address these issues effectively.

Journal of Clinical Psychology Thus, reckless driving is directly relevant to clinical psychology, given clinical psychology's focus on psychopathology, including risky behaviors

Social relationships and perceptions significantly influence mental health, making them crucial in clinical psychology Positive social connections are linked to better mental well-being, while negative relationships often lead to increased mental health issues Factors such as social support, isolation, and rejection play a vital role in this dynamic For example, individuals facing social rejection may exhibit heightened aggression and engage in risky behaviors Moreover, it is not just an individual's social status that affects their mental health; their perceptions of these social relationships are equally impactful Understanding how social phenomena shape mental health is essential in the field of clinical psychology.

Context and background

Road traffic accidents represent a significant public health issue globally, with the World Health Organization (WHO) reporting over 1.2 million fatalities in 2015 and 1.35 million in 2016 Each year, millions suffer serious injuries and endure long-term health complications from these incidents These accidents rank as the eighth leading cause of death worldwide and are projected to rise to the seventh position by 2030 Additionally, road traffic crashes contribute to an estimated global economic loss of about three percent of GDP.

Over 80% of the global population lives in low and middle-income countries, where 90% of road traffic fatalities occur (WHO, 2015) The traffic fatality rate in middle-income countries is twice that of high-income countries, while low-income countries experience a rate nearly three times higher (WHO, 2015; 2018) These fatalities significantly hinder economic growth, potentially resulting in losses of up to 5% of GDP Furthermore, a large proportion of these fatalities involve young individuals aged 15 to 29.

Individuals aged 29 represent valuable human resources for both their families and nations (WHO, 2015; 2018) However, road traffic accidents impose significant economic burdens, leading to increased healthcare costs for families and governments due to injuries or disabilities sustained (WHO, 2015; 2018).

Empirical studies highlight the significant impact of socioeconomic status on risky driving behaviors, revealing a positive correlation between poverty and road traffic injuries Research by Jafarpour and Rahimi-Movaghar (2014) indicates that individuals with low income are at a higher risk of being involved in road traffic accidents, leading to increased injuries and fatalities This underscores the vulnerability of those living in poverty to severe road traffic incidents.

Road traffic accidents pose a significant challenge for low and middle-income countries like Cambodia, where the accident rate is alarmingly high (Dy, 2016; UNDP Cambodia, 2021) In the first half of 2016, Cambodia, with a population of approximately 16.5 million, recorded 1,108 road traffic deaths, predominantly affecting young individuals aged 15 to 34 (Dy, 2016) The majority of these incidents occurred in provinces such as Phnom Penh, Preah Sihanouk, Takeo, Battambang, and Pursat (Dy, 2016) Notably, nearly 75% of fatalities involved motorcyclists, while 10% were pedestrians (Dy, 2016; UNDP Cambodia, 2021) The primary contributors to these accidents include reckless human behaviors such as speeding, drunk driving, and neglecting traffic laws, alongside factors related to road infrastructure and vehicle conditions (Dy, 2016; UNDP Cambodia, 2021).

Road traffic accidents remain a critical issue in Cambodia, with over 1,700 incidents reported in the first eight months of 2021 In the first half of the year alone, more than 700 fatalities occurred due to over 1,200 accidents, primarily caused by speeding (34%), followed by carelessness (23%) and other risky behaviors such as ignoring right-of-way rules, dangerous overtaking, and drunk driving Phnom Penh, the capital city, continues to have the highest number of accidents, echoing trends from previous years In 2018, authorities stopped nearly 103,000 vehicles during the same period, highlighting ongoing traffic safety concerns.

Of these police stops, 77,795 were motorcycle drivers violating laws, most of them being stopped because they were not wearing helmets (Mom, 2021)

Not wearing helmets while riding motorcycles greatly increases the risk of injury or death in accidents According to the WHO (2018), pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists make up over half of all traffic fatalities Key contributors to road traffic injuries include speeding, driving under the influence of alcohol, improper helmet use, lack of seatbelt use, and inadequate supervision of child pedestrians Consequently, road traffic deaths and injuries pose a significant crisis globally, particularly in low and middle-income countries, with Cambodia facing severe challenges related to road safety.

Statement of the problem

Road traffic accidents are a significant cause of death and injury, particularly impacting low and middle-income countries like Cambodia Young individuals, essential for the country's future, are especially vulnerable to these accidents Understanding the factors that lead to risky driving behaviors among youth is crucial Research indicates that psychosocial factors such as risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial behaviors significantly contribute to risky driving These variables not only highlight the dangers associated with driving but also present opportunities for intervention and modification, making them critical areas for focus in road safety initiatives.

Driving behaviors differ significantly between genders, with studies indicating that male adolescents are more prone to traffic offenses compared to their female counterparts (Bina, Graziano, & Bonino, 2006) Additionally, female drivers tend to avoid driving in challenging situations more than males (Okonkwo et al., 2014) Moreover, research shows that male drivers exhibit riskier driving behaviors than females (Oltedal & Rundmo, 2006; Rhodes & Pivik, 2011).

Risk perception significantly influences risky driving behaviors, as it reflects how individuals assess threats and the consequences of their actions (Ferrer & Klein, 2015) Research indicates that male and teenage drivers often find enjoyment in risky driving and perceive such behaviors as less dangerous than female and adult drivers do (Rhodes & Pivik, 2011) Furthermore, male teenagers exhibit lower risk perception compared to their female counterparts, making risk perception a key factor in understanding distracted driving behaviors in both demographics (Carter et al., 2014).

Young people are particularly vulnerable to road traffic accidents due to risky driving behaviors, as highlighted by global and local research Peer influence plays a significant role in shaping these behaviors, especially in terms of distracted driving, which includes activities like texting, talking on the phone, or eating while driving Studies show that adolescents are more inclined to engage in distracted driving when they believe their peers partake in and approve of such behaviors Additionally, research indicates that teenage males are more likely to exhibit risky driving behaviors when accompanied by peers who accept risk-taking Therefore, understanding peer influences is crucial, as they significantly increase the likelihood of dangerous driving, leading to a higher risk of injury or fatality.

Individual differences in temperament and personality significantly influence human behavior, particularly in young people Sensation-seeking, characterized by a desire for intense experiences despite potential risks, and antisocial deviant behavior, which includes risk-taking and rule-breaking tendencies, are linked to risky driving habits Research indicates that drivers with high sensation-seeking traits are more prone to engaging in dangerous driving behaviors Additionally, older drivers exhibit lower levels of sensation-seeking compared to their younger counterparts Gender differences also emerge, as male adolescents typically demonstrate higher sensation-seeking than females, although both genders exhibit similar rates of distracted driving.

Empirical studies indicate a significant link between antisocial behavior and risky behaviors Research by O’Brien et al (2017) reveals that both male and female athletes exhibiting alcohol-related aggression are more prone to excessive alcohol consumption Additionally, Seigfried-Spellar, Villacís-Vukadinović, and Lynam (2017) found a statistically significant correlation between computer criminal behavior and various forms of antisocial behavior, suggesting that antisocial tendencies may also be connected to risky driving behaviors.

Numerous studies have investigated risk perception, peer influence, and individual differences, such as gender and sensation seeking, in relation to risky driving behaviors However, these studies often employ varying measures and predominantly focus on automobile drivers, neglecting motorbike riders Fernandes, Soames Job, and Hatfield (2007) highlight that different types of risky driving behaviors may not share similar underlying factors, noting that while sensation seeking predicts drunk driving, speeding correlates more with authority-rebellion This indicates a need for future research to adopt a multi-factorial framework that distinguishes between specific risky driving behaviors.

This study explores the influence of key factors such as gender differences, risk perception, peer influences, sensation seeking, and antisocial behavior on risky driving among Cambodian adolescents in Phnom Penh, the city with the highest traffic accident rates in the country It aims to understand how these psychosocial factors predict four specific types of risky driving behaviors: aggressive driving, distracted driving, intoxicated driving, and violations of driving laws.

Purpose of the study

This study aims to investigate the interplay between psychosocial factors—such as risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial behaviors like aggression and rule-breaking—and risky driving behaviors among Cambodian adolescents Additionally, it examines how these relationships may differ based on gender and various background characteristics, including daily driving distance, age of first driving experience, accident history, number of passengers, and parental education and marital status.

Research questions and hypotheses

This study intends to answer the following questions:

1) Do psychosocial factors of risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial deviant behaviors statistically predict risky driving behaviors?

2) Do the relations between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors vary as a function of gender and other background characteristics (variables)?

To answer the above-mentioned research questions, the study examines the following hypotheses:

Research indicates that psychosocial factors are significant predictors of increased risky driving behaviors among adolescents Specifically, it is anticipated that a positive correlation exists between the level of psychosocial risk factors and the likelihood of engaging in risky driving In essence, as adolescents experience higher levels of psychosocial risk factors, their propensity for risky driving behaviors also increases.

Hypothesis two posits that the connection between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors significantly differs based on gender and various background characteristics It is anticipated that male and female adolescents will exhibit distinct relationships between psychosocial risk factors and risky driving Furthermore, these relationships are expected to vary due to additional background variables, including the average daily kilometers driven, the age at which driving began, the number of accidents experienced, the number of passengers transported, and the educational levels of both parents, as well as their marital status.

Significance of the study

This study investigates the psychosocial factors influencing risky driving behaviors among Cambodian adolescents, focusing on risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial behaviors It also examines gender differences and variables such as daily driving distance, age of first driving, accident history, passenger numbers, and parental education levels By allowing respondents to reflect on their driving habits and influences, the research aims to promote safer driving practices The findings will assist stakeholders, including the Cambodian government, NGOs, and families, in understanding the relationship between these psychosocial factors and risky driving, enabling the development of targeted prevention programs that account for gender differences and other moderating variables.

This study aims to enhance understanding of the relationship between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors among young people in Cambodia, while also exploring gender differences and other background characteristics that may influence these relationships Given the complexity of the causes behind risky driving behaviors and traffic fatalities, this research serves as a foundational step for future studies, addressing gaps in existing literature and paving the way for more in-depth investigations.

