Students’ perceptions of translanguaging in english classrooms an exploratory research study at a hanoi secondary school

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES NGUYỄN THỊ THÚY QUỲNH STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF TRANSLANGUAGING IN ENG

INTRODUCTION

Rationale of the study

In the past few decades, with the development and widespread use of English on various fields, the teaching and learning English as the second language have gained a greater attention from students, parents, educators and society In Vietnam, it has always been debatable whether the use of native language (Vietnamese) in a foreign language classroom should be encouraged or limited While some language professionals advocate the English-only approach in English language classrooms for the purpose of completely exposing English language learners to an environment of the target language, the others demonstrate the importance of the connection between the first language (L1) and the target one In fact, there are a number of situations that students have difficulty in understanding the lessons taught completely by English Furthermore, there have been studies showing that the learners’ L1 can develop their proficiency in the Second language (L2) (Cook, 2001) It is agreed that the extent to which the native language should be used in classrooms might vary, depending on the level of the students, teachers and facilities, etc

Cumin (2009) argues that monolingual approach seems not to value the foundation that students’ native language offers and recommended that it is time English instructions shift to more bilingual-centered approaches, one of which is translanguaging Translanguaging is a pedagogical method that assists teachers and learners to make use of all their linguistic knowledge and resources to make meaning various contexts (García, 2009; García & Kleifgen, 2010) In the field of bilingual education, there has been a growing increase in the number of research on the emergence of translanguaging paradigm carried out over the world In the context of Vietnamese learning and teaching, translanguaging has been receiving increasing attention from educators and applied more in classrooms However, there appears to be a lack of studies conducted on how students feel about translanguaging since the majority of previous research tends to focus on teachers’ opinions and attitudes towards the use of translanguaging in English language classrooms It is obvious that understanding how students perceive a teaching method in general and translanguaging in particular would support teachers in designing and adapting suitable activities accordingly The researcher, therefore, conducted this study with an expectation to fill in the gap by exploring the practice of translanguaging, focusing on teachers’ use, in English Language (EL) classrooms at a Secondary school in Hanoi from learners’ perspectives.

Aims and objectives of the study

The primary aim of this study is to explore the practice of translanguaging in the context of a secondary school in Hanoi and investigate students’ attitudes towards its application in EL classrooms in order to evaluate the use of L1 in L2 classrooms

To achieve this aim, the research identifies the following specific objectives: a To examine how translanguaging is applied in EL classrooms b To determine the attitudes of students towards the practice of translanguaging in EL classrooms at a Secondary school;

Research questions

Regarding the overall aim and objectives, the study focuses on addressing the following questions:

1 How is translanguaging used in the English language classrooms?

2 What are students’ perceptions towards translanguaging?

Scope of the study

The research focuses primarily on the practice of translanguaging in teaching and learning English and examine how students perceive this pedagogical methodology in EL classrooms in a Secondary school in Hanoi It particularly investigates the views of students on teachers’ use of translanguaging for different purposes in classrooms The study limits to both the teaching and learning English Its subjects include 94 grade 7 students from three classes 7A1, 7A3 and 7A5 (school year 2022-2023), whose mainstream’s textbook is “New-English textbook – I learn smart world”.

Research methodology

The study employed an exploratory research design to achieve its main aim Both qualitative and quantitative method were used to collect and analyze data via two instruments including questionnaires and interviews The participants consisted of 94 students from class 7A1, 7A3, and 7A5 of a Secondary school in Long Bien, Hanoi Their English proficiency varies from Elementary level to Upper Intermediate one They are all studying the standardized curriculum of National MoET for Secondary school level The textbook in use for grade 7 at this school is “I learn smart world”, which focus on developing four skills of learners Most of the participants aim at participating the High school Entrance exam at the end of grade 9

The research was divided into three phases Firstly, the researcher used a questionnaire to conduct a survey among the participants with a view to investigating how teachers are integrating the use of Vietnamese in EL classrooms and students’ attitudes towards this practice of Vietnamese Secondly, based on the survey’s results, interview was conducted to evaluate, cross-check the data and also gain in-depth information about students’ thoughts on translanguaging After that, the researcher combined and analyzed the results from the questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to achieve its objectives and withdraw conclusions.

Significance of the study

The findings of this study are anticipated to be of great help to teachers and language educators First, it may be beneficial for the researcher in particular and teachers in general to have better view and understanding about how their students feel about using Vietnamese in EL classrooms, from which they can make some adaptation for the amount of L1 in the lessons to have the appropriate plan and develop their own teaching practice accordingly Furthermore, the results of the research may provide teachers and educators a meaningful insight on how to apply translanguaging successfully in ESL classrooms to make full use of L1 in supporting the learning of target language This study, therefore, is hoped to make valuable contribution to the improvement and development of second language education in Vietnam, giving teachers a ground for adapting this pedagogy an effective teaching method that benefits students.

