163 advanced technology in textiles fibre to apparel

This book highlights the latest technology in textile processing along with the application of eco-friendly chemicals and reagents. As textile is the second basic human need, this industry assimilates a large share in the world economy. Nonetheless, nothing should be accomplished compromising sustainability; therefore updated technology and modern machineries are being used in the textile processing. It is not only for enhancing the efficiency but also to reduce waste and energy consumption. Moreover, Nano particles and Bio-chemicals are assumed to become integral part in the future manufacturing system. In this book, the numerical and investigation results will be presented to highlight the mentioned topics so that the application is lucidly comprehended. In a nutshell, this book is supposed to cover all the vibrant innovations in the manufacturing arena in textiles in consideration with ecological balance as well as breakthroughs in applied technology assumed to veer the general concept of maintenance of that machineries.

Textile Science and Clothing Technology

Series Editor

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, SgT Group & API, Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

technology and clothing science and technology Below are the areas fall under the aims and scope of this series, but not limited to: Production and properties of various natural and synthetic fibres; Production and properties of different yarns, fabrics and apparels; Manufacturing aspects of textiles and clothing; Modelling and Simulation aspects related to textiles and clothing; Production and properties of Nonwovens; Evaluation/testing of various properties of textiles and clothing products; Supply chain management of textiles and clothing; Aspects related to Clothing Science such as comfort; Functional aspects and evaluation of textiles; Textile biomaterials and bioengineering; Nano, micro, smart, sport and intelligent textiles; Various aspects of industrial and technical applications of textiles and clothing; Apparel manufacturing and engineering; New developments and appli-cations pertaining to textiles and clothing materials and their manufacturing methods; Textile design aspects; Sustainable fashion and textiles; Green Textiles and Eco-Fashion; Sustainability aspects of textiles and clothing; Environmental assessments of textiles and clothing supply chain; Green Composites; Sustainable Luxury and Sustainable Consumption; Waste Management in Textiles; Sustainability Standards and Green labels; Social and Economic Sustainability of Textiles and Clothing.

Md Mizanur Rahman · Mohammad Mashud ·

Md Mizanur Rahman

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

World University of Bangladesh

Dhaka, Bangladesh

Md Mostafizur Rahman

Department of Textile Engineering

World University of Bangladesh

Dhaka, Bangladesh

Mohammad Mashud Mechanical Engineering Khulna University of Engineering and Technology

Khulna, Bangladesh

ISSN 2197-9863 ISSN 2197-9871 (electronic)

Textile Science and Clothing Technology

ISBN 978-981-99-2141-6 ISBN 978-981-99-2142-3 (eBook)

or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use

The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

The development of civilization is aligned with the development of the apparel sector The progress of the apparel sector is mainly due to the contributions of thousands of researchers and innovators in textile technology over the last several decades The assistance can be recorded from the time of the hand-operated loom to the present time when the machinery has become fully automated Currently, most textile machines are fully or partially automated or either robotics or sensor-based control systems During the Industrial Revolution 4.0, the textile or apparel sector in Bangladesh has also been touched with modern and efficient technology

Many parts of the textile industries are operated manually and may be responsible for generating pollution for the environment Primarily, harsh and corrosive chemi-cals are extensively used in fabric processing which is very much deteriorating human health and the environment The ecological systems and the water quality are also seriously disrupted by the effluents produced from the conventional processes run in textile industries for several decades Therefore, in the present situation, replacing these environment deterioration industrial processes with a new environmentally friendly process is in high demand

Many researchers and companies continue working to develop an eco-friendly process for textile industries These processes will cover the chemical treatments of the fabric to solid waste management Therefore, the new technology will encompass every stage of the textile sector, starting from fibre cultivation, yarn production, fabric manufacturing, pre-treatments, coloration, and finishing The latest technology and automation process have the greatest influence on productivity, affecting the profit margin In addition, the new technologies will reduce the pollution level in the environment and save our ecological systems

In this book, the authors are intended to summarize the recent ments, innovations, and latest industrial practices in all sectors, from fabric to apparel manufacturing This book starts with an introductory chapter on textiles, fibres, and fabrics Chapter “Management and Maintenance of Textile Machinery” illustrates the mechanical engineering and maintenance process of machinery Chapter “Advanced Technology in Fabric Manufacturing” highlights the advanced fabric manufacturing technologies of both the knitting and weaving sections

develop-v

Chapters “Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing” and “Innovative Textile Printing Technology” describe the eco-friendly chemical treatments and colorations process

to minimize water consumption by textile industries and reduce the environmental pollution load Chapter “Advanced Technology in Fabric Finishing” envisions stating the up-to-date fabric finishing processes Chapter “Advanced Technology in Apparel Manufacturing” encompasses all types of Industry 4.0-related technologies in apparel engineering and finishing

In today’s world, non-woven products greatly influence lifestyles through tility and usability Chapter “Non-woven” is going to describe the non-woven prod-ucts with their manufacturing process Chapter “Structural Coloration in Textiles”

versa-is considered a unique write-up of thversa-is book, highlighting the natural structural coloration process in different animals and insects The textile industries threaten the natural ecological system by generating much effluent and waste Therefore, managing the wastes and effluents of textile industries is crucial Chapter “Waste Management in Textile Industry” provides a clear concept for reducing the load on the environment by practicing proper waste management systems The application

of enzymes in fabric processing is a very eco-friendly, efficient process The details

of enzymatic processes, including origin, types, and recent technology, have been described in Chapter “Application of Biochemical in Textile” And finally, Chapter

“Nano Materials in Textile Processing” illustrates the application of nano materials

in textile processing

All the chapters of this book can satisfy the reader’s eagerness to know about the development of the textile industry Basically, this book is very much helpful for third- and fourth-year students in Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Technology in Textile Engineering

First, the editors of this book would like to express praise for our almighty creator who gave us the spirit and knowledge to accomplish this work The authors’ and co-authors’ contributions and time-to-time responses are overwhelming us As a result of the brainstorming and hard work of all the authors and co-authors, this book is coming out and going to become a true dream The editors are also deeply acknowledged

to the esteemed researchers and authors from different scientific publications for providing permission and allowing the authors to use their scientific evidence and enrich the book chapters The authors of the book chapters tried to use information, data, and figures from other researchers with proper citations and would like to acknowledge the contribution

The editors of this book feel honoured and would like to express thanks from their hearts to all Springer Nature staff directly or indirectly involved in publishing this book

The editors are also indebted to all the authors’ and co-authors’ family members for their continuous support and inspiration during the process of this book