Literature Review

Numerous studies have highlighted the impact of psychosocial factors on risky driving behaviors Research by Scott-Parker et al (2009) utilized social learning theory to explore these risk factors, while McDonald et al (2014) examined the connection between mental health and risky driving through a confirmatory factor analysis model Moller and Gregersen (2008) evaluated various predictors of risky driving, focusing on their psychosocial functions Collectively, these reviews identify four key factors—risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial behaviors—as significant influences on risky driving, with the potential for modification, underscoring their importance in driving safety interventions.

Research highlights critical issues related to road traffic injuries and fatalities both globally and in Cambodia Understanding the factors behind risky driving behaviors is essential, as studies show that young drivers exhibiting high-risk behaviors face a 50% increased likelihood of accidents (Ivers et al., 2009) Risky driving behavior, as defined by Schmidt (2012), encompasses actions that can lead to road accidents, resulting in injuries or fatalities for drivers and others The following sections will explore literature on how socioeconomic status, age, gender, and other individual differences contribute to these risky driving behaviors.

1.1.1 Socioeconomic status and risky driving behavior

Empirical studies highlight that socioeconomic status significantly impacts risky driving behaviors and road injuries Individuals living in poverty or with low incomes are more frequently involved in traffic accidents and fatalities (Jafarpour & Rahimi-Movaghar, 2014; WHO, 2018) Conversely, a study in Denmark revealed that higher-income individuals tend to drive at greater speeds, suggesting that owning expensive cars can lead to a sense of superiority and disrespectful driving behavior (Jafarpour & Rahimi-Movaghar, 2014) Additionally, research in the USA indicates a correlation between income levels and distracted driving, with higher-income individuals more likely to engage in such behaviors (Li, Gkritza, & Albrecht, 2014).

Class status and socioeconomic conditions are closely linked to road accident fatality rates Globally and in Cambodia, reports indicate that the majority of road traffic deaths involve pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists (WHO, 2018; Dy, 2016) This trend may be attributed to the fact that these individuals often belong to low or middle-income groups, whereas higher-income individuals are more likely to own cars, which reduces their risk of fatality Consequently, those who rely on more affordable modes of transportation face a greater risk of traffic-related deaths and injuries This issue is particularly pressing in low and middle-income countries, where economic growth is already a challenge, and the financial burden of traffic accidents adds to the strain on families and the economy While the least affluent drivers are at higher risk for fatality, it is notable that wealthier drivers often exhibit riskier driving behaviors.

1.1.2 Age differences and risky driving behavior

Numerous studies indicate a significant correlation between age and traffic accidents, with driving experience also playing a crucial role in crash occurrences (Jafarpour & Rahimi-Movaghar, 2014) Specifically, older drivers tend to exhibit more negative attitudes towards rule violations, speeding, and the carelessness of other drivers when compared to their younger counterparts (Bachoo, Bhagwanjee, & Govender).

Research indicates that drivers aged 25 and older exhibit more negative attitudes toward traffic law violations compared to younger drivers (Bachoo et al., 2013) Additionally, a study in mainland China revealed that experienced drivers are less prone to making errors than novice drivers (Shi et al., 2010) These findings highlight an intriguing relationship between age and driving experience, suggesting that older individuals, who often possess more driving experience, tend to avoid traffic violations and make fewer driving errors.

Younger drivers, including those without a driving license, are increasingly present on the roads, as evidenced by a survey of 14 to 17-year-olds in Italy, which revealed that many adolescents operate vehicles illegally This demographic exhibits significant risky behaviors, such as speeding and inadequate braking distances, contributing to a higher incidence of road traffic fatalities among young people (Bina et al., 2006; WHO, 2018; Dy, 2016) Compared to adult drivers, teen drivers are more prone to engage in dangerous driving practices, with over 90% admitting to distracted driving (Rhodes & Pivik, 2011; Carter et al., 2014).

Research highlights the critical impact of age differences on risky driving behavior and crash involvement, emphasizing the need to focus on younger individuals in such studies This demographic represents the future workforce, essential for supporting families and driving national development Consequently, ensuring their health and safety is of utmost importance.

Adolescents represent the future of their families and nations, yet they are particularly vulnerable due to ongoing brain, physical, and emotional development This age group is characterized by high energy levels and a propensity for thrill-seeking, influenced by hormonal changes As their brains continue to mature until around age 25, adolescents often exhibit impulsiveness and less adaptive decision-making and judgment Furthermore, they navigate various psychosocial factors, such as identity exploration and peer relationships, which significantly impact their driving behaviors These developmental challenges can lead to an increased likelihood of engaging in risky driving and other health-related behaviors.

1.1.3 Individual differences and risky driving behaviors

Ecological models of health behavior highlight that an individual's health is influenced by a variety of factors, including intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, organizational, community, and public policy elements (Rural Health Information Hub, 2017) Intrapersonal factors encompass knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and personality traits, while interpersonal factors focus on social support and barriers that can either promote or hinder healthy behaviors (Rural Health Information Hub, 2017) This article explores how these individual and interpersonal factors contribute to risky driving behavior, particularly examining aspects such as risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial behaviors.

Risk perception is "an individual's perceived susceptibility to a threat" (Ferrer

Risk perception plays a critical role in understanding health behavior change, particularly in health prevention programs Various studies have explored different dimensions of risk perception, including accurate and inaccurate deliberative, affective, experiential, and intuitive factors (Ferrer & Klein, 2015) Recognizing the significance of risk perception is essential, as it influences behaviors such as risky driving Thus, gaining insights into the relationship between risk perception and risky driving behavior is vital for effective intervention strategies.

Research indicates that male drivers and teenage drivers perceive lower risks compared to their female and adult counterparts, suggesting a greater likelihood of engaging in risky driving behaviors (Rhodes & Pivik, 2011) Specifically, male teenagers exhibit a diminished perception of risk relative to female adolescents, and this perception is identified as a key factor influencing distracted driving behaviors for both genders (Carter et al., 2014) Additionally, while a significant relationship exists between risky driving and risk perception, the strength of this association is relatively weak (Ivers et al., 2009).

Social norms theory highlights the significant role of peer influence in shaping individual behaviors, particularly among youth Numerous public health studies have examined how these social norms affect health-related behaviors, including alcohol consumption and tobacco use (LaMorte, 2016) For instance, teenage males driving with a passenger are more prone to risky driving behaviors than those driving alone, especially if the passenger is risk-tolerant (Simons-Morton et al., 2014) Conversely, when accompanied by a risk-averse passenger, these males are less likely to engage in such behaviors Additionally, gender dynamics play a crucial role; teenage males are more likely to drive recklessly with same-sex passengers compared to those with opposite-sex companions (Simons-Morton et al., 2014) While male teenagers perceive greater social approval for distracted driving than their female counterparts, both genders report similar levels of distracted driving behaviors (Carter et al., 2014).

Adolescents are more prone to engage in distracted driving when they believe their peers are participating in such behaviors and approving of them (Carter et al., 2014) Research indicates that the perception of peer distracted driving is a stronger predictor of adolescents' own driving behaviors than the approval of those behaviors (Carter et al., 2014) Furthermore, perceived peer approval significantly influences the relationship between risk perception and distracted driving, leading adolescents to have a lower perception of risk when they think their peers condone such actions (Carter et al., 2014) This mindset can result in increased risky driving and other negative health behaviors (Carter et al., 2014).

Sensation seeking, as defined by Zuckerman, is a biological-based personality trait characterized by the pursuit of varied, novel, and intense experiences, often involving significant physical, social, legal, and financial risks (Zuckerman, 1994, 2015) This trait is also referred to as novelty seeking or excitement seeking, with high sensation seekers typically displaying disinhibition, a susceptibility to boredom, and a desire for thrilling adventures Consequently, individuals high on the sensation-seeking scale often engage in risky behaviors, including risky driving, highlighting a clear link between sensation seeking and the propensity for risk-taking.

Conceptual framework of driving behavior

Human behavior is the leading cause of traffic accidents and fatalities in Cambodia (Dy, 2016), highlighting the need to understand the psychosocial factors that contribute to risky driving Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes the interaction between personal, environmental, and behavioral factors (Pajares, 2002) Personal factors encompass individuals' cognition, emotions, and biological events, underscoring the significance of how people perceive and interpret the consequences of their actions in relation to their environment (Pajares, 2002).

Figure 1.1 Conceptual model of social cognitive theory (Pajares, 2002)

The conceptual framework for reducing risky driving behaviors among minority youth highlights various personal, social, and environmental factors that contribute to such behaviors (Juarez et al., 2006) Key influences include individual characteristics like age, gender, race, mental health, and driving experience, which are shaped by social contexts such as culture, family, and peer interactions Adolescents often engage in multiple risky behaviors simultaneously, indicating a pattern of co-occurrence that exacerbates the likelihood of dangerous driving (Juarez et al., 2006).

Public policy, state and local laws, enforcement practices, community educational interventions, transportation infrastructure, and road design—including elements like stop lights, speed limits, and weather conditions—interact to influence road crashes (Juarez et al., 2006) These factors are categorized in the model as antecedents, choice points, and consequences, as illustrated in Figure 1.2 (Juarez et al., 2006).

(Cognitive, affective, and biological events)

Figure 1.2 A multilevel and multi-systems model of driving behavior (Juarez et al.,

The multilevel and multi-systems model of driving behavior provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complexities of young drivers' behaviors This model highlights the interaction of various factors, ranging from macro influences like social context and public policy to micro influences such as individual characteristics and actions Given the intricate nature of these factors, this study focuses specifically on individual traits, as well as the roles of peers and passengers, to better understand their impact on driving behaviors among young people.

To mitigate risky driving behaviors among teens, it is crucial to examine the factors contributing to their risk-taking tendencies (Juarez et al., 2006) In Cambodia, there is a lack of empirical research on adolescents' motorbike driving behaviors This study investigates psychosocial factors, including risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial behaviors such as rule-breaking and aggression, which have been identified in prior research Furthermore, it explores personal characteristics, including psychological factors like risk perception and personality traits, as well as environmental influences stemming from peer relationships.

Numerous empirical studies have consistently demonstrated a significant connection between risk perception and risky driving behavior (Ivers et al., 2009; Rhodes & Pivik, 2011; Carter et al., 2014) Additionally, peer influence has been shown to play a crucial role in promoting risky driving behaviors (Carter et al., 2014; Simons-Morton et al., 2014) Furthermore, the tendency for sensation seeking is linked to increased risky driving actions (Bachoo et al., 2013; Carter et al., 2014; Smorti, 2014; Smorti & Guarnieri, 2014) Lastly, antisocial behavior has also been associated with heightened risky driving tendencies (O’Brien et al., 2017; Seigfried-Spellar et al., 2017).