Design of the study

The research paper consists of five chapters

Chapter 1: Introduction – states the rationale, aims and objectives, scope, methods, significance and design of the study

Chapter 2: Literature Review – presents theoretical background related to translanguaging, the practice of L1 in ESL classrooms and previous studies about the benefits of translanguaging in teaching and learning English

Chapter 3: Methodology – provides the situation analysis, research methods, participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis

Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion – covers major findings and discussion, recommendations for teachers and students

Chapter 5: Conclusions – summarizes the issues addressed, recapitulates the research procedure, states the study’s implications and limitations as well as offers further suggestions for future research in the field of translanguaging.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Definition of perception

The concept of perception can be defined in different ways by researchers According to Cambridge dictionary, perception is seen as a belief, an opinion or the ability to notice and understand things Besides, Erin and Maharani (2018) regard perception as the psychological processes in which individuals form responses through their experiences involving the five senses These responses can be either positive or negative and are developed through the stages of selection, interpretation, and reaction Particularly regarding students’ perception, according to Lizzio, Wilson and Simons (2002), students’ perception refers to how students subjectively interpret their learning environment, including teaching methods, assessment practices, and available support These perceptions influence their overall satisfaction with their educational experience and their academic outcomes On the basis of Simon’s Borg’s

(2006) research on teachers’ cognition, the term perceptions in this research can be understood as the cognitive processes that shape their understanding and interpretation of their educational experiences, including the classroom environment, teacher behaviors, instructional methods, and interactions with peers Students’ perception; therefore, is investigated through students’ experiences, beliefs and attitudes.

The importance of students’ perception in teaching and learning process

In education field, examining students’ perceptions plays a crucial role in enhancing teaching method and learning experience as well as shaping their academic success, satisfaction, and classroom behavior Understanding how students feel about their learning environment can help educators create more inclusive and motivating classrooms When students perceive their environment positively, they are more likely to engage and participate actively in the learning process Similarly, positive perceptions of a supportive and challenging learning environment correlate with higher academic achievement and more positive attitudes toward learning (Fraser,

1998) Moreover, several researchers such as Schunk (2012), Eccles and Roeser

(2011) claimed that students’ perceptions of classrooms environment or teaching methods are associated with their engagement, participation, motivation, academic performance and achievement As a result, understanding students' views on their learning environments and teaching practices can help educators create more effective and supportive educational experiences.

Definition of translanguaging

Translanguaging is a term that can be traced back to the work of Welsh researchers in 1994, when it was proposed as a pedagogic theory that aims to purposefully alter the language of input and output for greater understanding (García

& Wei, 2014) It is a method in which multilingual speakers can communicate and negotiate meaning by using different languages According to Li Wei (2010), the term

"trans" in translanguaging alludes to the ways that multilinguals' linguistic activities

"go beyond" traditionally acknowledged language systems The utilization of linguistic resources by bilingual individuals has been referred to as "translanguaging" (Vogel, & García, 2017) Although many people who have been influenced by the conventional "Separate Underlying Proficiency" model would be critical of using a student's mother tongue in the context of second language learning classes (Cummins,

1980), the idea of translanguaging presents potential opportunities for both teachers and students to make use of their full ranges of linguistic resources, rather than restricting the potential for linguistic exploration

Regarding the context of education, translanguaging can be interpreted as the use of one language to strengthen another, enhancing students’ prospects for greater engagement and comprehension in both languages Translanguaging may also be regarded as a pedagogical study that learners learn through two distinct procedures with extensive cognitive engagement In short, it is seen as an approach to use one language to reinforce the other and not to diminish the validity of the other

In general, translanguaging can be defined simply as the planned and systematic use of two languages within the same lesson, by specifying and varying the language of input and output In the observed settings, teachers were having students engage with content in one language as input for learning, and the output was planned to be in the other language It indicates “new language practices that make visible the complexity of language exchanges among people with different histories “García & Wei, 2014, p 21).

Distinction between translanguaging and code-switching

When it comes to translanguaging, a frequent question raised is how it differs from code-switching since these two concepts seems to share the notion in common

In fact, they are two different methods The concept of code-switching refers to the situation that “the two languages of bilinguals are two separate monolingual code systems.” (García, 2009, 2012) In other terms, "code-switching" refers to an approach in which bilinguals learn two or more languages separately and that using one language while learning another might be harmful In code-switching, people change or switch languages accidentally, without any purposes or intention

In contrast, in translanguaging, the two languages are switched with intentional purposes from teachers, learners or speakers Moreover, translanguaging views two languages as a common linguistic repertoire, and using one language to help acquire another may actually promote the learning process Furthermore, translanguaging and code-switching differ significantly in terms of the ways language is embodied and the modes employed Canagajah (2011) pointed out that translanguaging emphasizes the diverse modes used by individuals to express their thoughts The combination of various linguistic elements in different modes showcases the creativity and flexibility central to the concept of translanguaging

Moreover, within the realm of education, translanguaging extends beyond mere code-switching since translanguaging encompasses the proficient utilization of multiple languages by bilingual students during various classroom activities, including reading, writing, note-taking, and discussions, among others This process not only provides scaffolding for teachers' instructional methods but also forms an integral part of the meta discursive regimes that students in the twenty-first century are expected to master (García, 2011)

In general, translanguaging is a methodical and intentional use of two languages for educational purposes within the same lesson Meanwhile, code- switching practice is particularly maligned by teachers in dual language education, as bilingual students demonstrate intricate and fluid language usage patterns.