Md Mizanur Rahman Mohammad Mashud

Md Mostafizur Rahman

vii

This book mainly highlights the latest technology incorporated in textile processing along with the application of eco-friendly chemicals and reagents As textile is the second basic human need, this industry assimilates a large share of the world economy Nonetheless, nothing should be accomplished compromising sustain-ability; therefore, updated technology and modern machinery are being used in textile processing It is not only for enhancing efficiency but also to reduce waste and energy consumption Moreover, Nano-particles and Bio-chemicals are assumed to become

an integral part of the future manufacturing system In this book, the numerical and investigation results will be presented to highlight the mentioned topics so that the application is lucidly comprehended In a nutshell, this book is supposed to cover all the vibrant innovations in the manufacturing arena in textiles in consideration of ecological balance as well as breakthroughs in applied technology assumed to veer the general concept of maintenance of that machinery

ix

Introduction to Textiles and Textile Fibers 1

Md Mostafizur Rahman, Md Shamsuzzaman, Dip Das,

Md Abdus Shahid, and Mohammad Bellal Hoque

Management and Maintenance of Textile Machinery 31

Md Shamsuzzaman, Mohammad Mashud, Md Mizanur Rahman,

Md Mostafizur Rahman, Enamul Hoq, and Dip Das

Advanced Technology in Fabric Manufacturing 65

Kibria Fayez, Afsana Mobin, and Dewan Murshed Ahmed

Advanced Technology in Textile Dyeing 97

Elias Khalil, Joy Sarkar, Md Mostafizur Rahman,

Md Shamsuzzaman, and Dip Das

Innovative Textile Printing Technology 139

Elias Khalil, Joy Sarkar, Md Mostafizur Rahman,

Md Shamsuzzaman, and Dip Das

Advanced Technology in Fabric Finishing 161

Md Lutfor Rahman and Tanzeena Refat Tumpa

Advanced Technology in Apparel Manufacturing 177

Joy Sarkar, Niaz Morshed Rifat, Md Sakib-Uz-Zaman,

Md Abdullah Al Faruque, and Zawad Hasan Prottoy

Non-woven 233

Umme Salma Ferdousi, Kibria Fayez, and Sati Irtifa

Structural Coloration in Textiles 257

Nazia Nourin Moury and Mohammad Tajul Islam

Waste Management in Textile Industry 279

Md Shamsuzzaman, Ismail Hossain, Tonmoy Saha, Ajoy Roy,

Dip Das, Md Tanvir Ahmed, and Sagor Kumar Podder

xi

Application of Biochemical in Textile 301

Md Mostafizur Rahman, Nur-Us-Shafa Mazumder,

Umme Salma Ferdousi, Md Abdus Shahid,

and Mohammad Bellal Hoque

Nano Materials in Textile Processing 323

Mohammad Abdul Jalil, A F M Fahad Halim, Md Moniruzzaman,

Md Tanjim Hossain, and Syed Zubair Hussain

Prof Dr Md Mizanur Rahman is a Professor and

Head of the Mechatronics Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering at the World University of Bangladesh He has research and teaching interest in both fundamental and applied aspects of Energy Tech-nologies, especially in new technology to harvest elec-tricity from solar power and hydropower He began his carrier at the RETs in Asia Phase-II Project in

1999 as a Research Engineering under the Department

of Mechanical Engineering at Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET) and Asian Insti-tute of Technology (AIT) Bangkok, Thailand, before joining as Program Support Specialist in 2005 at BRAC

Dr Rahman was appointed as an Assistant Manager Technical in 2006 at Rural Power Company Ltd and a Lecturer in 2009 at TAS Institute of Oil and Gas Later

on, Dr Rahman moved to Universiti Malaysia Sabah as Senior Lecturer in 2012 In January 2019, he joined as

an Associate Professor in the Mechatronics Engineering Department at the World University of Bangladesh and was promoted as Professor in March 2021

Dr Rahman has received his B.Sc Engineering in Mechanical, a Master of Science in Environmental Management, and a Doctor of Philosophy in Mechan-ical Engineering from BIT Khulna, Bangladesh, jointly with University of San Francisco, USA, and Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand, and Universiti Malaysia Sabah in 1998, 2004, and 2012, respectively

Dr Rahman has published more than 70 research cles in various journals and national and international conference proceedings and also holds 1 Patent for

arti-xiii

Natural Draft Cooling Tower He is a Chartered Energy Engineer and CEng Member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) and Energy Institute (EI), Fellow, Institute of Engineers Bangladesh (IEB), Member, Bangladesh Society of Mechanical Engineers (BSME), American Society of Mechanical Engi-neering (ASME) and Professional Member, Institute

of Materials Malaysia (IMM) and Society of Industrial Engineering and Operation Management (IEOM)

Dr Mohammad Mashud is a Professor in the

Depart-ment of Mechanical Engineering, Khulna University

of Engineering & Technology, Bangladesh, currently working as a Research Fellow in the Aerospace Center

at UTEP, USA He was born in Dhaka, Bangladesh,

in 1975 He received his Ph.D in Aerospace neering from Nagoya University, Japan, in 2006 He also earned a Master of Engineering from the same depart-ment and university in Japan in 2003 He completed his Bachelor of Science in Engineering (Mechanical) from Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET), Bangladesh In 1999, he joined as a lecturer

Engi-in the Department of Mechanical EngEngi-ineerEngi-ing, KUET

He served as a Head of the Department of ical Engineering, KUET for the duration of two years (2012–2013) He supervises research activities in the field of aerodynamics, UAV, fluid mechanics & energy sciences, and teaches fluid mechanics & aerodynamics for bachelor’s students in engineering sciences as well

Mechan-as post-graduate students in mechanical & bio-medical engineering He has successfully supervised 11 post-graduate and more than 100 bachelor student theses He has been involved in many research projects funded by the Ministry of Education, the university grant commis-sion, and KUET as well as foreign funds He has published more than 150 articles in journals, proceed-ings, and book chapters He received academic awards and scholarships from government and professional institutes Dr Mashud served as a technical Chair, Co-chair of many international conferences, and he also organized an international conference as an organizing secretary

Mr Md Mostafizur Rahman is working as Sr

Assis-tant Professor and Head Department of Textile neering, World University of Bangladesh, as well as the team leader of the departmental quality assurance cell and the chairman of the curriculum committee

Engi-At present, Mr Rahman is a Ph.D Fellow of the department of textile engineering, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET) Md Mostafizur Rahman graduated from Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology with a Bachelor of Science in Textile Technology He completed the Master of Science

in Textile Engineering from Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University Mr Rahman also served

as the chairman of the Self-Assessment Committee, Department of Textile Engineering in 2017–2018 under the higher education quality enhancement project (HEQEP) of the University Grants Commission and has enough experience to design and review the OBE curriculum, course profile, assessment strategy and also overlooks the activities and professional development

of faculty members

He has published several papers in international nals and also published a book chapter under a publisher: Wiley—Scrivener Md Rahman has research works on various chemical treatment effects on fabric properties, the effect of ultraviolet protection finishes, the effect of yarn quality on fabric properties, natural polymer-based composites, etc Mr Rahman is interested in research

jour-in the followjour-ing area: • Biodegradable composites • Medical textiles • Modification of cotton fibre with synthetic polymer • Modification of jute fibre

Mr Rahman started his career as a senior executive (R&D Department) at Interstoff Apparels Ltd Gazipur, Bangladesh, in 2008 before moving to the World Univer-sity of Bangladesh as a Lecturer in 2010 Mr Rahman was born in Pabna Since childhood, he was interested

in Football, Cricket, and Badminton Besides his sional life, he has actively engaged with social welfare organizations

profes-Fibers

Md Mostafizur Rahman, Md Shamsuzzaman, Dip Das, Md Abdus Shahid, and Mohammad Bellal Hoque

Abstract Clothing is regarded as the second most fundamental need for humans

after food It has a wide range of uses in the modern day, with options considering fast fashion The manufacturing of numerous types of fibers, contemporary technology, sustainability concerns, eco-friendly chemicals, and reagent uses are all included in the lifetime of garment products, which extends beyond traditional garment manu-facturing The textile and appeal industries have undergone dramatic transformations because of the emergence of all these variables The smart textile production process has gained tremendous impetus because of technical advancements in the textile industry Due to the identification of additional application fields for textile fibers, innovative technologies are being developed in the textile industries Natural and synthetic fibers, as well as other types of fiber, will all be addressed in this chapter along with their characteristics This chapter will also cover the production of fiber and its various uses in the textile industry