Research on risky driving behavior reveals inconsistencies between male and female groups, highlighting a greater focus on young people and adolescents compared to older individuals Studies indicate that understanding these differences is crucial for addressing the issue effectively.

This study explores the connection between psychosocial factors—such as risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial behavior—and risky driving behaviors among Cambodian adolescents It also analyzes how these relationships differ based on gender and other background variables, as illustrated in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 Hypothesized relations between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors explored in this study

This section presents the important terms in this study, which include risk perception, sensation seeking, antisocial deviant behavior, risky driving behaviors, adolescents, and psychosocial factors

Risk perception is "an individual's perceived susceptibility to a threat" (Ferrer

Risk perception plays a crucial role in understanding health behavior change, with various types identified, including accurate and inaccurate deliberative, affective, experiential, and intuitive perceptions (Ferrer & Klein, 2015) This study aims to define risk perception in the context of these diverse categories.

• The average number of kilometers driven per day

• Age at which began to drive

The education level of fathers influences how individuals assess the risk associated with dangerous driving behaviors, such as running a red light This risk perception measurement is based on adaptations from earlier research conducted by Ivers et al (2009) and Simons-Morton et al (2014).

Sensation seeking, as defined by Zuckerman (1994), is a biologically-based trait characterized by the pursuit of varied, novel, complex, and intense experiences, often involving physical, social, legal, and financial risks (CHIRr, 2013) This study utilizes the 8-item Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS), created by Hoyle et al in 2002, to assess individuals' desire for exciting experiences and exploration of new environments (CHIRr, 2013).

Antisocial deviant behavior is characterized by risk-taking, aggression, and rule-breaking tendencies This study specifically examines aggressive and rule-breaking behaviors as forms of antisocial deviance, utilizing measures from the Youth Self-Report form developed by Achenbach in 1991.

Risky driving behavior encompasses actions by drivers that increase the likelihood of road accidents, potentially resulting in injury or death (Schmidt, 2012) This study specifically targets motorbike drivers among Cambodian adolescents aged 15 to 18, as this age group is not legally permitted to drive cars It categorizes risky driving behaviors into four main types: aggressive driving, intoxicated driving, distracted driving, and legal violations The assessment of these categories is based on adaptations from prior research.

Schmidt (2012), who defined the four domains of driving behavior questions: aggressive driving, distracted driving, substance use, and moving violations

Adolescence, spanning ages 10 to 19, is a critical developmental stage where individuals explore and establish their identities (Portland State University [PSU], 2021) This period is marked by significant physical, cognitive, and psychosocial growth, which profoundly impacts adolescents' thoughts, emotions, decision-making, and social interactions (WHO, 2024) In this study, the term "adolescents" specifically refers to 11th graders aged 16.

18, who studied in the four selected high schools in Phnom Penh

Psychosocial factors encompass the interplay between psychological and social elements that affect adolescents' driving behaviors Psychological aspects include risk perception, sensation seeking, and antisocial behaviors like aggression and rule-breaking Meanwhile, social aspects focus on the influence of peers on adolescents' risky driving choices Understanding these factors is crucial for addressing and improving safe driving practices among young individuals.

1.2.2 Concepts of risk-taking in human development

Overview of research design

This study utilized a cross-sectional, correlational research design with purposive sampling to analyze 425 Cambodian adolescents aged 16 to 18 from four high schools in Phnom Penh The primary objective was to investigate the impact of psychosocial factors—specifically risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial deviant behavior—on risky driving behaviors Additionally, the research aimed to determine if the relationships between these psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors differ based on gender.

Study methods

This section outlines the standardized tools utilized in the study to assess psychosocial factors, including risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, antisocial behavior, and risky driving habits Additionally, a demographic questionnaire was created to gather essential background information from respondents The article also discusses the translation methods used for the original English instruments and evaluates the reliability of the adapted tools.

This study utilized self-report scales to assess various constructs, including risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, antisocial deviant behavior, and risky driving behaviors, along with demographic background information The selection process for these measures adhered to guidelines from established scholars, ensuring that they effectively evaluate the targeted constructs as outlined in Section 1.2.1 Key criteria for inclusion included the prior use of these measures in published research and their application in international studies A detailed description of each measure is provided below.

Risk perception is the way individuals assess threats and evaluate the consequences of their actions In this study, it specifically examines how adolescents perceive the dangers associated with risky driving behaviors, utilizing a modified 10-item risk perception scale based on the original scales by Ivers et al (2009) and Simons-Morton et al (2014) Respondents rated their perceptions on a Likert scale ranging from 0 (not dangerous) to 3 (very dangerous), with questions addressing scenarios like driving while talking on a cell phone and running a red light To tailor the assessment for young motorbike drivers in Cambodia, certain items were added, removed, or altered The scale demonstrated high internal reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 92.

Table 2.1 Items deleted, added, and modified in risk perception scale

1/ Drive with 2 or more passengers 1/ Drive with 2 or more passengers 2/ Drive between midnight and 6 am 2/ Drive between midnight and 6 am 3/ Drive at 110 km/h in a 100 km/h zone 3/ Drive much faster than the other motorbikes 4/ Drive at 70 km/h in a 60 km/h zone 4/ Switch lanes (paths) to weave through and get ahead of slower traffic 5/ Drive while talking on a mobile phone 5/ Drive while talking on a mobile phone 6/ Drive a poorly maintained car 6/ Drive after drinking one drink of alcohol 7/ Drive with a blood alcohol level just over the legal limit

7/ Drive after drinking two or more drinks of alcohol

8/ Drive while using SMS on a mobile phone

8/ Drive while using SMS on a mobile phone

9/ Drive after smoking marijuana 9/ Drive the wrong way on a one way street 10/ Going through a red light 10/ Going through a red light

This study assesses peer influence through a 13-item scale focused on Friends' Risky Driving behaviors This measurement is adapted from the original 14-item Risky Driving Behaviors scale created by Ivers et al (2009) for youth aged 17 to 24, with modifications made to better align with the study's objectives and the Cambodian context.

In this study, thirteen items were utilized, with respondents rating each on a four-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often) Examples of the items related to Friends’ Risky Driving behaviors were included in the assessment.

A recent study examined the prevalence of risky driving behaviors among friends, specifically focusing on helmet use and speeding for enjoyment The findings revealed a strong internal reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha of 87 for the scale measuring these behaviors.

Table 2.2 Items deleted, added, and modified in friends’ risky driving behavior scale

1/ Drive with 2 or more passengers 1/ Drive with 2 or more passengers

2/ Drive while listening to loud music 2/ Drive while searching for something in their pocket or backpack or purse 3/ Drive about 70 km/h in a 60 km/h zone 3/ Chase other drivers

4/ Drive fast just for the thrill of it 4/ Drive fast just for fun

5/ Follow very close behind slower drivers 5/ Abruptly cut in front of another driver 6/ Speed up if someone is trying to pass 6/ Speed up if someone is trying to pass you 7/ Take some risks when driving because it makes driving more fun

7/ Take some risks when driving because it makes driving more fun

8/ Make rude gestures at other drivers 8/ Make rude gestures at other drivers 9/ Honk your horn or flash your lights in anger at other drivers

9/ Honk your horn or yell in anger at other drivers

10/ Do burnouts, donuts, or skids just for the fun of it

10/ Race their motorbike for the fun of it

11/ Race or drag race for the fun of it 11/ Drive while using SMS on a mobile phone 12/ Drive while using SMS on a mobile phone

12/ Drive while talking on a mobile phone

13/ Drive while talking on a mobile phone 13/ Drive without wearing a helmet

Sensation seeking is assessed using the 8-item Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS), created by Hoyle et al in 2002 This scale utilizes a five-point Likert rating system, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

In this study, the neutral rating scale was removed, resulting in a scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree) Some items were modified for clarity to suit the Cambodian sample, as illustrated in Table 2.3 Examples of scale items include, “I would like to explore new places that I have never been to before,” and “I prefer to do things spontaneously without planning because it is more fun and exciting.” The internal reliability for sensation seeking in this study was moderate, with a Cronbach's alpha of α = 62, compared to the original scale's internal consistency of 76.

Table 2.3 Items deleted, added, and modified in brief sensation seeking scale

1/ I would like to explore strange places 1/ I would like to explore new places that I have never been to before

2/ I would like to take off on a trip with no pre-planned routes or timetables

2/ I prefer to do things spontaneously without planning because it is more fun and exciting

3/ I get restless when I spend too much time at home

3/ I get restless when I spend too much time at home

4/ I prefer friends who are excitingly unpredictable

4/ I prefer friends who are excitingly unpredictable

5/ I like to do frightening things 5/ I like to do things that a little scary 6/ I would like to try bungee jumping 6/ I think going on a zip-line would be a lot of fun, and I would like to do it 7/ I like wild parties 7/ I like exciting parties where people do fun and exciting things

8/ I would love to have new and exciting experiences, even if they are illegal

8/ I would love to have new and exciting experiences, even if they are illegal

In this study, antisocial deviant behavior consists of aggressive behavior and rule-breaking behavior Two subscales of Youth Self Report [YSR] (Achenbach,

The Youth Self-Report (YSR), designed for children aged 11 and older, is an effective screening tool for identifying aggressive and rule-breaking behaviors, as well as other behavioral and emotional issues in adolescents.

The study utilized a three-level Likert scale to assess responses across 112 questions, ranging from 0 (not true) to 2 (very true or often true) It included an aggressive behavior scale with 17 items, such as "I argue a lot" and "I try to get a lot of attention," alongside a rule-breaking behavior scale comprising 15 items like "I break the rules at home, school, or elsewhere" and "I lie or cheat." The internal reliability coefficients, measured by Cronbach’s alpha, were found to be α = 78 for the aggressive behavior scale and α = 65 for the rule-breaking behavior scale.

This study utilized a modified version of Schmidt’s (2012) Driving Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ), a 58-item self-report tool employing a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (never) to 5 (very often) Schmidt adapted this measure for youth, categorizing risky driving behaviors into four domains: aggressive driving (11 items), distracted driving (10 items), substance use (10 items), and moving violations (9 items) Comprehensive factor analyses grounded in a theoretical framework were conducted to support the completion of his PhD in psychology.