Views on the use of l1 in EFL/ESL classrooms

The debate concerning the use of mother tongue in learning and teaching foreign languages have been existing for a long time Researchers and language educators hold contrary arguments on this issue

2.5.1 Arguments against the use of L1 in L2 classrooms

Firstly, the opponents of using L1 in EFL classrooms claim that it impedes the process of L2’s acquisition It is pointed out that the Only-English approach greatly provides EL learners the environment of exposure to the target language (Krashen & Terrel, 1983; Turnbull, 2001) Not using the native language in L2 classrooms will help students have the maximum chance of learning and thinking in the target language Auerbach (1993) and Ellis (2003) also agrees that the increasing practice of L2 facilitates faster learning, as students hear and use English more, leading to internalization and thinking in English (Auerbach, 1993, p 14)

Another reason that Monolingual approach supporters raise is that L1 practice may confuse and interfere L2 learning by means of transferring meaning negatively According to Richards (1971) and Cook (2001), the utilization of L1 transfer can lead to errors arising from the differences between the two languages As a result, word to word translation would prevent learners from transferring meaning in learning L2 Moreover, when L1 is used in class, L2 learners may feel confused about the need of learning the target language since they assume it is not an effective means of communication and not worth being studied (Littlewood, 2004) Therefore, the use of entirely English in teaching and learning L2 reinforces the importance of the target language learning and providing learners essential motivation as well as meaningful input to acquire L2 competence

2.5.2 Support for the use of L1 in L2 classrooms

There are also numerous proponents of L1 practice during L2 learning process L1 use advocators believe that the native language can serve as a valuable linguistic asset, supporting and easing the EFL learning process in the classroom Thus, it should not be completely excluded but rather employed appropriately and effectively (Schweers (1999); Macaro (2001)) Swain and Lapkin (2000) pointed out three benefits that students’ native language could bring:

1 It supports the completion of tasks by fostering a shared understanding among learners

2 It allows learners to focus on vocabulary and grammar

3 It enhances interpersonal exchanges and communication

In addition, the reasonable use of L1 may, in fact, offers considerable benefits to L2 learning, including to foster a comfortable classroom environment, enhance students' understanding, and optimize the use of class time A number of studies show that when L1 is used, leaners seem to feel more relaxed and confident in expressing their ideas or opinions, which motivates willingness for experiences and L2 learning and acquisition better (Burden, 2001) The selective application of native language in L2 classrooms creates relaxing atmosphere that reduces stress and frustration for students (Butzkamm, 2003) Therefore, the feeling of confusion or pressure of not making mistakes or not understanding would be decreased or removed

Moreover, the utilization of L1 for teaching and explanation in class can boost greater understanding of learners It is effective for teachers to use native language to clarify complex concepts or terms that students seem not to understand This makes the input more valuable and meaningful to L2 learners as if they do not comprehend what is being taught, they will have difficulty in remembering and fully acquiring that knowledge Besides, through qualified bilingual education, students gain knowledge and literacy in their native language, which indirectly but significantly aids in the development of their English proficiency (Krashen, 1987)

Lastly, by using L1, the time in class for instruction, explanation or checking could be lessened, which, consequently, increases the amount of time for learners’ actual practice or other learning activities For example, according to Sharma (2006), it is much easier and more time-saving for teachers to explain a grammar point and some vocabulary or instruct students in their mother tongue instead of giving a long description or demonstration without being sure whether their students understand or not Additionally, students could also find it more flexible to express parts of the ideas where they are unable to use the target language to interpret This can guarantee the flow of the lessons However, it does not necessarily mean teachers and learners could use L1 whenever they would like to It is generally agreed that L1 should be used with effectiveness and reasonable level, under the careful preparation and guidance for which situations L1 can be used

In short, despite the arguments regarding whether L1 should or should not be practiced in L2 classrooms, there seems to be more supportive views from scholars, teachers and learners for L1 application Nevertheless, an appropriate amount of L1 is the matter that educational researchers need to study more to have a clear guideline on how and how much L1 to use, which leaves the gap for further research to fill in.

Implementation of translanguaging in education

2.6.1 An overview on translanguaging as a pedagogy

For such a long period of time, monolingual approach has been favored and even introduced as a policy for teaching and learning English by several educators The monolingual approach is defined as using a second language exclusively for instruction and interaction in the classroom (Auerbach, 1993) This approach was strongly encouraged throughout the twentieth century, advising teachers and learners to avoid using their mother tongue for explanations, translations, testing, and assessment in L2 classrooms to prevent L1 interference from causing errors in L2 (Le

& Pham, 2019) Previous studies supported the idea that L1 is detrimental to language learning and advocated for completely excluding L1 from language classrooms (Lin,

2015) However, the monolingual approach has faced criticism in various studies Wei (2017) argues that excluding L1 from L2 classes is unnecessary and that L1 can, in fact, facilitate students' language learning