Keywords Textiles ·Fibers ·Natural Fibers ·Man–made Fibers

1 Introduction

The word “textiles” comes from Latin and means woven fabric However, days, textiles are not only confined to woven fabrics; it is a combination of spinning, weaving, knitting, dyeing, printing, finishing, cutting, sewing, etc More precisely, textile is anything related to or producing fabrics by interlocking twisted yarns

nowa-Md Mostafizur Rahman (B) · Md Shamsuzzaman · D Das

Department of Textile Engineering, World University of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh e-mail: rahman6@textiles.wub.edu.bd

Md Abdus Shahid

Department of Textile Engineering, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh

M B Hoque

Department of Textile Engineering, Fareast International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd 2023

Md M Rahman et al (eds.), Advanced Technology in Textiles, Textile Science and

Clothing Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2142-3_1

1

together through weaving, knitting, crocheting, or bonding It considers the mental components of ready-made garments The primary concern of the textile industry is the design, production, and distribution of cloth and clothing Therefore, fabrics and cloths assembled by tailoring and dressmaking are considered synonyms for textiles In the textile process, natural and synthetic raw materials like Fibers, dyes, chemicals, etc are considered the primary ingredients Fibers are measured as fundamental components of the clotting process

funda-According to the definition of Fiber, it is a long and thin strand of material that can be knit or woven into a fabric It is the main ingredient of clothing manufac-turing and can collect from nature or produce in a chemical lab Therefore, textile Fiber considers a unit of raw materials of fabric It can be made from natural or artificial sources and become an essential element of fabrics and other textile struc-tures The Fibers are characterized by a length–width ratio such as 1000:1 Fibers are spun into yarn or made into fabric through various processes, including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, and twisting The primary and crucial property of textile Fibers is the length of the Fiber which should be at least 5 mm The textile Fiber properties include flexibility, cohesiveness, sufficient strength, fineness, uniformity, durability, and luster The textile Fibers’ essential physical and chemical properties include durability, handle elasticity, dye-ability, friction, moisture absorbency, heat isolation, and abrasion resistance Therefore, in textile engineering, Fibers having the above mechanical, physical, and chemical properties can be considered textile Fibers

2 History of Textiles and Clothing

The history of the textile and clothing industries starts from the story of the movement

of handcraft production of cloth to industrial automation It began with the industrial revolution in Britain and then drove to Europe, America, Japan, and other countries The availability, use, and development of clothing and textiles are enriching day by day due to human interest The advanced technology and availability of raw materials have accelerated the progress of this industry

The textile was first discovered in Peru in 8,000 B.C.E, where the fabric was weaved out of vegetable Fibers In the Middle Ages, two types of looms were avail-able, i.e (a) warp-weighted loom and (b) two-beam loom Then China provided the most suitable conditions fabrics to the World due to the Silk Road Trade [1] In Near East, flax fabrics were used to warp the dead excavated into woven textiles rather than woolly fleece used around 3000 B.C [2, 3]

According to the Greek historian Herodotus, “Wool exceeds the beauty and goodness that of sheep.” However, Alexander wore cotton clothes that were more comfortable and contended than wool and silk [4]

Linen cloth production started in Egypt and used to produce burial customs, men’s kilts, and women’s shirts, jackets, sheets, etc The Mughal period was the most important center of manufacturing industrial goods, especially textiles and clothing,

until 1800 These include calicos and muslins, contributing around 25% of the World Trade [5]

Natural Fibers like cotton, agave, and leather from deer or beavers were used across North America in the eighteenth century During the century, men used to wear coats, waistcoats, and breeches, and women used to wear silhouettes, doomed hoops, etc Indian cotton was imported to Europe to produce such dresses Cotton cultivation

in India initiated the cotton textile industry in the Middle East European countries have tried making calico fabric using 100% cotton Fibers In Britain, spinning and weaving machines were invented in the eighteenth century, and the first key invention was the fly shuttle in 1733, which increased productivity In 1761, spinning devices were developed that could turn Fiber into yarn In 1769, John Kay invented the water frame to facilitate carding and drawing actions in spinning 1779 Samuel Crompton invented the “muslin machine” (or Spinning mule) by combining Hargreaves’s and Arkwright’s ideas In 1794, American Eli Whitney patented the cotton gin

During the twentieth century industrial revolution took place due to the inventions

of synthetic dyes and Fibers Fabric production was mechanized, computerized, and shifted to mass production using hand sewing machines [6] Therefore, textile processing implies many manufacturing operations to complete a single product

3 Divisions of Textile Industry

Textile processing starts with processing raw materials (Fibers) into yarn, then it includes the process of manufacturing fabrics, fabric colorations, sewing operations, and finishing Every section in the texting industry considers a department and runs its operations so that the product’s quality must meet the end users’ requirements Figure 1 shows the major essential department of textile processing, from the input

of the raw materials to the final finished product or garments It can be considered the overall process of manufacturing garments or products

3.1 Spinning Department

The primary raw materials of the spinning process are Fibers, collected in the bale form Several operations like blow room, carding, drawing, roving, and ring frame execute during the manufacturing of yarns Mixing and blending Fibers in appropriate portions in the blow room is a prerequisite to getting the required quality of yarn hence desired finished items Figure 2 shows the steps involved in the spinning process, and Fig 2 shows the flow chart of the spinning process

Fig 1 Flow chart of Textile Manufacturing [7 ]

Fig 2 Flow chart of spinning processing [8 ]

3.2 Fabric Department

Mostly woven and knitted fabrics are produced in fabric mills The flow of fabric manufacturing is shown in Fig 3 Fabric can be manufactured using weaving, knit-ting, or a non-weaving process The process depends on the volume of raw materials and the demand for the fabrics Weaving requires preparation before production, whereas knit fabrics can be made directly in the knitting section The mechanism, pattern design, and types of cloth differ between them Non-woven is considered highly delicate and luxurious items of fabric that are made by spinning, heating, bonding, melting, stitching, etc

Fig 3 Flow chart of fabric manufacturing [7 , 8 ]

Fig 4 Flow chart of wet process [8 ]

3.3 Wet Process Department

In the wet process, fabrics will wash and color using water, dyestuffs, and chemicals The flow of the wet process is shown in Fig 4 Natural or synthetic dyes and chemicals are used in this process to color or modify the fabric and make it useable for the garment department These processes generate the main textile waste, such as sludge and effluents According to the Department of Environment (DoE), these waste and effluents need to neutralize until it meets the standard before it discharges into the environment

3.4 Garment Department

In the textile industry, the last division is known as the garment department The task of the garment department has started from negotiating with the buyer to order

confirmation The discussion can initiate with a simple design/sketch of a garment and end up with the final product Figure 5 shows the flow chart of products during the manufacturing of garments The garment department’s washing and drying are the processes’ most critical parts

Most recently, wet and dry processes have been introduced into the garment washing system Teaching these techniques is to modify/change/develop the garment’s outer surface It mainly aims to satisfy the customer’s desires and product quality Note that the technologies related to wet finishing are implemented after the completion of garment manufacturing

There are many sections in the textile industries which are discussed earlier part

of this chapter The quality of the textile product depends on the textile process and textile Fibers Therefore to understand the textile product quality, a textile engineer should have good knowledge of textile Fiber The next part of this chapter is going

to discuss textile Fiber

Fig 5 Flow chart of garment manufacturing [7 , 8 ]