In 2012, a study reduced 58 items to 40 within four domains of risky driving behaviors for youths, creating the "Youth Domains of Risky Driving Scale." The internal reliability for the domains—aggressive driving, distracted driving, substance use, and moving violations—was measured at 75, 80, 86, and 77, respectively Modifications were made to Schmidt’s adapted scale, originally designed for automobile drivers, to focus specifically on motorbike drivers Consequently, three items related to aggressive driving, distracted driving, and moving violations were removed, along with six items from the substance use scale that were deemed irrelevant for Cambodian motorbike drivers The scale was subsequently renamed to reflect these changes.

"Intoxicated driving" because one of the leading causes of road crashes in Cambodia was drunk driving

Table 2.4 Items deleted, added, and modified in risky driving behavior scale

1 Slowing down to aggravate a driver behind you

2 Flashing headlights at another driver to encourage them to go faster or move out of

3 Giving another driver the middle finger

4 Being the passenger with a driver who has smoked one joint (marijuana cigarette)

5 Being the passenger with a driver who has taken drugs other than marijuana

6 Driving after smoking more than one joint (marijuana cigarette)

7 Driving after smoking one joint (marijuana cigarette)

8 Driving after taking drugs other than marijuana

9 Being the passenger with a driver who has smoked more than one joint (marijuana cigarette)

10 Playing music loudly while driving so that it would be hard to hear car horns or sirens

11 Adjusting display instruments (e.g., changing the clock) while driving

12 Fixing your hair or putting on makeup or checking your teeth while driving

13 Driving without following traffic signs (e.g do not turn left between certain hours of the day)

14 Rolling through a stop sign without coming to a full stop

1 Talk to passengers while driving

2 Talk to other moto drivers /friends who are driving nearby

3 Talk on a cellphone while driving

4 Drive with two or more adult passengers on the motorbike

Drive a motorbike the wrong way on a one-way street or lane

1 Making a fist at another driver 1 Giving another driver an angry look or pointing at them

2 Accelerating the car abruptly so that the car intentionally jolts forward

2 Revving the motorbike to make a loud sound

3 Searching for something in your backpack or purse while driving

3 Searching for something in your pocket or backpack or purse while driving

5 Reviewing your location on a map while driving

5 Reviewing your location on a map or cellphone / GPS while driving

6 Eating while driving 6 Eat or drink (beverage) while driving

7 Going 10 km/h over the speed limit on a highway

7 Driving faster than the other motos

8 Driving without wearing a seat belt 8 Driving without wearing a helmet

9 Going 10 km/h over the speed limit on a residential street

9 Drive faster on a motorbike than your parents would think was safe to drive

10 Make a U-turn where there are signs posted not to do so

10 Make a U-turn where there are signs posted not to make a U-turn

11 Rolling through a stop sign without coming to a full stop

11 Go through a stop sign without completely stopping

12 Rolling through a red light without coming to a full stop (e.g., to turn right on a red light)

12 Go through a red light to make a right turn without stopping

13 Changing lanes or turning without signaling

13 Change lanes or turning without signaling while driving a motorbike

14 Running a stop sign 14 Go through a red light

Participants

This study involved 425 respondents (M = 213, F = 209) from four high schools in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, specifically Bak Touk, Preah Sisowath, Chea Sim Samaky, and Boeung Trabek Participants were selected based on several criteria: they must be Cambodian citizens aged 16 to 18, currently in Grade 11, and either they or their family must own a motorbike Additionally, they should drive their motorbike to school at least four days a week and have at least six months of riding experience The focus on motorbike users is critical due to the alarming rates of motorcycle accidents in Cambodia, with over 1,700 reported traffic incidents in the first eight months of 2021 alone.

2021, over 700 traffic fatalities were reported in over 1200 road accidents across the country Similarly, 73 percent of the 1,108 road deaths during the first six months of

In 2016, a significant number of motorcyclists in Cambodia were adolescents, highlighting the importance of understanding traffic safety among this age group According to Cambodian traffic law, individuals must be at least 16 years old to legally operate a motorbike, making this age group a critical focus for studies on road safety and traffic regulations.

Participants in this study were invited to voluntarily join based on specific selection criteria and were thoroughly informed about the research's purpose, procedures, and their rights regarding participation They received details about confidentiality and other pertinent information through a verbal briefing and an informed consent form The study ultimately included 425 respondents, surpassing the recommended sample size of 341, which was calculated using an online sample size calculator with a 95% confidence level and a 5% confidence interval, based on a population size of 3,064 adolescents aged 10 to 19 in Cambodia, as reported by UNICEF's 2016 statistics.

A total of 425 adolescents from four high schools in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, were surveyed in this study After excluding three respondents with significant missing data, the final sample consisted of 422 adolescents (M = 213, F = 209) The distribution of respondents from each school included 142 from Chea Sim Samaky (M = 77, F = 65), 149 from Preah Sisowath, and additional participants from Bak Touk and Boeung Trabek high schools.

Figure 2.1 Gender and high school

In the study depicted in Figure 2.2, over fifty percent of respondents are 17 years old, comprising 121 males and 103 females Additionally, one-fourth of the adolescents are 16 years old, with 42 males and 68 females, while nearly twenty-one percent are 18 years old, consisting of 50 males and 38 females All participants are enrolled in Grade 11.

Chea Sim Samaky Preah Sisowath Bak Touk Boeung Trabek

The family background of respondents reveals key insights into their socioeconomic status, including living arrangements, parental marital status, educational background, and the number of siblings Approximately 86% of respondents reside with their parents, while others live with relatives such as grandparents, siblings, or non-relatives, with only one individual living alone Notably, nearly 99% of adolescents reported that their mother is alive, and around 93% indicated that their father is also alive.

Figure 2.3 Living situation of students who were not living with their parents

According to the data presented in Figure 2.4, over 80% of respondents indicated that their parents were married and cohabiting Around 11% experienced parental divorce or separation, while approximately 6% reported that one or both parents had passed away Notably, only one respondent stated that their parents were never married.

Other relatives (Uncle, aunt, cousin, etc.)

The educational background of the respondents' parents is illustrated in Figure 2.5 It reveals that about 30% of respondents indicated their fathers' highest level of education was high school, while approximately 31% reported the same for their mothers Additionally, nearly 12% of fathers achieved a master's degree or higher, compared to only 3% of mothers Furthermore, around 20% of respondents were uncertain about the highest education level attained by either parent.

Married and living together Divorced/ Separated

One or both of my parents is dead

My parents never were married to each other

According to the data presented in Figure 2.6, around 38% of respondents reported having two siblings, while just over 20% indicated having either one or three siblings Additionally, nearly 8% of adolescents reported having four siblings, and about 5% had no siblings at all Only about 1.5% of the respondents had seven siblings.

Primary school or lower (up to grade 5)

Secondary school (up to grade 9)

According to recent data, approximately 50% of adolescents typically travel with one passenger per trip, while just over 25% prefer to drive alone Additionally, around 20% of respondents usually have two passengers, and a mere 2% of adolescents carry three passengers during their trips.

Figure 2.7 Number of passengers on a trip

According to Table 2.6, over 50% of adolescents learned to drive from a parent, uncle, or aunt, while around 25% were taught by siblings or cousins Additionally, more than 8% learned to drive from friends, and another 8% taught themselves.

How many passengers do you usually have on a trip?

Table 2.6 Who taught the adolescent to drive

This study employed convenience sampling to select four high schools in Phnom Penh, Cambodia: Bak Tuk High School, Preah Sisowath High School, Chea Sim Samaky High School, and Boeung Trabek High School It aimed to include Grade 11 students from various classrooms, inviting those who met the inclusive criteria to volunteer for participation Additionally, purposive sampling was utilized to identify respondents within each classroom based on six specific inclusive criteria.

The highest rate of traffic accidents was seen in Phnom Penh, Preah Sihanouk, Takeo, Battambang, and Pursat provinces during the first six months of 2016 (Dy,

This study was conducted in Phnom Penh due to the convenience and the likelihood that adolescents in this area share similarities with those in other regions prone to high traffic accidents Additionally, focusing on a single location allows for better control over road infrastructure conditions, which significantly influence individuals' driving behaviors.

Study procedures

To ensure ethical research practices, this study received approval from the Cambodia National Ethical Research Committee and subsequently from the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport (MoEYS) to conduct a survey with 425 students across four high schools in Phnom Penh: Bak Touk, Preah Sisowath, Chea Sim Samaky, and Boeung Trabek After obtaining MoEYS approval, the researcher contacted the school principals to seek permission to survey Grade 11 students, excluding classrooms that were unavailable due to exams.

Students were thoroughly briefed on the study's purpose, procedures, confidentiality, and ethical considerations, including parent consent and student assent forms Following approval from school principals, the researcher reached out to teachers to discuss the study and engage with the students directly.

The research team, consisting of individuals with bachelor's degrees in psychology and experience in data collection, screened students with six pre-selection questions to determine eligibility for the study Eligible participants were required to obtain Parental Consent Forms (Appendix G) to be signed by their parents, with a request to return the forms by the following day if consent was not granted Students who did not submit the parental consent form were invited to participate by signing an informed consent form The researchers provided a detailed explanation of the study's purpose, confidentiality measures, and addressed any questions Once consent was obtained, participants completed the study questionnaire in Khmer, which included demographic information and translated instruments Although the tests were self-reported, the research team was available for any clarifications Importantly, the demographic questionnaire did not request any personally identifiable information, such as names or contact details.

The study focused on four high schools in Phnom Penh—Bak Touk, Preah Sisowath, Chea Sim Samaky, and Boeung Trabek—selected for their diverse district locations and accessibility The researcher targeted Grade 11 students, aged 16 to 18, as they were more likely to represent the intended demographic On the research day, classrooms were approached, resulting in the selection of students from four classrooms at Bak Touk, seven at Preah Sisowath, seven at Chea Sim Samaky, and four at Boeung Trabek High School.