Therefore, in recent times, there has been a notable shift in the perspective regarding the significance of learners' language in the context of second language learning, in which learners' languages are considered valuable resources within the English-as-a-foreign language (EFL) classroom (e.g., Corcoll & Gonzales-Davies, 2016; Creese & Blackledge, 2010; Illman & Pietila, 2018) This view has questioned the dominance of English-only approach in teaching and learning For example, Anderson (2008) advocated for adaptable pedagogical methods that can effectively address bilingual contexts that do not readily align with current paradigms The researchers looked for potential pedagogies which include enhancing the incorporation, engagement, and comprehension of students in the learning processes; cultivating less- formal interactions between participants; facilitating smoother communication of ideas; and achieving more successful lesson outcomes This called for a shift from a monolingual approach to a multilingual approach, advocating for the use of translanguaging in second language (L2) classrooms Based on these opinions, García (2017) highlighted in her work that languages are not isolated and self-contained entities and described translanguaging as the usual and normal practice of “bilingualism without diglossic functional separation” (García, 2017, p.135)

Rosemary Orlando (2019) classified translanguaging into two types that can be implemented in the classroom The first type involves allowing and encouraging students to utilize their native language to aid their learning process and provide translations when they encounter difficulties This approach enables students to communicate with their peers in both their mother tongue and English, facilitating content comprehension and improving English proficiency within the English classroom The second type is referred to as "planned translanguaging." In this form of translanguaging, teachers strategically incorporate both languages into the curriculum to support both content learning and language development During lesson planning, teachers consider how to integrate L1 (the students' native language) into the classroom procedures and lesson content, choosing specific moments where its inclusion may prove beneficial This deliberate incorporation of L1 proves particularly useful for students when working on certain topics

It is worth highlighting that in order to make translanguaging effective, both languages must be used during the process of teaching and learning English If students solely communicate in their native language without using English at all, they not only fail to engage in translanguaging but also struggle to comprehend grade- level content Moreover, even though translanguaging involves translation, it does not mean simply translating everything

Teachers might apply translanguaging to let learners use what they know from their first language to understand the second language better (Qureshi, Muhammad Asif; Aljanadbah, Ahmad, 2021) For example, if they know a word in their native language, they only need to learn its word in the new language, not its meaning This method helps connect all their language skills, making it easier to understand It's like using all your language tools to learn, not just focusing on one new language Teachers can also use translanguaging to compare languages, showing the similarities and differences between two languages, which helps students understand difficult words or sounds Furthermore, teachers’ Use texts in both languages can also help learners make sense of what they're reading by using all the languages they know

According to García (2017), translanguaging could be flexibly applied in various skills depending on the lesson’s objectives For example, some translanguaging activities for specific skill can be suggested as below:

• Reading: Teachers design reading activities like gap-filling tasks where students translate words between Vietnamese and English in dialogues Another activity involves the teacher using sticks on the board to prompt vocabulary, while students match English words with their Vietnamese counterparts on papers

Moreover, teachers may encourage students to identify challenging words in reading texts and discuss their meanings with peers If they struggle to find answers, the teacher can employ vocabulary teaching techniques like using pictures, visual aids, or translation to help them understand Using a two-way translation method can clarify the meaning of challenging texts

• Writing: Teachers ask learners to translate some sentences or short paragraphs written in Vietnamese into English, or vice versa Additionally, teachers may show students the difference in writing styles in Vietnamese and in English Besides, they can let students to brainstorm ideas in their native language before writing, so they have more options to choose from in the subsequent parts

• Listening: Students can be allowed to use all of their language skills to explain their ideas or answers

• Speaking: Teachers may pair up students in class, with a stronger student assisting a weaker one, encouraging mutual support in the learning process Another possible way is that students are motivated to engage in daily conversations using translanguaging, incorporating grammar and vocabulary, to expand their vocabulary and reinforce English structures

In general, in order to successfully apply translanguaging in classrooms, teachers should appreciate their students' languages and cultures and provide activities that highlight various cultural aspects and language resources

2.6.3 Translanguaging’s potential effects on teaching and learning English

The significance of translanguaging theory has been extensively explored in previous research, encompassing various aspects such as linguistics, education, and socio-political factors Researchers have predominantly focused on three primary aspects that underscore the importance of this theory Firstly, translanguaging represents an approach that acknowledges bilingual and multilingual individuals as possessing a single linguistic repertoire, rather than distinct and autonomous language systems This perspective promotes the idea that individuals can effectively utilize their multiple languages as an interconnected resource (Kasula, 2016; García, 2009)

Secondly, translanguaging offers multilingual speakers a means to affirm their language identities by creating a social space where diverse dimensions of their personal history, experiences, beliefs, ideologies, cognitive abilities, and physical capacities converge into a cohesive and meaningful expression (Wei, 2011, p 1223) Thirdly, translanguaging theory holds profound implications for social justice in bilingual education, particularly within the context of the US education system, where bilingual and multilingual speakers have historically been perceived as disadvantaged learners (García, 2017)

In English classrooms, the implementation of translanguaging can lead to the design of engaging and impactful activities García highlights several key objectives of utilizing this pedagogy:

- Supporting students in comprehending and engaging with complex content and texts

- Providing opportunities for students to develop linguistic practices designed for academic contexts

- Creating space for students to express their bilingualism and diverse ways of knowing

- Supporting students' socioemotional development and fostering their bilingual identities