4 Textile Fiber

Generally, Fiber is the hair-like portion or tissue of a plant or animal There are over

a hundred types of Fiber in the world; these Fibers belong to different categories such as food Fiber, plant Fiber, vegetable Fiber, animal Fiber, textile Fiber, etc Each group exhibits other characteristics

Textiles Fibers are the primary raw materials in the textile industry Textile Fiber can be defined as Fiber that can be spun into a yarn or processed into a textile surface such as woven fabric, knitted fabric, or non-woven fabric, and contain a structural length a thousand times longer than its width To be a textile base Fiber, it must have some characteristics such as a minimum spin-able length, sufficient strength, crimp, fineness, elasticity, and a higher length-to-breadth ratio Without these characteristics,

a Fiber could not be recognized as a textile Fiber To be a textile Fiber, these properties are the fundamental requirements According to the origin, the textile Fibers could

be natural base or synthetic base Fiber

4.1 Staple and Filament Fiber

Length is an essential characteristic of textile Fiber, and according to the length, Fiber can be classified into two groups, staple Fiber, and filament Fiber

i Staple Fiber: A Fiber with a limited or fixed span is called a staple Fiber, as

shown in Fig 6 Staple Fiber is a Fiber of a small length Except for silk, all the natural-based Fibers such as cotton, jute, wool, flax, hemp, ramie, and sisal belong to this group

ii Filament Fiber: A Fiber with an infinite or unlimited length, as shown in Fig 6,

is termed filament Fiber It means filament is a continuous Fiber All the artificial Fibers such as polyester, nylon, acrylic, viscose, rayon, etc., and natural base silk Fiber belong to this category

Fig 6 Filament and staple

Fiber [ 9 ]

4.2 Classification of Textile Fiber

There are many types of textile Fibers according to their sources, lengths, chemical structures, etc According to the origin, textile Fiber is mainly divided into two kinds: natural base Fiber and synthetic base Fiber These two groups’ Fibers can be divided again into the number of subgroups as shown in Figs 7 and 8 These two figures explore the classification of natural base Fiber and artificial base Fiber, respectively

Fig 7 Classification of natural base textile Fibers [10 ]

Fig 8 Classification of man-made base textile Fibers [11 ]

5 Natural Fiber

Fibers obtained from nature are known as natural Fibers In other words, the weaving Fibers found in nature are known as natural Fibers Natural Fibers are classified as vegetable Fiber, animal Fiber, mineral Fiber, rubber Fiber, and many more

Vegetable Fibers: These are obtained from the seeds, bark, stems, leaves, etc

of the plant Cotton Fiber from the outer part of the seeds of the corpus plant, jute Fiber from the bark of the jute tree, flax Fiber from the stems of the flax tree, and pine Fiber are found in pineapple leaves

Animal Fiber: It is found in animals’ hair, fur, or saliva Such as fun Fibers from

fleece and silk Fiber obtained from the saliva of cocoon insects

Mineral Fiber: It is found in layers of solid rock beneath the soil Refining mineral

Fibers produce yarn For example, asbestos yarn is made from asbestos Fiber

Natural rubber: It is also compressed in a unique process to make rubber Fiber

5.1.1 Chemical Compositions and Physical Properties of Cotton Fiber

The quality of cotton Fibers depends on their physical and chemical properties The chemical compositions bear the most significant Fiber properties that influence the quality of the final product Cotton Fiber comprises 87–97% of cellulose in the Fiber composition Other properties are Protein 1–2%, Pectin’s 0.4–1.5%, Mineral 0.7–1.6%, Oil & Wax 0.4–1.5%, Other 0.5–8% [13]

On the other hand, physical properties are color, tensile strength, elongation at break, elastic recovery, specific gravity, moisture regain, heat, sunlight, and the impact of age For example, its tenacity value is 3–5 gm/den, the wet strength of cotton is 20.00%, elongation at break of 5–10%, elastic recovery of 45.00%, and

specific gravity 1.54 Cotton Fiber moisture regains percentage is 8.5 During ning, the following cotton Fiber properties are experienced fineness 1–4 dtex/2.3–6.9 micronaire, Fiber length 10–60 mm, Density 1.50–1.54/cm3, breaking strength 25–50 cN/Tex, Elongation 5.00–10.00% and color creamy yellow [13] Cotton is attacked

spin-by hot dilute or cold concentrated acids in which it disintegrates It can hold 24–27 times more water in wet than in dry conditions It is not affected by complex, weak acids It has excellent resistance to alkali Cotton has high resistance to ordinary cleaning solvents It can attack by moth grubs or beetles In the case of microorgan-isms, cotton is attacked by fungi and bacteria Mildew will feed on cotton fabric, rotting, and weakling the materials

5.2 Jute Fiber

Jute is also one of the vegetable Fibers is also used in the textile industries The term jute comes from jhutha or jota It is known as Bangladesh’s “Golden Fiber” due to its golden brown color and economic contribution Jute Fiber is mainly obtained from the stem and ribbon of the jute plant (called best Fiber) It is a long staple cellulosic Fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads Its tensile strength is high and ensures the breathability of the fabric Commercially, two types of jute Fiber are produced; (i) White jute (Corchorus capsularis) and (ii) Tosha Jute (Corchorus olito-rius) Almost 90% of Jute Fiber production comes from Southern China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India Just Fiber considers as eco-friendly, versatile, recyclable, and 100% biodegradable [14]

5.2.1 Chemical Compositions of Jute Fiber

Jute Fiber consists of cellulose (65.2%), hemicellulose (22.2%), pectin (0.2%), lignin (12.5%), water-soluble (1.5%), Fat & wax (0.6%),[12] Jute Fiber consists of a combination of different cells [15]

5.2.2 Properties of Jute Fiber

Jute Fiber has various color variations like white, off-white, yellow, brown, gray, and golden Jute Fibers are long natural Fibers, ranging between 150–300 cm The individual fibrils are from 1.5 to 4 mm in length In jute Fiber, no of ultimate in cross-section is 6–10, elongation at the break of 1.70%, Specific gravity 1.50, and

MR % of jute Fiber is 13.75% [12] It is 100% biodegradable, recyclable, and thus environmentally friendly Jute Fiber can easily damage by hot dilute Acids and strong alkalis but is resistant to bleaching agents (Bleaching agent, H2O2, NaOCl, NaClO2,

Na2O2, CH3COOH, KMnO4, etc.) [16]

5.3 Wool Fiber

Wool is an animal Fiber derives from sheep or other animals It contains a small percentage of lipids and proteins; and are composed of amino acid In the Middle Ages, wool was the most widely used textile “Bison” from Kashmir, “Mahiya goats” from rabbits, and “Furs” from Camels are well known for wool Fiber The countries producing wool Fiber are the USA, China, New Zealand, Australia, Turkey, Iran,

UK, South Africa, etc [17]

5.3.1 Chemical Compositions of Wool Fiber

The chemical compositions of wool are Keratin 33.00%, Grease 28%, Saint 12%, different impurities 26%, and mineral water 1% in total 100% [10, 18]