Ethical considerations

The study adhered to all ethical procedures mandated by the university, country, and ministry, ensuring compliance at both organizational and individual levels Initially, it received approval from Vietnam National University and the supervising faculty before applying to the ethical research committee in Cambodia Following this, the researcher sought permission from the Cambodian Ministry of Education, Youths, and Sports to conduct the study with four high school students in Phnom Penh Upon obtaining the ministry's approval, the researcher submitted the study proposal along with the approval letters to the Cambodian National Ethical Committee for Health Science After securing all necessary approvals, the researcher contacted the four school principals for organizational consent and coordinated access to Grade 11 classrooms, ensuring that the study was conducted only when teachers permitted and no exams were scheduled.

Informed consent forms were distributed to parents, and if no refusals were received, students in each classroom were invited to volunteer as respondents if they met the inclusive criteria Those who agreed to participate signed the informed consent form, which was kept separate from the study questionnaires to ensure confidentiality The questionnaires did not request personal information such as names or contact details Completed surveys and related data were securely stored in a locked room, accessible only to the researcher and shared with supervisors or faculty members when necessary for data verification The study is anticipated to conclude by December 2024, with hard copies of the data retained for at least three years post-completion before being shredded, while the soft copies are protected by password security.

The study ensured that no sensitive information was collected that could lead to legal, reputational, or academic issues for participants, and it posed no risks or harm Although some questions about risky driving behaviors, rule-breaking, or personal background might cause discomfort, a debriefing was provided post-survey, along with information on free counseling services for those who felt emotionally distressed Participants spent approximately 30 to 50 minutes completing the survey during a class session, resulting in missing one class.

In the IRB submission for university approval, the researcher outlined protocols for managing unexpected risky behaviors, such as self-harm or violence Data collection assistants, trained psychology graduates, were equipped to recognize and address potential risks during the survey They had the authority to remove participants exhibiting distress or risky behaviors and could seek immediate support from the researcher, who was trained in counseling Fortunately, no incidents of risky behavior occurred during the survey, and participants did not request counseling or report feelings of distress at any point.

Data analysis

Data entry and analysis were conducted using the IBM SPSS statistical program, with two research assistants independently entering the data to minimize errors Any discrepancies found between the two data sets were corrected based on the original data Descriptive statistics were employed to summarize demographic information, including gender, age, grade, family background, and driving experience, while calculating percentages, means, and standard deviations for the variables.

To enhance the understanding of predictors and criteria in this study, four sequential analyses were conducted The first analysis, canonical correlation analysis (CCA), examined the overall relationships between two sets of variables: psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors CCA offers a comprehensive overview of the relationships between these sets, making it particularly valuable when multiple variables from one set interact with multiple variables from another While the general linear model (GLM), discussed in the second analysis, focuses on specific predictor-dependent variable relationships, CCA provides a holistic summary of the interactions, highlighting the connections between risky driving behaviors and factors such as peer influences and risk perception.

In a series of 20 analyses using a General Linear Model (GLM), each psychosocial risk factor—risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, rule-breaking behavior, and aggressive behavior—was examined individually to determine its Total Effect on various risky driving behaviors, including aggressive driving, intoxicated driving, distracted driving, and violations of driving laws The Total Effect indicates the overall relationship between each risk factor and driving behavior, akin to a pairwise correlation Additionally, interaction terms were incorporated to evaluate potential moderator effects, adhering to standard GLM methodologies.

In the analyses, psychosocial factors were simultaneously entered into a Generalized Linear Model (GLM) to predict risky driving behaviors, with each behavior assessed in separate models This approach evaluated the "Unique Effect" of each psychosocial factor while controlling for others, highlighting their specific contributions to predicting risky driving Analyzing both total effects and unique effects provides insights into direct and indirect relationships among variables Significant differences between these effects may indicate the presence of mediators, while similarities suggest fewer mediators, making those variables more suitable for targeted interventions (Howell, 2016).

The final analyses evaluated Gender and other demographic variables as moderators to identify differences in the relationships between risk factors and risky driving behaviors Using Generalized Linear Models (GLM), the study assessed Gender moderation through interaction effects To interpret significant interactions, separate regression analyses were conducted for males and females, with a significance threshold set at p < 05.

Standard Generalized Linear Model (GLM) analyses were employed to examine interactions by calculating the interaction term as the algebraic product of various main effect components Significant interactions were analyzed using the Johnson-Neyman technique, which assessed how one component of the interaction, such as Perceptions of Friends' Driving, influenced the dependent variable based on varying levels of the other interaction component, like Parents' Education Level.

To interpret whether the various statistical effects in the above analyses were considered small, medium, or large effects, the standard guidelines from Cohen

(1988) were used These include (a) small effect size equals d = 0.2 or R 2 = 0.02, (b) medium effect size equals d = 0.5 or R 2 = 0.13; (c) large effect size equals d = 0.8 or

R 2 = 0.26 In the above analyses, missing data were treated as missing; i.e., they were not estimated

This chapter outlines the research design utilized in the study, detailing the sample selection process that involved multiple levels of approval It describes the methods of data collection and verification, the adaptation of measurement tools, and the data analysis procedures Additionally, it presents the background information of the respondents involved in the study.

Overview description analyses

Hypothesis one: Psychosocial factors will significantly and positively predict increased risky driving behaviors

Hypothesis two: Relations between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors will significantly vary as a function of gender

This subsection presents descriptive statistics for key variables, including respondents' driving experience and the relationships between traffic accidents and risky driving behaviors It examines gender differences in accidents, psychosocial factors, and risky driving behaviors Missing data frequencies were analyzed for variables such as age, gender, parental education, daily driving distance, age of first solo motorbike operation, number of traffic accidents, and various driving risk factors Notably, there were six instances of missing data: three for gender and three for average kilometers driven daily, while all other variables were complete.

3.1.1 The studied variables’ descriptive analyses

Table 3.1 presents the descriptive analyses of psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors, highlighting key elements such as risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, rule-breaking behaviors, and aggressive behaviors The overall mean risk perception score is 1.97 (SD = 75), indicating that respondents view risky driving situations as "Somewhat Dangerous." This score reflects a high awareness of the dangers associated with risky driving In contrast, the average perception of friends' risky driving behaviors is lower, with a mean score of 82 (SD = 56), suggesting that respondents believe their friends engage in such behaviors "hardly ever." Additionally, the mean score for sensation seeking is 2.39 (SD = 75), which indicates a tendency towards moderate agreement with sensation-seeking behaviors.

The sensation-seeking scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), measures respondents' agreement with various statements T-scores were calculated to analyze rule-breaking and aggressive behaviors, using a scoring program that establishes a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10 A T-score of 70 indicates a score two standard deviations above the mean, placing it within the clinical range In this study, respondents reported mean scores of 53.08 (SD = 4.35) for rule-breaking behaviors and 55.91 (SD = 6.21) for aggressive behaviors, as detailed in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Means and standard deviations of the studied variables

N = 425 Scale Range Min Max Mean SD

The study assessed risky driving behaviors using a scale from 1 (never) to 5 (very often) over the past six months The average scores for aggressive driving, distracted driving, intoxicated driving, and law violations were 1.51, 1.98, 1.37, and 1.63, indicating that respondents generally reported these behaviors between "never" and "occasionally." Notably, some individuals exhibited significant levels of distracted driving, with a maximum score of 4.56, and intoxicated driving, reaching a maximum of 3.75.

3.1.2 Respondent’s past and present driving experience

Assessing adolescents' prior driving experience is crucial, alongside their family background The study's inclusion criteria required participants to have driven a motorbike for at least six months and to have used it for school transportation four out of five days a week Participants' driving experience varied from six months to a maximum of 11 years, with an average of 2.70 years (SD = 1.77) The category of "less than one year" of driving experience included over five percent of respondents, who typically began riding at age 16 Notably, nearly 30 percent started driving at age 15, while about 50 percent of those under 15 began riding a motorbike.

Understanding the average daily driving distance for adolescents is crucial, given their varying levels of driving experience According to Table 3.2, nearly 50% of respondents were unsure about their daily kilometers driven, while about 25% reported driving between four to six kilometers per day Additionally, approximately 15% of adolescents indicated that they drive more than six kilometers daily.

Table 3.2 The average number of kilometers driven per day

According to Table 3.3, approximately 40% of adolescents reported no traffic accidents, while nearly 30% were involved in one accident Additionally, about 20% experienced 2-3 accidents, and only 3% reported 4-5 accidents A mere 1% of respondents experienced more than five accidents.

Table 3.3 Number of traffic accidents

3.1.3 Correlations between number of accidents and risky driving behaviors

A strong correlation exists between traffic accidents and risky driving behaviors, as indicated in Table 3.4 Specifically, aggressive driving was found to have a significant positive relationship with the incidence of traffic accidents (r = 23, p < 001) This suggests that adolescents who reported higher levels of aggressive driving also experienced a greater number of traffic accidents.

Research indicates a strong positive correlation between distracted driving and the occurrence of traffic accidents among adolescents (r = 25, p < 001) Specifically, as adolescents report higher levels of distracted driving, they also tend to experience a greater number of traffic accidents, highlighting the critical impact of distraction on road safety.

A significant positive correlation exists between intoxicated driving and traffic accidents among adolescents (r = 24, p < 001) This indicates that as adolescents report higher instances of driving under the influence, they also tend to experience a greater number of traffic accidents.

A significant correlation exists between traffic accidents and legal violations while driving among adolescents, indicating that those who frequently report engaging in unlawful driving behaviors also tend to experience a higher number of traffic accidents.

Table 3.4 Spearman correlations coefficients for traffic accidents and risky driving behaviors (N = 425)

A t-test analysis of reported accidents revealed no significant gender differences, indicating that males and females experienced similar rates of accidents in the sample, t(420).

3.1.5 Gender differences in psychosocial factors

This section highlights the findings regarding gender differences in various psychosocial risk factors, including risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, general rule-breaking behaviors, and aggressive behaviors Notably, Table 3.5 demonstrates a significant difference in risk perception between males and females, with a t-value of (420).

A study revealed that female adolescents exhibited a significantly higher risk perception (M = 2.09, SD = 69) compared to their male counterparts (M = 1.85, SD = 79), with a statistical significance of p < 01 Additionally, the analysis showed that male adolescents were more influenced by peers regarding risky driving behaviors, scoring higher on this factor (M = 98, SD = 60) than females (M = 67, SD = 48), with a significant difference noted (t (420) = 5.75, p < 001).