Additionally, according to Cummins (2008, p.65), translanguaging enables students to leverage their native language as a valuable tool to excel in their target language, which is English in this context It becomes evident that fostering students' native language proficiency strengthens their foundation for learning English and enhances their literacy skills in their mother tongues Translanguaging empowers English language learners to have the freedom to express themselves using all available linguistic resources, whether in their native language (L1) or the target language (TL) The researcher emphasizes that the key to students' progress and achievements lies in respecting their native language and culture, allowing them to utilize these as aids for learning In essence, translanguaging facilitates the creation of an identity for the language learner, incorporating both their L1 and home culture alongside the TL and its culture This enables students to navigate social situations and seize opportunities for communication effectively, drawing upon the rich resources of their linguistic and cultural backgrounds

Delving further into the potential benefits of translanguaging in education, it can be seen that teachers use translanguaging for various purposes, one of which is to make sure students understand what they are saying (Badrul Hisham Ahmad & Kamaruzaman Jusoff, 2009; McMillan & Rivers, 2011) They switch to the students' first language after introducing new material in the target language to ensure every student grasps the topic This prevents misunderstandings and ensures students fully understand before moving on This approach helps students stay on track and reduces the overwhelmed feeling some may experience with new material (Badrul Hisham Ahmad & Kamaruzaman Jusoff, 2009)

2.6.4 The proportion of translanguaging used in classrooms

The question regarding how much the native language (L1) or the target language (L2) should specifically be used in class to benefit students is still left unanswered since its practice is variously applied depending on the context In other words, as stated by Edstrom (2006), “the judicious L1 use will likely look different in different classrooms” (p 289) Makulloluwa (2013) claims that although teachers favor the use of L1, the amount of it, even in classes with lower proficiency levels, typically range between 20% and 40% Consequently, the majority of the target language usage, even in classes with lower proficiency levels, should remain at least above 60% Macaro (2001) also agrees that if teachers use their native language too much in class, students might also rely more on their L1, which could affect learning Therefore, teachers should avoid freely switching between languages in class His study in 2001 suggested that the percentage of L1 use among six student teachers varied between 4% and 12% Another study conducted by Miles in 2004 titled

“Evaluating the use of L1 in the English classroom” also points out that L1 should only be used “sometimes” rather than overused This aligns with the perspective presented by Ellis (1984, as cited in Mattioli, 2004), who argued against excessive L1 use as it could "deprive the learners of valuable input in the L2" (para.15)

Previous related studies

A number of studies have been conducted to explore the subject of how teachers and students perceive translanguaging in different situations The results of each research can vary depending on the particular participants and contexts

2.7.1 Studies on Translanguaging in general

In a study “Perceptions of Translanguaging among the Students and Teachers of EMI Classrooms in Poland” researched by Romanowski (2020), both teachers and students participating in the study show positive attitude toward translanguaging practiced in the classrooms They reported that translanguaging could help the students learn more effectively The findings showed that translanguaging was beneficial for students as it created a secure and accepting environment that valued their cultures and identities As a result, learners could feel more relaxed and actively engaged in learning activities Besides, teachers also felt more confident and comfortable in giving instructions or providing assistance to students when using native language under some circumstances

Greggio and Gil (2007) conducted a study where they observed a beginner group using translanguaging in specific situations: explaining grammar, providing instruction, monitoring or assisting students, and correcting learners during activities The results revealed that the teacher's use of translanguaging from the second language (L2) to the first language (L1) was employed to clarify challenging words, expressions, structures, or rules to ensure better comprehension for the students Moreover, the frequency and level of practicing translanguaging also varied depending on the learners' proficiency in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context The researchers concluded that professionals involved in ESL or EFL learning should recognize the benefits that translanguaging offers in promoting classroom interactions and facilitating language learning Being open to employing translanguaging strategically can enhance the overall language learning experience for students

In another study on "Teachers' Attitudes towards and Uses of Translanguaging in English Language Classrooms in Iowa," Nambisan (2014) explored how teachers perceived their own use of translanguaging and their students' use of translanguaging The research employed a questionnaire, adapted from a previous study, to gather data on this subject The findings revealed that while teachers did not frequently use translanguaging, they acknowledged its importance for various purposes, such as building connections with students, instructing them, giving feedback, assisting low- proficiency students, explaining grammar and vocabulary effectively or clarifying quicly during activities On the other hand, the teachers observed that their students frequently used translanguaging to provide assistance to peers during activities and enable participation by lower proficiency students

However, the students did not often use translanguaging for the situations such as discussing content or activities in small groups, brainstorming during class activities, responding to the teacher's questions or asking for permission Despite this, the surveyed teachers of this study considered all of the mentioned purposes of their students' use of translanguaging important This indicates that although students may not frequently use translanguaging for certain purposes, teachers still recognize the value and significance of such language practices in the English language classroom

2.7.2 Studies on Translanguaging in Vietnamese context

In Vietnam, although learning and teaching English is paid a lot of attention, the number of research into translanguaging remains limited A number of research paper, such as those conducted by Pham (2007), Kieu (2010), Nguyen (2012), Le

(2014), and Grant and Nguyen (2017), indicate that multiple Vietnamese EFL learners and teachers favor the use of L1 in L2 classes Pham (2007) emphasizes the significance of employing the native language (L1) to enhance students' confidence and comfort in learning English EFL students seem to find it much easier to comprehend the lessons or the assigned tasks when they are allowed to use Vietnamese In their study, Nguyen and Ho (2012) also point out that when using Vietnamese, students can engage in class joke and discussions better