5.3.2 Properties of Wool Fiber

Generally, wool Fiber is white, brown, and black It has both antibacterial and crobial properties The length of wool Fiber ranges from 25–250 mm Its moisture regains 13–16%., dry strength is 1.35, elasticity in breaking extension is 42.5%, recovery percentage 69 at 5%, specific gravity 1.31, elongations at break 25–30%

antimi-at the dry situantimi-ation and 25–50% in wet condition Its dimensional stability is good enough [10] but dramatically affects heat and electrostatics in dry conditions Because

of sunlight, wool Fiber becomes discolored, and a harsh feel develops Concentrated acids can damage wool Fiber, whereas dilute acids have no effect Further, wool can

be dissolved in alkaline solutions, and it has ordinary harmfulness in the case of chlorine bleach [18]

5.4 Silk Fiber

Silk Fiber is a natural Fiber collected by the cultivation of silkworms in a unique process In China, this Fiber was first introduced in 3500 BC In ancient times, silk cotton was divided into three categories of excellence: Garad, Tasar, and Matka Bangladesh also cultivates this Fiber named ‘Bombyxmori’ However, most silk Fiber-producing country is China and India [19]

5.4.1 Chemical Composition of Silk Fiber

The silk Fiber composed of fibroin 75%, ash of silk fibroin 0.5%, sericin 22.5%, Fat & Wax 1.5% and mineral salt 0.5% [19]

5.4.2 Properties of Silk Fiber

The silk Fiber is heat conductive and more heat sensitive It is a flexible Fiber and can hold its size The absorption capacity is high Silk is more sensitive than other natural Fibers Generally, the yellow Fiber is achieved by photodegradation that ensues due to the action of U.V radiation of light It has more features such as breathability, elasticity, absorbency, thermal regulation, drying speed, and shine M.R.‘s percentage is almost 11.00% Silk is readily soluble in cold concentrated acids, whereas silk filament swells in alkaline solution It is because of the partial separation of polymers by the action of alkali [19]

6 Man-Made Fiber

Artificial Fiber implies those Fibers manufactured by an artificial, controlled, ical and mechanical process In this process, the Fiber generation process, the length, diameter, fineness, and color of the Fiber can be controlled precisely The primary raw materials for producing artificial Fiber are natural or synthetic bases The crude polymer base artificial Fiber is also known as regenerated Fiber, such as Viscose, Rayon, Lyocell, Acetate Rayon, etc The synthetic polymer base manufactured Fiber includes Polyester, different types of Nylon, Acrylic, Polypropylene Fiber, etc The natural polymer base Fibers are hygienic and comfortable to the wearer, whereas the synthetic base Fibers are non-hygienic and uncomfortable The artificial Fibers can

chem-be produced either in filament or staple form

6.1 Natural Polymer Base Man-Made Fiber

In these groups of Fibers, the Fiber-forming raw materials are collected through natural cellulosic origins, such as cotton pulp, wood pulp, grass, leaf, and cotton linters In the spinning plant, these raw materials undergo chemical and mechanical treatment and produce Fiber-containing only cellulose Hence these Fibers are also recognized as regenerated cellulosic Fibers Viscose rayon, Acetate rayon, Lyocell, etc belong to these groups

6.1.1 Viscose Rayon Fiber

U.S Federal Trade Commission adopted the term and definition of Rayon Fiber According to this, Rayon is a regenerated cellulosic Fiber whose polymer chain contains at least 85% of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups [11] The linters

or useless cotton Fibers of the boll and timber pulp from northern spruce, western hemlock, eucalyptus, and southern slash pine are the basic raw materials of viscose

rayon This pulp consists of about 94% cellulose [11] At first, the wood pulp is purified by boiling and bleaching and then shifted to the rayon manufacturing plant After conditioning (under controlled humidity and temperature) for one to several weeks, these cellulosic pulps get ready to produce the rayon Fiber by the wet spinning technique A large volume of water is required in the spinning process of rayon Fiber Typically, 1600 kg of water, 2 kg H2SO4, 1.5 kg NaOH, 1.25 kg of cotton linters or timber pulp, and 0.35 kg of CS2 are required to produce 1 kg of rayon Fiber [11] The rayon Fiber can be made either in filament or staple form

The rayon Fiber consists of cellulose polymer, and the polymer system is very amorphous, 35–40% crystalline, and 65–60% unstructured [20] The moisture regains of rayon Fiber is 13% [11]

Rayon Fibers are very soft and comfortable for wearers Due to its excellent aesthetic properties, rayon Fiber is also termed artificial silk

6.1.2 Acetate Rayon Fiber

The word acetate means a salt of acetic acid To produce acetate Fibers, cellulose

is treated with acetic acid to form cellulose acetate, i.e., cellulosic salt of acetic acid In this reaction, the –OH groups of cellulose have been replaced by the acetate group of the acetic acid Acetate rayon Fibers have two types, primary cellulose acetate Fiber or triacetate, and secondary cellulose acetate Fiber or diacetate During the reaction with acetic acid, at first, the three hydroxyls (–OH) groups of each glucose unit have been replaced by three acetate groups (–OCOCH3), which means complete acetylation The acetate Fiber formed from this polymer is called triacetate

or primary cellulose acetate rayon The properties of triacetate can be improved by partial hydrolysis, i.e., reaction with water

During hydrolysis, one acetate group from each glucose unit will replace one –OH group, i.e., two acetate groups will remain per glucose unit The fiber formed in this stage is called secondary cellulose acetate or diacetate In today’s apparel market, diacetate represents the acetate rayon Fiber The dry spinning technique is adopted for acetate rayon Fiber Triacetate rayon is soluble in chloroform and methylene chloride, whereas diacetate rayon is soluble in acetone [11]

Triacetate and diacetate Fibers are both amorphous The polymer system of etate rayon is about 40% crystalline and 60% undeveloped The triacetate rayon is slightly more crystalline than diacetate [20] Typically, the hydroxyl group of cellu-lose easily attracts and forms a hydrogen bond with a water molecule, so the water absorbency of cotton and rayon Fiber is good But in the case of acetate rayon, a significant portion of the hydroxyl groups have been replaced by acetate groups, and the inherent attraction between the acetate groups and water molecules is less As a result, acetate rayon fiber’s moisture is 6.5% lower than viscose rayon and natural cotton [11] Acetate rayon Fiber provides a smooth and soft hand feels with moderate lustre

diac-6.1.3 Lyocell Fiber

Lyocell is one of a new generation of cellulosic Fibers The development of lyocell has been stimulated by the desire for a cellulosic Fiber that exhibits a better cost/performance profile than viscose Lyocell was initially developed as a textile Fiber The first commercial samples were generated in 1984, and Fiber production increased Fabrics manufactured from lyocell can be designed to produce a wide range of curtain grips and a unique aesthetic It is highly versatile and can be manu-factured in various fabric weights, from the lightweight women’s blouse to the men’s suitcase

Lyocell is a 100% cellulosic Fiber derived from pulp made from sustainably managed forests In Lyocell Fiber manufacturing, few chemicals are used, among which N-methyl morpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) and water are almost recycled, which makes the process economically favorable

The wood paste is dissolved in a hot N-methyl morpholine oxide solution The solution is then extruded (spun) into Fibers, and the solvent is extracted when the Fibers undergo a washing process The manufacturing process is designed to recover more than 99% of the solvent, which helps to minimize the effluent The solvent itself is nontoxic and all effluents generated are non-hazardous

Lyocell has all the advantages of being a cellulosic Fiber; in so far as it is fully biodegradable, it is absorbing, and the handle can be changed significantly using enzymes or chemical refining techniques It has relatively high wet and dry strength, making it possible to produce finer yarns and lighter fabrics The high resistance also facilitates invariant mechanical and chemical finishing processing under normal and extreme conditions