Differently, there was no significant difference of gender on sensation seeking Although males obtained slightly higher means of sensation seeking (M = 2.40, SD

A study found no significant differences in sensation seeking between males (M = 2.42, SD = 42) and females (M = 2.39, SD = 38), with t (420) = 28, p > 05 Additionally, both genders exhibited similar levels of rule-breaking behaviors, indicating that these traits are comparable across sexes.

Relations between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors

This section of the analysis examines both the total and unique effects of predictors on outcome variables The "total effect" describes the overall relationship between two variables without accounting for the influence of other factors In contrast, the "unique effect" isolates the relationship between a predictor and an outcome variable while controlling for the overlap with other predictors For a deeper understanding of the significance of total versus unique effects, refer to Section 3.2.2.

This study analyzed how psychosocial factors, such as risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, rule-breaking behaviors, and aggression, predict four types of risky driving behaviors: aggressive, intoxicated, distracted driving, and violations of driving laws The research aimed to test two hypotheses: the first focused on the overall impact of these psychosocial factors on risky driving behaviors, while the second explored whether the relationships between these factors and driving behaviors differ based on gender and other background characteristics.

3.2.1 Overall relationship between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors

Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) was employed to explore the relationship between two variable sets: psychosocial risk factors and risky driving behaviors The predictors included risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and general rule-breaking and aggressive behaviors, while the criterion variables encompassed aggressive, distracted, intoxicated driving, and law violations The analysis yielded four canonical functions, reflecting the correlations between these sets The overall model demonstrated statistical significance, with Wilks’s λ = 42, F (20, 1380.67) = 20.57, p < 001, indicating a substantial relationship The effect size for the combined relations among the four canonical functions was notably high, with r² = 58, signifying a strong explanatory power of the model.

The analysis of the correlations between variables and their canonical functions revealed significant findings The first canonical function, labeled "Deviant Behavior," demonstrated a strong correlation among psychosocial factors such as peer influence, sensation seeking, rule breaking behaviors, and aggressive behaviors, while Risk Perception showed a moderate correlation In parallel, the "General Risky Driving" canonical function indicated a strong relationship among various risky driving behaviors, including aggressive, distracted, and intoxicated driving, as well as law violations Overall, there exists a substantial relationship (R² = 54) between Deviant Behavior and General Risky Driving Behavior, highlighting the interconnectedness of these factors.

The second canonical function reveals the unexplained covariance between two sets of variables after controlling for relationships identified in the first canonical function This function demonstrated significance with F (12,1104) = 2.99, p < 001, indicating independent relationships between the variable sets Notably, within the Psychosocial Factors canonical function, general rule breaking behaviors exhibited the strongest negative correlation (-.65), while Peer Influence showed a smaller positive correlation (.40) Due to the opposing directions of these correlations, this canonical function was designated as “Independent Rule Breaking Behavior.”

The canonical function for parallel Risky Driving Behavior revealed a strong negative correlation with Intoxicated Driving (-.65) and a positive correlation with Aggressive Driving (.44) Due to the opposing nature of these correlations, the function was designated as "Non-aggressive Intoxicated Driving." This suggests a small yet significant relationship (R² = 06) between these driving behaviors.

“Independent Rule Breaking Behavior” and “Non-aggressive Intoxicated Driving”

Canonical Function #3 and Canonical Function #4 were found to be statistically insignificant, with F-values of 1.46 and 0.09, respectively This indicates that the relationships between the psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors were fully represented in the first two canonical variates, leading to the conclusion that further interpretation of Canonical Functions #3 and #4 is unnecessary.

Correlations between variables and canonical variate

To assess the potential confounding effects of demographic characteristics on risky driving predictors and outcomes, a second canonical correlation analysis was performed, incorporating demographic variables as covariates The included variables were the adolescent's age, gender, and the education levels of both parents, as well as the age at which the adolescent began driving and the average daily kilometers driven The findings of these analyses are presented in Table 3.8.

The inclusion of covariates did not significantly alter the analyses, as two out of four canonical relations remained significant both with and without covariates Additionally, the correlations between the variables and canonical variates showed little variation across the two analytical approaches, as illustrated in Tables 3.7 and 3.8.

Table 3.8 Canonical correlations results, with covariates included

Correlations between variables and canonical variate

The model accounted for several covariates, including the adolescent's age and gender, as well as the educational levels of both parents Additionally, it considered the age at which the adolescent began driving and their average daily driving distance in kilometers.

The first canonical function in the analysis was significant (F(20,1341) = 19.04, p < 0001), revealing moderate to strong correlations between most psychosocial factors and the canonical variate, with the exception of Risk Perception Additionally, risky driving behaviors, including aggressive, distracted, intoxicated driving, and law violations, showed strong correlations to their respective canonical variate This function was labeled "General Risky Driving," indicating a substantial relationship (R² = 52) between overall Deviant Behavior and general Risky Driving Behavior, even after accounting for covariates.

The second canonical function analysis revealed significant relations between two sets of variables, independent of the first canonical function, with F (12,1072) = 3.26, p < 001 In the Psychosocial Factors canonical function, general rule-breaking behaviors had the strongest correlation at -.64, followed by Peer Influence at 45 Similarly, in the Risky Driving Behavior canonical function, Intoxicated Driving showed the highest correlation at -.62, with Aggressive Driving at 45 Notably, the second canonical relation remained consistent whether or not covariates were included.

3.2.2 The total and unique effect of psychosocial factors on risky driving behaviors

The previous analysis explored the overall relationships between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors In the following section, we will examine how specific psychosocial factors—such as risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, rule-breaking behaviors, and aggressive behaviors—predict individual risky driving behaviors, including aggressive driving, distracted driving, intoxicated driving, and violations of driving laws This approach offers a deeper insight into the data.

Two sets of Generalized Linear Model (GLM) analyses were performed to explore the overall and distinct impacts of psychosocial factors on risky driving behaviors The initial analysis focused on the total effect of each psychosocial factor in relation to various risky driving behaviors This "Total Effect" reflects the comprehensive relationship between the variables, akin to a pairwise correlation.

In the subsequent phase of the Generalized Linear Model (GLM) analyses, all psychosocial factors were analyzed simultaneously to determine their distinct impact on various types of risky driving behaviors The “Unique Effect” of each variable was evaluated to understand its specific contribution to predicting these behaviors, independent of any overlap with other factors This dual assessment of Total and Unique effects is beneficial, as it reveals the complete relationship between variables, encompassing both direct and mediated influences A discrepancy between Total and Unique effects suggests the presence of mediating variables within the model, highlighting the complexity of the relationships involved (Howell, 2016).

These two sets of analyses were used to answer the study hypothesis as follows:

Hypothesis one: Psychosocial factors significantly and positively predict risky driving behaviors

Discussion of research results

This cross-sectional study examined the psychosocial factors influencing risky driving behaviors among 425 Cambodian motorcycle drivers aged 16 to 18 Key factors investigated included risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial behaviors such as aggression and rule-breaking.

In a study conducted in Phnom Penh, 11 respondents confirmed they had been riding motorbikes for at least six months Risk perception was evaluated through 11 items assessing their views on the dangers associated with risky driving situations Additionally, peer influence was gauged using 13 items where participants rated their friends' driving behaviors Sensation seeking tendencies were measured with the 8-item Brief Sensation Seeking Scale Furthermore, antisocial and deviant behaviors, encompassing aggressive and rule-breaking actions, were assessed using the Youth Self Report Survey (Achenbach, 1991), which included a total of 22 items focused on these two subscales.

This study explored the impact of psychosocial factors on risky driving behaviors, hypothesizing that these factors would significantly predict such behaviors Risky driving was assessed using a 31-item scale from Schmidt’s Driving Behavior Questionnaire, covering aggressive, distracted, intoxicated driving, and law violations The research employed canonical correlational analysis and General Linear Model analyses to evaluate the hypotheses The findings confirmed the first hypothesis, indicating a strong relationship between psychosocial factors and the four domains of risky driving However, the second hypothesis, which proposed that the relationship varies by gender and other background characteristics, yielded only a few significant results.

The study on psychosocial factors influencing risky driving behaviors revealed consistent results across all types of risky driving, indicating that each predictor affects these behaviors similarly However, it is crucial to examine the moderation of each risky driving behavior due to varying interactions among these associations This suggests a need to investigate more intricate relationships beyond simple linear connections between psychosocial factors and risky driving The subsequent sections will outline the main findings, discussions, implications, recommendations, and address study limitations and future research directions.

3.3.1 Adapted relation model between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors

Figure 3.1 Adapted relation model between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors in this study

• The average number of kilometers driven per day

The study reveals strong associations between risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, and antisocial behaviors, and the four categories of risky driving behaviors among Cambodian adolescents As illustrated in Figure 3.1, the predictor factors on the left, along with potential moderating factors like gender and other background variables, were statistically analyzed and found to be significant This research focused on adolescents who have been riding motorcycles for at least six months.

The study confirmed most of the anticipated relationships depicted in Figure 3.1 However, it revealed that the link between risk perception and risky driving behaviors was not significant Additionally, gender did not consistently moderate the relationships between the predictor variables on the left and the criterion variables on the right in Figure 3.1.

This study found a significant positive correlation between peer influence and risky driving behaviors among adolescents Those who perceived their friends as engaging in risky driving—such as distracted, intoxicated, aggressive driving, and traffic law violations—were more likely to replicate these behaviors themselves Conversely, adolescents who perceived their friends as less engaged in risky driving reported lower instances of such behaviors Overall, the findings indicate that increased awareness of friends' risky driving is linked to a rise in similar behaviors among adolescents.

Adolescents with higher sensation-seeking scores tend to engage in more risky driving behaviors, including distracted and intoxicated driving, as well as aggressive driving and violations of driving laws Conversely, those with lower sensation-seeking scores exhibit less involvement in these dangerous behaviors However, when examining the unique impact of sensation seeking on law violations, it was found that it did not significantly predict such violations when considering other factors like peer influence, aggressive behaviors, and risk perception This indicates that sensation seeking alone does not contribute additional risk in violating driving laws beyond these other predictors.

The study found that rule-breaking behaviors significantly predicted four types of risky driving among adolescents: distracted driving, intoxicated driving, aggressive driving, and traffic law violations Adolescents who engaged in more rule-breaking were more likely to exhibit these risky driving behaviors, while those with fewer rule-breaking tendencies generally drove more safely However, when analyzing the unique impact of rule-breaking on aggressive driving, the results were not significant when accounting for other factors such as peer influence, sensation seeking, prior aggressive behaviors, and risk perception This indicates that rule-breaking behaviors do not provide additional predictive power for aggressive driving beyond these established predictors.