Another study conducted by Nguyen Thi Nhu Quynh (2011) brought to light certain situations where Vietnamese is useful Data gathered from her research instruments indicated that teachers commonly utilized Vietnamese for explaining complex grammar structures, defining new words' meanings, and clarifying challenging abstract concepts The author suggested that employing Vietnamese in these contexts could both increase teachers' confidence and facilitated students' comprehension of the lesson

Furthermore, research carried out by Le (2011, 2014) note that translanguaging enables students at lower proficiency levels to acquire satisfactory grasp of language It is shown that Vietnamese might be used during lessons by teachers to ensure learners’ comprehension, minimize confusion of English grammatical rules and explain tasks more clearly to students, particularly to lower- level ones In 2017, Grant and Nguyen found that Vietnamese EFL teachers frequently use translanguaging in their teaching for both academic and emotional reasons, such as structuring lessons and content and preventing lower-level students from feeling overwhelmed

In summary, the current study on applying translanguaging in English classrooms has been carried out based on the foundation of various previous research studies Although the findings might vary, the participants in these prior research generally viewed the use of translnguaging as an effective teaching approach Translanguaging is believed to help to construct deeper thinking and multiple subjectivities, supplies learners with more rigorous contents, and improve students in learning of languages (García & Wei, 2014).

Chapter summary

This chapter has carefully covered fundamental concepts related to translanguaging, distinguished translanguaging from code-switching, illustrated its implementation as a pedagogical technique and introduced different arguments about the use of L1 in L2 learning and teaching Additionally, a brief review of literature on translanguaging in general and in the context of Vietnamese education in particular is discussed In short, translanguaging considers all the languages a learner possesses as a linguistic repertoire, wherein the use of one language aids in the learning of another rather than hindering it Consequently, translanguaging holds promise for the future in the realm of pedagogy This literature review also demonstrates a growing interest in translanguaging Nevertheless, to establish translanguaging as a widely embraced teaching approach, further research is required Despite its considerable potential benefits and global attention, there seems to be limited number of research in the context of Vietnamese education regarding how translanguaging should be practiced in classrooms to be effective and how students perceive the use of L1 in their ESL/EFL classrooms., especially for young students in secondary school level

As a result, this study is anticipated to address the existing gap in the literature.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research context

The study was conducted at a public secondary school located in Long Bien district, Hanoi in the school year 2022-2023 In this year, the school was officially recognized Long Bien District’s High-quality secondary school There were 21 classes in which grade 6-8 had 6 classes for each, and grade 9 had 3 classes All classes followed the National standardized curriculum of MoET for secondary level Each class had a medium size from 30 to 35 students Most students come from Long Bien district All classes were generally taught the same without classification as

“specialized classes” The main educational purpose of this school focuses on getting students to successfully pass Hanoi High school’s entrance exam with top scores or getting admission to the city’s specialized high schools

English is one of the compulsory subjects at this school Normally, every week, students from grade 6 to grade 8 have four forty-five – minute periods of English and grade 9 students have five periods in total, in which all students have three “fixed” periods as requirement of MoET The other period(s) is supplementary period which is aimed to provide additional knowledge Moreover, the textbook used for grade 6 and grade 7 is “I learn smart world”, while the other two grades are learning Hoang Van Van’s textbook In general, most students have been studying English since primary school, often from grade two or grade three Both students and their parents have paid a lot of attention and investment of time and finance on English However, their English proficiency varies, ranging from Elementary to Upper Intermediate As a result, not all of the students are able to fully understand the lessons when being instructed in English only.

Participants

The study observed and collected data from 94 students from 3 grade 7 classes, which are 7A1, 7A3 and 7A5 in a public Secondary school in Hanoi The number of students for class 7A1, 7A3, 7A5 was 30, 32 and 32 respectively, the sum of which accounted for half of the total number of seventh graders at the researched school This participant selecting method was to ensure that the researcher had practical chance to observe or investigate the issue best as the author was the teacher in charge of these classes The research was conducted in the second term of the school year 2022-2023 As aforementioned, the students had mixed levels of English and their years of learning English varied from three to eleven years (Figure 1) Although students appeared to have several years of learning English, their English levels remained somehow limited Most of the participants’ self-assessed English proficiency was at “having limited conversation on everyday topics” (67%) 18 percent of the students chose that they “only know a few basic words and phrases”, the number of which is higher than those at the other two levels since the pupils who

“have the ability to discuss a variety of topics without having too much trouble” and

“have no problem communicating with native speakers on a wide range of topics” account for a smaller percentage with 10% and 5% respectively (Figure 2)

Figure 1 Participants’ years of Learning English

Years of Learning EnglishParticipants' years of Learning English

Figure 2 Participants’ self-assessed proficiency levels in English

Firstly, all participants answered provided questions in a questionnaire The results from the questionnaire were then combined with the responses from ten students who were interviewed to gather deeper comprehensive information.