It’s used for a variety of purposes, including surgical swabs, drapes, gowns, floppy disc liners, filtration applications, semi-disposable work wear, and lining materials [22]

6.2 Synthetic Polymer Base Man-Made Fiber

The development of synthetic Fibers is the application of industrial chemistry in the apparel world The synthesized polymers not available in nature are used to produce artificial Fiber There are different synthetic base artificial Fiber types such

as Polyester, Polyamide, Acrylic, Polyethylene, polypropylene, Polyvinyl alcohol, Polyurethanes, etc

6.2.1 Polyester Fiber

Among all synthetic Fibers, polyester Fiber is primarily used in apparel facturing and produced from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) polymer The PET polymer is thermoplastic in nature and formed from a dibasic acid and dihydric

manu-Fig 9 The general structure of polyester Fiber

alcohol through a condensation reaction The salts are made by the reaction between

an alcohol and an acid, generally known as esters, and polyester means many organic salts In the PET polymer, the ester groups (–COO–) act to tie the monomer units According to the Federal Trade Commission, polyester fiber is a synthetic polymer-based man-made Fiber that contains at least 85% by weight of an ester of dihydric alcohol and terephthalic acid [23] The melt spinning method is preferable to develop polyester Fiber as the PET polymer is stable enough in its melting (260 °C) temper-ature [23] Polyester Fiber can be produced either in filament or staple form In today’s apparel market, two types of polyester are popular, one is “Terylene”, which ICI produces in the UK, and the remaining one is “Dacron” which is produced by

Du Pont in the USA [23] The polyester Fiber holds the following general structure, where R & R1 represents the aliphatic or aromatic group (Fig 9)

Due to the polymeric structure, polyester is a hydrophobic type polymer; hence, hydrophobic dyes such as disperse dyes are used to color the polyester Fibers at high temperatures Its moisture absorbency is also very low, only 0.4% [23] Polyester Fiber shows excellent performance against organic acids and weak alkalis, but the polymer disintegrates in dense sulphuric acid and solid alkalis

Among all plastic materials in the world, polyester holds the 3rd position with

an 18% market share [23] In apparel manufacturing, filament and staple polyester Fiber are extensively used It is also greatly used in CVC or PC form, a blending combination with natural cotton Fiber

as the first commercial polyamide Fiber [23] In the present apparel manufacturing process, nylon 6 and 6.6 are inevitable

Polyamide polymers hold the following general structure, where R1 and R2 are aliphatic and aromatic in origin (Fig 10)

Fig 10 The general

structure of polyester Fiber

Following the chemical configuration, Polyamide polymers can be categorized into three groups When R1 and R2 contain aliphatic groups, the resultant polyamides are termed aliphatic polyamides Generally, Fibers of the nylon group belong to this category In the second type of polyamide Fibers, one group among R1 and R2 will be the aromatic origin, and the aromatic portion will contribute 55% of the total polymer chain [23] This group of Fibers is called semi-aromatic polyamide The third type

of polyamide Fiber is known as aromatic polyamide as in this group, R1 and R2 both represent the aromatic group Among the three types, the aliphatic polyamide, i.e nylon Fiber produced on a large scale for apparel production Different types

of nylon Fibers are available in the market, such as nylon 4, nylon 7, nylon 6, 6.6, nylon 6.10, nylon 11, nylon 12, etc Among them, nylon six and 6.6 have greater importance in apparel production The melt spinning technique is suitable for nylon Fibers as its melting temperature ranges from about (200–300) °C except for nylon 4, which is unstable at its melting temperature (262 °C), and the dry spinning technique

is adopted for this Fiber Acid and dispersed dyes are preferable for the coloration

of nylon base apparel [23].Nylon Fibers are not biodegradable, and the moisture regains of nylon six and 6.6 is (4–4.5)% The nylon 6.6 and 6 Fibers tend to melt

at (249–260) and (213–220) °C temperatures correspondingly, and both Fibers are characterized by the same glass transition temperature, which is (29–42) °C [23] Nylon Fiber can be produced in filament or staple form and is extensively used

in the apparel industry, manufacturing, and industrialized applications

6.2.3 Acrylic Fiber

Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is a polymer of the vinyl group (CH2=CH2), where a cyanide (-CN) group has to replace a hydrogen atom of the vinyl group, and hereafter the PAN polymer is also recognized as polyvinyl cyanide The monomer of the PAN polymer is acrylonitrile, and to be acrylic Fiber, the PAN polymer should hold a minimum of 85% acrylonitrile units in the polymer chain (Fig 11)

For the first time, acrylic Fiber was formed in 1946 by DuPont, the USA, with the trade name Orlon The acrylic Fiber could be produced through melt spinning, dry spinning, or wet spinning techniques But the molten polymer is not stable enough,

Fig 11 The general

structure of Polyacrylonitrile

Fiber

so the melt spinning method is not commercially adapted Acrylic Fiber can be dyed with basic dyes and dispersed dyes

The melting and glass transition temperature of acrylic Fiber is (330–340) and 100

°C, respectively Its moisture regains (1–3)% Being non-biodegradable, this Fiber is not attacked by microorganisms and insects [23] Acrylic Fibers are used in a wide range of apparel manufacturing processes

Modacrylic Fibre is a derivative of acrylic Fibre and contains less than 85% but at least 35% acrylonitrile units in its polymer chain It is a copolymer, i.e., a 2nd monomer is used with acrylonitrile to form modacrylic fibres Vinyon N is

an example of modacrylic Fibre which consists of vinyl chloride and acrylonitrile monomers with a ratio of 60 and 40%, respectively Like acrylic fibres, modacrylic fibres can be spun through dry and wet spinning methods

The moisture regain of modacrylic Fibre is 4%, and the melting temperature is (200–210) °C [23]

to the end uses [23]

• Low-density polyethylene (LDPE): This polymer system consists of randomly oriented short series and long series of monomers and is not packed in a crystal structure This polymer is used in stiff vessels, film wraps, plastic bags, etc

• Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE): This group is categorized by the short branching of linear polymer chains with higher tensile strength than LDPE This polymer is used in containers, tubes, cable wrappers, toys, lids, buckets, etc

• High-density polyethylene (HDPE): This polymer is very compressed and rigid with significantly lower branching and a highly compact structure HDPE is used

in conduit, extrusion covering, flasks, pipe, and rubbish vessels

Fig 12 Formation of

polyethylene polymer

• Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE): This polymer is terized by a rigid structure with excellent toughness and resistance to cut, clothing, and organic and inorganic agents This type of polymer applies to various kinds

charac-of products such as equipment charac-of machinery, devices charac-of different types charac-of looms, bearings, gears, non-natural joins, verge guards on ice floors, gaskets, transmis-sion belts, etc This polymer is also used in the substitutions of hip and knee and invincible vests

In the World, PE holds the first position among all plastic materials with a 34% market share [23]

The melting temperature of PE is 205 °C for LDPE and 210 °C for HDPE, which

is easily reachable; hence melt spinning technique is suitable for producing PE Fibre

PE Fibre, yarn, or fabric is not dyed, but a dope dyeing (mixing of pigments into polymer solution) mechanism is applicable to produce colorful PE Fibre PE Fibre has outstanding resistance to organic and inorganic agents, bleaching agents, and solvents PE is a non-biodegradable Fibre, and its moisture regains about nil [11]