This study found that aggressive behaviors significantly predict risky driving behaviors among adolescents, including distracted, intoxicated, aggressive driving, and violations of driving laws Adolescents exhibiting higher levels of aggression were more prone to engage in these risky behaviors, while those with lower aggression levels were less likely to do so However, when considering all predictors, aggressive behaviors did not significantly contribute to the prediction of intoxicated driving, as factors like peer influence, sensation seeking, and rule-breaking behaviors played a more substantial role.

This study revealed that risk perception did not significantly predict four types of risky driving behaviors among young Cambodian motorcycle drivers in Phnom Penh, including distracted driving, intoxicated driving, aggressive driving, and law violations Consequently, adolescents with varying levels of risk perception are likely to engage in similar risky driving behaviors As a result of these findings, the factor of risk perception has been excluded from the originally proposed relationships in the study.

This study investigates gender differences in the relationship between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors, revealing three significant findings Firstly, female adolescents are more influenced by their peers' risky driving behaviors, particularly in distracted driving, compared to their male counterparts Secondly, peer influence also significantly affects the likelihood of violating driving laws, with female adolescents being more susceptible to such influences than males Lastly, the study highlights that for female adolescents, there is a stronger connection between general rule-breaking behaviors and violations of driving laws Figure 3.2 illustrates the psychosocial predictor variables that significantly moderate gender effects on risky driving behaviors.

Figure 3.2 Relationships among study variables where gender had a moderation

The study's findings reveal that the moderation of gender on the relationships among the variables was inconsistent and weak, leading to its exclusion from the summary in Figure 3.3 Additionally, the anticipated link between risk perception and risky driving behaviors was found to be insignificant However, significant predictive relationships were identified between four psychosocial factors—peer influence, sensation seeking, aggressive behavior, and rule-breaking—and all measures of risky driving behaviors in a large sample of Cambodian adolescent drivers.

Incorporating various covariates into the canonical correlation analyses and the Total Effects vs Unique Effects analyses had minimal impact on the outcomes The inclusion of covariates did not alter significant results to non-significant or vice versa This indicates that factors such as the adolescent's age and gender, parental education levels, the age at which the adolescent began driving, and their average daily driving distance remain consistent in their influence on the results.

Violating the driving law Gender

Females covariates included in the model) are not significant influences on the processes assessed in this study

Figure 3.3 Relationships between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors found in this study

The study found that factors such as the average daily kilometers driven, the number of accidents, the number of passengers, and the education levels of both mothers and fathers significantly influenced the relationship between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors However, the age at which individuals began driving and their parents' marital status did not show a significant moderating effect on this association.

Conclusions

This study represents the first large-scale investigation into adolescent risky driving behaviors in Cambodia, addressing gaps in existing research It explores the relationship between various psychosocial risk factors and risky driving behaviors, assessing both the total and unique impacts of these factors on four distinct types of risky driving Additionally, the research analyzes how gender and other relevant background variables moderate the connections between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors The findings align with previous studies and support theoretical frameworks from social cognitive and human development perspectives.

This study aligns with theoretical concepts indicating that adolescents who observe risky driving behaviors among their peers are more likely to engage in aggressive driving, intoxicated driving, distracted driving, and traffic law violations.

This study found that sensation seeking is a strong predictor of various risky driving behaviors among adolescents Specifically, those with higher levels of sensation seeking are more likely to engage in aggressive driving, drive under the influence of alcohol, be distracted while driving, and violate traffic laws.

Previous studies have established a link between antisocial deviant behaviors and health-risk activities, particularly risky driving behaviors This study corroborates those findings, demonstrating that antisocial deviant behaviors—such as rule-breaking and aggression—significantly predict four types of risky driving: aggressive driving, intoxicated driving, distracted driving, and traffic law violations Adolescents exhibiting higher levels of general rule-breaking and aggressive behaviors also reported increased instances of these risky driving behaviors.

This study reveals that female adolescents with high levels of general rule breaking are more likely to violate driving laws compared to their male counterparts, indicating that gender moderates the relationship between rule-breaking behaviors and traffic law violations Furthermore, gender significantly influences the impact of peer influence on driving behaviors, with females exhibiting higher levels of distracted driving due to their perception of friends' risky driving The findings highlight that female adolescents are more affected by peer influence regarding traffic law violations than males, emphasizing the critical role of social dynamics in driving behavior.

This study revealed no significant link between risk perception and various risky driving behaviors, including aggressive, intoxicated, and distracted driving, as well as traffic law violations Notably, adolescents are inclined to engage in these risky driving behaviors, irrespective of their perception of risk.

This study corroborates previous research by highlighting the influence of psychosocial factors, such as peer pressure and sensation seeking, on risky driving behaviors, including aggressive, intoxicated, and distracted driving, as well as violations of driving laws While the findings are largely consistent, there are some discrepancies regarding the relationship between risk perception and risky driving behaviors, as well as the moderating effect of gender on the connections between psychosocial risk factors and these behaviors.

The Average Number of Kilometers Driven per Day significantly influenced the relationship between friends’ risky driving behaviors and various types of risky driving, with higher daily driving correlating to a stronger peer influence on risky behaviors among adolescents Additionally, adolescents with a history of accidents exhibited a stronger connection between sensation seeking, friends’ risky driving, and aggressive behaviors, impacting distracted and intoxicated driving The number of passengers also played a crucial role in moderating the link between rule-breaking and risky driving behaviors, including distracted and aggressive driving Furthermore, a mother's education level was found to significantly affect the relationship between sensation seeking and aggressive driving, while a father's education level influenced the association between friends’ risky driving and aggressive behaviors or violations of driving laws.

In contrast, Age at which began to drive and Parents’ marital status did not significantly moderate the association between psychosocial factors and any risky driving behaviors.

Recommendations

This study provides recommendations for road safety programs and interventions targeting educational institutions, parents, and adolescents, as well as for future research It is essential to note that the focus was exclusively on Cambodian adolescent motorcyclists attending high schools in Phnom Penh The research examined the influence of five psychosocial risk factors—risk perception, peer influence, sensation seeking, general rule-breaking behaviors, and general aggressive behaviors—on four types of risky driving behaviors: aggressive driving, intoxicated driving, distracted driving, and traffic law violations These recommendations take into account the study's limitations and specific scope.

To effectively reduce risky driving among adolescents, key recommendations for policy development include confirming the causality between psychosocial risk factors and risky driving behaviors, which could identify critical public health intervention targets Additionally, research should assess whether Cambodian adolescents accurately perceive their peers' driving behaviors, as prior studies indicate that they often overestimate risky behaviors If this trend holds true in Cambodia, public health programs aimed at correcting these perceptions could be beneficial Furthermore, findings suggest that the number of accidents an adolescent has experienced may amplify the relationship between psychosocial factors and risky driving Therefore, raising awareness about the severe consequences of driving accidents, such as paralysis, could serve as another vital public health intervention to mitigate risky driving behaviors among adolescents.

Tailoring road safety programs to specific age and gender groups is crucial, as these factors significantly influence risky driving behaviors Adolescents, in particular, are at a higher risk due to their rapidly changing development, peer influence, and a propensity for sensation-seeking and rule-breaking To mitigate these risks, it's essential to provide opportunities for positive engagement through adventure sports, creative activities, or relevant road safety campaigns Incorporating positive youth development can empower young individuals and encourage their participation in road safety initiatives Additionally, parental support plays a vital role in shaping adolescents' driving behaviors, making it important to involve parents in these programs Road safety training should also focus on the impact of peer influence and psychological factors rather than solely on personal risk perception.

Educational institutions must foster creative and adventurous activities to channel adolescents' energy away from risky behaviors, such as unsafe driving Given that teens spend more time with peers at school than with family, schools are crucial in empowering youth to realize their potential and support one another Driving education should extend beyond driving schools to formal educational settings, as many adolescents learn to ride motorcycles before the legal age Furthermore, antisocial behaviors, including rule-breaking and aggression, are linked to risky driving Therefore, schools should address risky driving as a form of antisocial behavior to mitigate these risks effectively.

Parents play a crucial role in preventing adolescents from engaging in risky driving behaviors and other health-risk activities Key parenting strategies, including support, monitoring, and positive discipline, can significantly reduce negative sensation-seeking behaviors During the adolescent developmental stage, it is essential for parents to provide increased attention and guidance, helping their children connect with supportive peer groups and engage in positive, creative activities Despite spending much time at school, parents can create meaningful quality time at home to support their children through challenges like peer pressure and bullying Emphasizing positive discipline over traditional methods, such as corporal punishment, fosters a healthier environment for adolescent development.

Adolescents need to recognize their developmental stages and the associated risks, including peer influence and sensation-seeking behaviors, which can lead to dangerous driving and health-related activities By leveraging these developmental changes positively, they can form supportive peer groups, engage in social activities, and participate in road safety campaigns This not only helps them support their peers but also channels their energy into healthy pursuits Additionally, seeking relevant training can enable them to learn new skills, explore interests, and enhance their knowledge.

This study highlights the influence of psychosocial factors, such as peer pressure, sensation-seeking, rule-breaking, and aggression, on risky driving behaviors among Cambodian adolescents riding motorcycles in Phnom Penh Future research should delve deeper into the connections between these psychosocial elements and the four identified categories of risky driving, as well as identify potential protective factors Additionally, it is essential to investigate the distinctions between motorcycle and car drivers, along with variations across different age groups, including adolescents, young adults, and adults, to better understand their unique behavioral patterns Given the complexity of human behavior, subsequent studies should employ advanced analytical methods, like structural equation modeling, to thoroughly examine the interplay of risk factors, protective factors, and risky driving behaviors.

This study advocates for future research to adopt a multilevel and multi-systems approach to driving behavior, emphasizing the importance of cultural context and protective factors across macro, meso, and micro levels It suggests incorporating more sophisticated data analyses to gain a deeper understanding of the intricate relationships between psychosocial factors and risky driving behaviors among young motorcyclists and drivers.