Research design

Because the primary aim of this study is to investigate students' perceptions of applying translanguaging in a specific secondary school in Hanoi, the research adopted an exploratory approach It employed a mixed-methods design, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches to comprehensively explore students' perceptions Adopting a framework similar to Simon Borg’s (2006) research on teacher cognition, the research tailored it to emphasize on students’ perceptions Borg’s framework suggested that beliefs and knowledge form the foundation for perceptions and attitudes reflect evaluative judgments and emotional responses based on these perceptions As a result, to gain a thorough understanding of students’ perceptions on translanguaging, this study focused on exploring students’ experiences, beliefs and attitudes towards the its practice in EL classrooms

Students' self-assessed proficiency levels in English

1: I only know a few basic words and phrases2: I am able to have limited conversation on every day topics3: I am able to discuss a variety of topics without having too much troubles4: I have no problem communicating with native speakers on a wide range of topics

Data collection instruments

In order to identify how students perceived the use of translanguaging in L2 classrooms, the present study exploited the mixed- method approach of both quantitative and qualitative one Two data collection instruments were used to gather information, including questionnaires and semi-structured interviews All students participated in the surveyed first, then interviews were conducted after that

Mackey and Gass (2005) emphasized that questionnaire is one of the most commonly used data collection instruments on attitude and opinions because of its great flexibility and ability to apply in a large scale of participants With a big population of surveyed students, it is suitable for the current study to make use of the survey questionnaire as its instrument to achieve the objectives There are a number of techniques used to collect data through questionnaires The question types can vary, namely Yes/No questions, multiple choice and Ranked questions or questions in Likert scale

In this research, the survey questionnaires were adapted from the version of Nambisan’s similar research titled “Teachers’ Attitudes towards and Uses of Translanguaging in English Language classrooms in Iowa” (2014) because of the following reason The original survey was designed to primarily identify teachers’ attitudes towards translanguaging and this research also explored this methodology but from students’ views However, the question items are also applicable for investigating learners’ perceptions Nambisan (2014) aimed to investigate both teachers’ and students’ use of translanguaging, but as this study purposefully emphasized on teachers’ practice, the author chose relevant questions to this part Moreover, the author also based on the framework suggested by Nambisan in the same research to categorize the teachers’ use of translanguaging into three main groups according to their purposes There were 9 main uses of translanguaging surveyed in the questionnaire, divided into three groups: for content- oriented purposes, for classroom- oriented purposes and for student- oriented purposes

Additionally, some necessary adjustments in the way of wording and format were made to ensure participant students’ understanding and the appropriateness to Vietnamese secondary school context

This study used questionnaires as the main research instrument for collecting data to answer two research questions Likert scales were used to quantify their responses It consisted of two main parts:

• The first parts comprised of a number of questions about personal information and background of participants, including names, years of learning English, their self-assessed English proficiency and primary means of instructions used in their classrooms

• The second part included two Likert- scale questions aiming to discover participants’ opinions on some aspects Each question included nine items sorted in three groups of purposes as explained above

▪ The first Likert-scale question examined how translanguaging is being applied in classrooms in terms of the frequency at which teachers are using translanguaging in specific situations for content- oriented purposes, classroom- oriented purposes and student- oriented purposes The scale was from 1 to 5, equivalent to never, rarely, sometimes, often and always

▪ The other Likert-scale questions aimed to identify students’ perceptions to the implementation of translanguaging in above listed situations They would state their evaluation on the effectiveness of using L1 in those contexts Students expressed their attitudes to a particular practice of translanguaging on the scale from 1 to 5 with strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and strongly agree

As stated in previously, the English proficiency of a large number of participants is limited Therefore, the researcher designed the questionnaire in both two languages English and Vietnamese to ensure participants’ full understanding

Detail of the questionnaire is in Appendix A

Besides questionnaire, interview was employed in this study It is regarded as a significant method of gathering information, entailing spoken interaction between the researcher and the participant It can provide valuable understanding of the subject matter and serve as a supplementary approach for specific survey respondents, enabling a deeper exploration of their questionnaire answers (McNamara, 1999) On the other hand, not every situation is conducive to interviews since the results may be influenced negatively by the interviewee's beliefs, biases, or other factors Nonetheless, utilizing oral interactions as a means of collecting data remains a valuable method for investigation According to Mackey and Gass (2005), there are three types of interviews: structured interviews, semi-structured interviews and unstructured interviews

In this study, semi-structured interviews were used as an instrument for collecting data because they offered the researcher the opportunity to find deeper information about a problem while using a written list of questions The interview questions were designed based on Simon Borg’s (2006) framework that examined students’ beliefs, experiences, and attitudes towards the practice of translanguaging The researcher also interviewed some participants to have more details on their thoughts, exploring the reasons why they perceived translanguaging was beneficial or not It would help to support and further confirm or check the data collected in the questionnaire

The semi-structured interviews focused on students’ opinions on the practice of translanguaging in EL classrooms regarding its current application and how students perceived its necessity for different purposes They could also show their approval or opposition to teachers’ implementation of more translanguaging in the future Furthermore, the interviewees were asked to express deeper thoughts on the situations that they might think using L1 is beneficial or detrimental, giving more insights on how to use translanguaging effectively Basically, the interviews employed a protocol that based on and developed from the questions of the survey questionnaires to explore further insights as the interviewees might have chance to give explanations for their choices or ideas The answers from these interviews were expected to confirm the results of the questionnaire as well as help the researcher to know more about the things the participants might not express all in the survey

There were five main questions for the interviews Some follow-up questions could be added during the interview based on the participants’ answers to encourage interviewees to give more detailed information Ten students participated the interview with the researcher a week after doing the survey questionnaires Since the interviews were conducted in either English or Vietnamese, the interviewees could choose to answer in the language which they felt the most comfortable to express their ideas fully and exactly Among ten students, three participants answered totally in English and four responded totally in Vietnamese The others chose to answer with both languages Each interview lasted from five to ten minutes All interviews were recorded under the permission of interviewees and then noted or translated in English if necessary

Semi-structured interview questions can be found in Appendix B.