6.2.5 Polypropylene Fiber

Polypropylene (PP) is also a Fibre of the polyolefin group, and another Fibre of this group is polyethylene, as stated earlier The polypropylene {(CH2=CHCH3)n} polymer is formed from the propylene monomer (CH2=CHCH3) by the addition polymerization process In 2015 the global need for PP polymer was 60 million tonnes, and it is assumed that this need will reach 120 million tonnes by 2030 Among all synthetic polymers, PP is the lightest, and according to the uses in the World, this polymer is in the second position, just after polyethylene [23] (Fig 13) During the formation of PP polymer, the methyl (CH3) group has replaced one hydrogen atom of the repeating unit According to the position of the methyl groups,

PP polymer can be classified into three types, isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic polypropylene (Figs 14 15 and 16)

• In the first type (isotactic) polymerization, methyl units altogether lie on the similar side of the central alignment with a crystal assembly

Fig 13 Formation of polypropylene polymer

Fig 14 Isotactic PP

to dye, but a dope dyeing mechanism can be applied to produce colorfulFibre Being

of polyolefin group polymer, PP shows similar properties to polyethylene PP Fiber has good resistance to all chemical agents, such as acids, alkalis, bleaches, and solvents The PP Fibre melts at (163–171) °C and begins to decompose at 290 °C Its moisture regains about nil and is non-biodegradable PP polymer is used to produce toys, filters, ropes, tapes, seat covers, pipes, parts of refrigerators, TV, radio, in-home textiles, the automobile industry, and non-woven products

6.2.6 Polytetrafluoroethylene Fiber

PTFE or Polytetrafluoroethylene (C2F4)n is also a polymer of thermoplastic type and vinyl group origin One important structural feature of PTFE polymer is that in PTFE polymer, the fluorine elements have replaced the four hydrogen elements of the vinyl group The monomer of PTFE polymer is tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), which

is gas in normal conditions and has a boiling point of -76 °C [23] (Fig 17) Teflon is a well-known brand name for PTFE polymer, and in 1954 Teflon Fiber production took place by DuPont [23] The prominent properties of Teflon Fiber are its resistance power in all extreme conditions Teflon is resistant to all chemical agents

Fig 17 Formation of Polytetrafluoroethylene polymer

and thermal conditions, and moisture regains nil The PTFE polymer melts at 330

°C temperatures, which will decompose before reaching the melting temperature [23] Teflon is also an expensive fiber

The free radical polymerization principle produces PTFE polymer, which is very compact in structure and insoluble in any solvents Again, this polymer tends to decompose before reaching its high melting temperature (330 °C) So, the conven-tional spinning techniques for artificial fibres, i.e melt, dry, and wet spinning tech-nique is not appropriate for producing Fibre from PTFE polymer A unique spinning mechanism, dispersion spinning, is suitable for creating Teflon Fibre from insoluble and infusible PTFE polymer Being hydrophobic and chemically inert, Teflon fibres cannot be dyed

PTFE polymer is widely used in high-tech and industrial applications, such

as in non-stick burning pans, filtration fabrics, braided packing, gaskets, laundry mats, transmission straps, electric tapes, electrical insulators, and water-repellent composites

6.2.7 Poly Vinyl ChlorideFiber

PVC or Polyvinyl chloride is another vinyl group thermoplastic polymer widely used in plastic materials The overall production of PVC polymer was about 53 million tons in 2013, and this production touched 61 million tons in 2016 [23] The polyvinyl chloride (-CH2-CHCl-)n polymer is produced from vinyl chloride (CH2=CHCl) monomer (Fig 18)

Melt and dry spinning are both techniques that can be applied to produce PVC Fiber But the dry spinning technique is suitable for forming finer yarn than the other

In the dry spinning technique, acetone or carbon disulphide is used to soluble the polymer PVC Fiber can be classified into three groups [23]:

• Polyvinyl Chloride Fiber (totally comprises vinyl chloride units)

• Vinyl chloride copolymer Fiber (comprises a minimum of 85% vinyl chloride)

• Chemically reformed polyvinyl chloride (alternative term chlorinated polyvinyl chloride, comprises a maximum of 20% vinyl chloride and a minimum of 80% vinylidene chloride units)

Polyvinyl Chloride Fibers can be colored with dispersed dyes and a dope dyeing mechanism can also be sued to produce colorful PVC filament Fibers PVC polymers have exceptional resistance to all types of chemical representatives PVC Fibers only swell and are weak by phenols, toluene, benzene, and acetone [23] PVC is a non-flammable polymer; the melting temperature is (120–130) °C and decomposes

Fig 18 Formation of PVC polymer

at about 200 °C [23] PVC Fiber is a non-biodegradable Fiber and the moisture absorption is nil PVC polymers and Fibersare widely in used domestic and industrial applications such as siding, awnings, curtains, braiding, waddings, windows, water pipes, filter clothes, artificial limbs, billiard clothes, parts of machinery and so on

6.2.8 Spandex Fiber

Spandex, also known as elastomeric Fiber, is an elastic polymer manufactured from

a flexible nature polymer named polyurethane which exhibits properties like natural base rubber The most crucial feature of spandex Fiber is that it has an extension at break is more than 200% and almost 100% quick retrieval when the pressure gets free According to the definition, Spandex Fiber is a long-chain synthetic polymer that contains a minimum of 85% segmented polyurethane [23] Lycra is a famous brand name for spandex Fiber, and production was started in the USA by DuPont in

1960 [23]

The polyurethane polymer chain contains two segments, hard and soft segments The extensibility, resiliency, and elasticity of spandex Fiber are owing to the quiet sections of its polymer chains, and this segment is characterized by random orien-tation and coiled-shaped folding Alternatively, the tricky areas of the polyurethane chain adhere to each other by durable hydrogen bonding Under stretching tension, the helical portion get opening more than 200% of the primary length, and the tricky sections prevent the collapse of Fiber (Fig 19)

Polyurethane is a polymer of urethane (-NH-COO-) monomer (Fig 20) The Polyurethane polymer melts at (175–178) °C temperature, and hence melt spinning technique is applicable to produce elastomeric Fiber The dry and wet spinning technique is also suitable for elastomeric Fiber, and in that case, dimethyl formamide is used as a solvent to soluble the polymer for spinning The elastic recovery of elastomeric Fiber is 99% at 200% extension, and moisture regain is

Fig 19 Molecular configuration of Spandex Fiber [23 ]

Fig 20 Chemical assembly

of Spandex Fiber

1.3% [23] The Fibers have good resistance to alkalis On the other hand, they tend

to yellow in acid solution

Elastomeric Fiber has a wide range of applications in apparel such as trimmings

in belts, gloves, socks, and tights; in sportswear like swimwear, cycling jersey, and dress for exercise; in clothing like leggings, shorts, skinny jeans, ski pants, yoga pants, brassieres, hosiery, etc

7 Contrasts Between Natural Fiber

and Manmade/Artificial Fiber

The differences between cotton and artificial Fibers are as follows [24, 25]

1 Fiber obtained from nature is called

natural Fibers

Fiber obtained from nature is called natural Fibers

2 Man-made Fiber is called artificial Fiber Man-made Fiber is called artificial Fiber

3 Natural Fibers such as cotton, wool, silk,

5 The length of the Fiber is naturally given The length of the Fiber is naturally given

6 Man controls the length of the Fiber Man controls the length of the Fiber

7 It is more expensive than artificial Fiber It is more expensive than artificial Fiber

8 High Performance Fiber

High-performance Fibers are characterized and developed uniquely and highly vative These are mainly used to produce smart textiles associated with protec-tion and survival in hostile environments These Fibers require distinct physical properties as special technical functions run them The considerable properties of high-performance Fibers are tensile strength, operating, temperature, oxygen index, chemical resistance, etc [26]

inno-8.1 Kevlar Fiber

Kevlar is a synthetic organic Fiber of the aromatic polyamide family It is a type

of aramid Fiber, a generic term for manufactured Fiber in which the Fiber-forming