Future research should examine both protective and risk factors identified in this study, particularly the influence of positive family relationships on risky driving behaviors Adolescents who maintain strong family ties may be less inclined to engage in risky driving, as they are motivated to avoid causing worry to their parents and family Therefore, incorporating these protective factors into future studies is essential for a comprehensive understanding of adolescent driving behaviors.

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LIST OF RESEARCH PAPERS RELATED TO THE DISSERTATION

(2022) Relations between behavioral risk factors and risky driving among Cambodian adolescents Proceedings of the International Scientific

Conference on “The World in Crisis: The Contribution of Psychology” (pp 207 – 216) Vietnam National University Press

(2023) Relations between risk perception, perceptions of peers’ driving, and risky driving among Cambodian adolescents Frontiers in Psychology:

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APPENDICES Appendix A: List of Items used in Domains of Driving Behavior Questionnaire

1 Going 30 km/h over the speed limit on a residential street

2 Slowing down to aggravate a driver behind you

3 Going 10 km/h over the speed limit on a highway

4 Passing another car on the right to get by slower traffic in other lanes

5 Playing music loudly while driving so that it would be hard to hear car horns or sirens

6 Speeding to get ahead of another driver

7 Flashing headlights at another driver to encourage them to go faster or move out of your way

8 Being the passenger with a driver who has smoked one joint (marijuana cigarette)

9 Going 10 km/h over the speed limit on a residential street

10 Being the passenger with a driver who has consumed more than one alcoholic beverage

11 Being the passenger with a driver who has taken drugs other than marijuana

14 Pulling out into traffic without waiting for a large space between cars

15 Driving after consuming more than one alcoholic beverage

16 Driving without wearing a seat belt

17 Changing lanes or turning without using rearview/side mirrors

18 Switching lanes to weave through and get ahead of slower traffic

19 Driving without following traffic signs (e.g., do not turn left between certain hours of the day)

20 Passing another car in a no passing zone

21 Going 20 km/h over the speed limit on a highway

22 Abruptly cutting in front of another driver

23 Merging before being up to speed

24 Making a fist at another driver

25 Passing more than one vehicle at a time on a road with two-way traffic

26 Driving after smoking more than one joint (marijuana cigarette)

27 Changing lanes without much room between cars

28 Adjusting display instruments (e.g., changing the clock) while driving

29 Giving another driver the middle finger

30 Making a U-turn where there are signs posted not to do so

31 Being the passenger with a driver who has consumed one alcoholic beverage

32 Fixing your hair or putting on makeup or checking your teeth while driving

33 Driving after consuming one alcoholic beverage

34 Going 30 km/h over the speed limit on a highway

35 Searching for something in your backpack or purse while driving

36 Not giving the right of way at a 4-way stop sign

37 Following another driver closely in order to encourage them to get over or move out of your way

38 Rolling through a red light without coming to a full stop (e.g., to turn right on a red light)

39 Driving after smoking one joint (marijuana cigarette)

40 Racing another car for a short distance

41 Not yielding to other cars at a yield sign

42 Talking on a cellphone with or without using a headset

43 Driving after taking drugs other than marijuana

44 Going 20 km/h over the speed limit on a residential street

45 Reviewing your location on a map while driving

47 Driving with passengers who are being loud and boisterous

48 Accelerating the car abruptly so that the car intentionally jolts forward

49 Being the passenger with a driver who has smoked more than one joint

50 Changing lanes or turning without shoulder checking or checking your blind spot

51 Drinking a nonalcoholic beverage (e.g., soda, coffee, tea) while driving

52 Texting/e-mailing/using the internet/using social networking while driving

53 Changing lanes or turning without signaling

54 Yelling at another driver in anger or frustration

55 Rolling through a stop sign without coming to a full stop

56 Changing multiple lanes at once

Appendix B: Reduced List of Items from Domains of Driving Questionnaire by Category in Schmit’s study (Youth Domains of Risky Driving Scale)

2 Slowing down to aggravate a driver behind you

7 Flashing headlights at another driver to encourage them to go faster or move out of your way

18 Switching lanes to weave through and get ahead of slower traffic

22 Abruptly cutting in front of another driver

24 Making a fist at another driver

29 Giving another driver the middle finger

37 Following another driver closely in order to encourage them to get over or move out of your way

40 Racing another car for a short distance

48 Accelerating the car abruptly so that the car intentionally jolts forward

54 Yelling at another driver in anger or frustration

8 Being the passenger with a driver who has smoked one joint (marijuana cigarette)

10 Being the passenger with a driver who has consumed more than one alcoholic beverage

11 Being the passenger with a driver who has taken drugs other than marijuana

15 Driving after consuming more than one alcoholic beverage

26 Driving after smoking more than one joint (marijuana cigarette)

31 Being the passenger with a driver who has consumed one alcoholic beverage

33 Driving after consuming one alcoholic beverage

39 Driving after smoking one joint (marijuana cigarette)

43 Driving after taking drugs other than marijuana

49 Being the passenger with a driver who has smoked more than one joint

5 Playing music loudly while driving so that it would be hard to hear car horns or sirens

28 Adjusting display instruments (e.g., changing the clock) while driving

32 Fixing your hair or putting on makeup or checking your teeth while driving

35 Searching for something in your backpack or purse while driving

42 Talking on a cellphone with or without using a headset

45 Reviewing your location on a map while driving

47 Driving with passengers who are being loud and boisterous

51 Drinking a nonalcoholic beverage (e.g., soda, coffee, tea) while driving

52 Texting/e-mailing/using the internet/using social networking while driving

3 Going 10 km/h over the speed limit on a highway

9 Going 10 km/h over the speed limit on a residential street

16 Driving without wearing a seat belt

19 Driving without following traffic signs (e.g., do not turn left between certain hours of the day)

30 Making a U-turn where there are signs posted not to do so

38 Rolling through a red light without coming to a full stop (e.g., to turn right on a red light)

53 Changing lanes or turning without signaling

55 Rolling through a stop sign without coming to a full stop

Appendix C: Risky driving quaternaries in this study

1 Chase other drivers on a motorbike

2 Switch lanes (paths) to weave through and get ahead of slower traffic

3 Abruptly cut in front of another driver

4 Follow another driver on a motorbike closely in order to encourage them to get over or move out of your way

5 Race another moto for a short distance

6 Yell at another driver in anger or frustration

7 Give another driver an angry look or point at them or shake your fist

8 Rev the moto to make a loud sound

1 Are a passenger with a driver who has consumed one alcoholic beverage

2 Are a passenger with a driver who has consumed more than one alcoholic beverage

3 Drive a motorbike after consuming one alcoholic beverage

4 Drive a motorbike after consuming more than one alcoholic beverage

1 Search for something in your pocket or backpack or purse while driving a motorbike

2 Review your location on a map or cellphone / GPS while driving

3 Drive with passengers who are loud and boisterous

4 Text, e-mail, use the internet, while driving a motorbike

5 Eat or drink (beverage) while driving

6 Talk to passengers while driving

7 Talk to other moto drivers /friends who are driving nearby

8 Talk on a cellphone while driving

9 Drive with two or more adult passengers on the motorbike

Violating the Driving Law (10 items)

1 Drive faster on a motorbike than your parents would think was safe to drive

2 Drive a motorbike without wearing a helmet

3 Drive a motorbike the wrong way on a one way street or lane

4 Make a U-turn where there are signs posted not to make a U-turn

6 Drive much faster than the other motorbikes

7 Change lanes or turning without signaling while driving a motorbike

9 Go through a stop sign without completely stopping

10 Go through a red light to make a right turn without stopping

Please kindly answer the following questions honestly, and please be aware that your answers will be kept confidentially (No one can read your answers besides the researcher and assistants)

1 At what age did you first drive a motorbike by yourself ?

2 Who taught you to drive the motorbike?

3 How many traffic accidents have you been in where you were driving a motorbike and your or someone else’s motorbike was damaged even a little, or someone was injured, even a little? This does not include accidents when you were a passenger on a motorbike

 0 accident  1 accident  2-3 accidents  4-5 accidents  > 5 accidents

4 Approximately how many kilometers per day on average do you drive the motorbike?

 0 km  1-3km  4-6km  > 6km  Don’t know

5 When you drive, how many passengers do you usually have on a trip?

 Just myself  1 passenger  2 passengers  3 passengers

Part B Please read each statement and choose the best answer that describes the degree to which you agree or disagree to that statement

1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = agree 4 = strongly agree

6 I like to explore new places that I have never been to before 1 2 3 4

7 I prefer to do things spontaneously without planning because it is more fun and exciting 1 2 3 4

8 I get restless when I spend too much time at home 1 2 3 4

9 I prefer friends who are exciting and unpredictable 1 2 3 4

10 I like to do things that are a little scary 1 2 3 4

11 I think going on a zip-line would be a lot of fun, and I would like to do it 1 2 3 4

12 I like exciting parties where people do fun and exciting things 1 2 3 4

13 I love to have new and exciting experiences, even if they are illegal 1 2 3 4

14 What happens to me in the future mostly depends on me 1 2 3 4

15 Sometimes I feel there is nothing to look forward to in the future 1 2 3 4

16 I can do just about anything I want if I really set my mind to it 1 2 3 4

18 My future is what I make of it 1 2 3 4

19 It’s really no use worrying about the future, because what will be will be 1 2 3 4

20 I have great faith in the future 1 2 3 4

21 My school grades dropped due to excessive smartphone use 1 2 3 4

22 I have a hard time doing what I have planned

(study, do homework, 5 or go to afterschool classes) due to using smartphone

23 People frequently comment on my excessive smartphone use 1 2 3 4

24 Family or friends complain that I use my smartphone too much 1 2 3 4

25 My smartphone does not distract me from my studies 1 2 3 4

26 Using a smartphone is more enjoyable than spending time with family or friends 1 2 3 4

27 When I cannot use a smartphone, I feel like I have lost the entire world 1 2 3 4

28 It would be painful if I am not allowed to use a smartphone 1 2 3 4

29 I get restless and nervous when I am without a smartphone 1 2 3 4

30 I am not anxious even when I am without a smartphone 1 2 3 4

31 I panic when I cannot use my smartphone 1 2 3 4

32 I try cutting my smartphone usage time, but I fail 1 2 3 4

33 I can control my smartphone usage time 1 2 3 4

34 Even when I think I should stop, I continue to use my smartphone too much 1 2 3 4

35 Spending a lot of time on my smartphone has become a habit 1 2 3 4