Fig 21 Chemical structure

of Kevlar Fiber [ 28 ]

substance is a long-chain synthetic polyamide in which at least 85% of the amide ages are attached directly to two aromatic rings This generic definition distinguishes aramids from conventional polyamides such as nylon, which contain primarily aliphatic and cycloaliphatic units in the main polymer chain Many types of Kevlar are currently being prepared for wide marginal use, and modern technology uses to produce this Fiber [27]

link-Kevlar Fiber is strong but relatively light in weight It does not melt When link-Kevlar

is burning, removing heat from it usually stops the combustion Shallow temperatures

do not affect Kevlar Military Body Armor & Jackets, Protection vests, military helmets, automotive use, belts, brake pads, clutches, gaskets, hoses, ropes, and cables are used [29] (Fig 21)

8.2 Nomex Fiber

Nomex is the brand name of retardant aramid Fiber It was first discovered in the 1970s and later marketed by Du-point The appearance of this Fiber is solid in both Fiber and sheet form The main application of this Fiber is to develop the properties like heat and flame resistance Meta variant of the Para-aramid Kevlar is produced

by fixation reaction between the monomers m-phenylenediamine and isophthaloyl (Fig 22)

The excellent properties of Nomex Fiber include high inherent dielectric strength, flame resistance, mechanical toughness, thermal stability, flexibility, and resilience

It also has excellent textile properties, dimensional stability, and resistance to dation by a wide range of chemicals and industrial solvents It’s used for various purposes, including racing, firefighting equipment, and racing drivers’ driving suits [31]

degra-Fig 22 Chemical structure

of Nomex Fiber [ 30 ]

It can produce in two ways; (i) Continuous filament process and (ii) staple Fiber process Oxides of silicon, boron, or phosphorus are used to produce glass Fiber The essential part of Glass Fiber is Silica “SiO2”, and its pure form is (SiO2)n [32] (Fig 23)

Glass Fiber is a dimensionally stable engineering material and does not stretch

or shrink after exposure to excessively high or low temperatures It does not absorb moisture or change physically or chemically when exposed to water Glass Fiber has a specific gravity of 2.54, and S glass has 2.49 The high strength-to-weight ratio of glass Fiber makes it a superior material in applications where high strength and minimum weight are required Glass has excellent resistance to the effects of heat over a wide range of temperatures Glass is entirely inflammable, and this is an essential factor in its textile application

It strengthens various materials such as tent poles, pole vaults, arrows, bows, crossbars, covered roof panels, Hockey sticks, boat sails, surfboards, and paper hives However, it is also widely used in tanks and shipbuilding [34]

8.4 Carbon Fiber

Another name for carbon Fiber is graphite Fiber It is a more delicate Fiber with

a 5–10 µm radius These Fibers are arranged parallel and vertical in the form of crystals That is why carbon Fibers are strong in proportion to their weight To make

a carbon fiber yarn, a few thousand Fibers can be used to weave in a row Some of the significant properties of carbon Fiber are: strong and higher, withstand high heat and pressure, good extensibility, corrosion resistance, chemically stable, electrically conductive, nonflammable, and brittle Carbon Fiber has a high strength-to-weight ratio (also known as specific strength) and is very rigid [35] (Fig 24)

A composite material is usually made by combining other materials with carbon Fiber It connects with plastic resins to form solid and vital composite materials

Fig 24 Molecular

configuration & Chemical

assembly of carbon Fiber

[ 36 ]

Carbon Fiber is used to manufacture nursery nightwear, combustible and combustible copper, and in combination with aluminum to make aircraft structures, space rockets, etc Due to its non-reaction with other chemicals, this Fiber is preva-lent in the aerospace, automotive, ecology, military equipment, and sports industries [36]

non-9 Future Trends and Development

Clothing considers the second fundamental right of human beings after food The demand for textiles and clothing is rising daily and is helping countries’ economies flourish For instance, the development of the textile and apparel industries is crucial for the economic liberation of China, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan [37] By 2024–

2025, experts anticipate an additional $120 billion in investments, which will generate

35 million new employment globally By 2025, the global apparel market will reach

$2.1 trillion Therefore, progress will be accelerated by advancement, innovation, technical development, fashion concerns, etc The worldwide textile and apparel business must deal with difficulties related to markets, management, the environment, manufacturing technologies, higher education, and innovation management [38] Along with functional applications, textile materials can furnish, represent social position, and message artistic values Global textile products have diversified areas with many unforeseen applications [39] The latest textile Fibers, yarns, and materials are tested for the end-use purpose of the space investigation Therefore, combining textile technology with electronic advancement has revolutionized hybrid scientific inventions [40]

Newly developed advancement of technology and the fusion of several fields, such as polymer and electronics sciences, have been used to characterize the devel-opment of smart textiles Without a doubt, it will influence the direction of intelligent fabrics The global energy issue will be emphasized by social web technologies and more recent applications for future textile expansion [41] The three functions of smart textiles are sensors, actuators, and transducers It can be added to substrates used in fabric and clothes by using clever, creative coatings Under certain humid conditions, conductive, semiconductive, and particle-doped polymers can be used Recent advances in wearable technology, simpler user interfaces and transferable platforms with inventive polymer coatings have been made possible by the textile industry [42, 43]

Garment washing treatments like dry washing (e.g.whickering, sandblasting, hand sanding, tagging, destroying, grinding, potassium permanganate (PP) spray, color spray/sponging) and wet treatment (e.g., regular wash, caustic soda wash, pigment wash, enzyme wash, bleach wash, stone wash) and finishing technology (e.g laser fading, ozone fading, etc are attracting customer [44–46] However, these are also responsible for producing massive no of effluents and sludge, which is hazardous to the environment, corroding sewer lines, and groundwater pollution [47]

Additionally, reusing and recycling textiles and apparel materials can also be ronmentally safe and sustainable The donation, collecting, sorting, and processing is essential recycling steps During the year 2018, there were almost 17 million tons of solid textile waste, of which 13.0% came from apparel and footwear Synthetic Fiber cannot dissolve year after year, but natural Fiber takes a few weeks It is poisoning groundwater, river water, pond water, and soil, leading it to lose fertility Therefore, recycling textile products is crucial for a safer environment [48–50]

envi-The idea that human activity is causing the world to become more polluted is continually emphasized Such risks are caused by the regular production method and similar raw materials People are only considering his profits Customers should be more aware of the things they purchase, the manufacturing process, and the disposal

of textiles and clothes If people place higher values than usual, they anticipate having sustainable and environmentally friendly items [47]

10 Conclusions

This chapter described variants of natural and artificial Fiber, their properties, sitions, and possible application areas The expansion of natural and synthetic fibers has accelerated the production of garments and advanced textiles since they may be customized to include any desired features The development of protective apparel, fire retardant fabric, antimicrobial fabric, special finishes fabric, and other materials is now being pursued by businesses in addition to general-purpose fabric Any country around the globe has benefited from this in terms of economic growth, employment rate, infrastructure development, and electricity production