Data collection procedures

The study took place during the second term of the school year 2022-2023 The data collection procedure is divided into three stages

Firstly, the researcher presented the purpose of the study to students of three chosen classes and asked for their agreement to participate in the study and do the survey In order to ensure that all students were aware of the purpose of the study and understand every part, the researcher also informed and instruct them directly in class, explaining each item in the survey carefully Particularly, since the term

“translanguaging” might be unfamiliar to most of the students, the researcher spent time explaining and also giving examples of this method to all of them

After that, the questionnaire was distributed to students in class To encourage the maximum participation from students, the survey questionnaires were designed as concisely as possible The students could complete all the questions in ten to fifteen minutes However, if some of them needed more time, the researcher would wait This would increase the rate of responses as well as guarantee better answers from participants as they had enough time to think thoroughly

The researcher collected the survey paper, entered data and analyzed

After collecting questionnaire responses and analyzed them, the researcher conducted interviews with ten students They were chosen randomly The teacher at first contacted the students who stated in the survey that he/she was willing to attend an interview to arrange an appointment The interviews were conducted face-to-face in either English or Vietnamese, preferably in English, to make sure that students could feel the most comfortable to express exactly their opinions

All questions are both in English and Vietnamese, but further explanation would be made if necessary The interviews were recorded under the permission and agreement of the interviewees with smartphones, then the teacher transcribed the audio, and utilized the transcripts as data for analysis

Stage 3: Combine data from questionnaires and interviews and analyze

Finally, the researcher analyzed the information collected from two instruments to withdraw some conclusions for this study As the above part explained, the findings from two Likert- scale questions in the survey questionnaires would provide quantitative findings to identify the frequency of L1 use in nine listed situations and also to indicate students’ attitudes to translanguaging’s practice for each use The responses from interviews regarding how they think about teachers’ use of translanguaging and the application of more translanguaging activities in future lesson might give grounds for their choices of positive or negative feelings to translanguaging, from which the researcher would be able to double-check the results from the survey Moreover, their sharing of situations for using or not using translanguaging would help the author gain valuable information for evaluating the effectiveness of translanguaging for various purposes in EL classrooms In conclusion, the data from two research tools would contribute to answering two research questions of this study.

Data analysis

This study employed a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods for data analysis

• Quantitative data analysis: Quantitative methods were used to analyze some of the data collected from multiple choice and Likert scale questions These methods revealed the number and percentage of participants who selected a particular rating category regarding the frequency and attitudes towards translanguaging in the classroom The Likert scale was used to gather self-reported information about students’ preferences and practices related to translanguaging Nambisan’s (2014) framework for classifying functions of teacher using translanguaging was utilized for analysis Nine situations surveyed in the questionnaire were classified into three groups for analysis: content- oriented purposes (including to explain grammar, to describe vocabulary, to check for understanding and to quickly clarify content during class activities), classroom- oriented purposes (including to give instructions and to manage the classrooms) and student- oriented purposes (including to give feedback to individuals, to build bonds with students and to enable participation of lower proficiency students) SPSS software was used to examine and compare percentage, mean and standard deviation of data gained from the survey Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics The results were presented through charts and tables

• Qualitative data analysis: For the interview responses, content analysis was applied The responses were analyzed inductively following coding procedures The purpose of this process was to code, categorize, and synthesize the data in order to identify common attitudes and beliefs among the participating students Specifically, the study examined their views on the potential uses of translanguaging in the classroom, whether they supported or opposed these uses It also looked at their explanations for allowing or not allowing translanguaging and explored any situations that translanguaging is beneficial or detrimental, as well as the reasons behind participants' preferences or concerns

The coding started with open coding of the students' responses, allowing the researcher to create codes (key concepts relevant to understanding their perceptions of translanguaging) based on the participants' answers After that, the researcher analyzed and grouped the codes according to their characteristics, forming broader concepts that represented categories

In addition, the recorded data in the interviews was transcribed verbatim before analysis.

Summary

This chapter presented a detailed description of the research methodology

Utilizing quantitative and qualitative approach, the study collected data from two main research tools including questionnaire and semi-structured interviews The information gathered from questionnaire was synthesized and statistically calculated by means of SPSS software program and then illustrated in tables and charts Content analysis method was applied for the semi-structured interviews These combinations were anticipated to enable the author to address the research questions

[Student S7]- “I find translanguaging helpful It makes me want to talk more in class because I can explain my thoughts in Vietnamese if I need to.”

“helpful” ; “want to talk more in class”

The method encourages students to talk more in class

- The moethod ancourages students to talk in class

Positive attitide Enable students’ participation

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Findings

4.1.1 Research question 1: How is translanguaging used in the English classrooms?

Through the questionnaire and interviews, the findings revealed the practice of translanguaging in EL lessons in a Secondary school in Hanoi, mainly focusing on the frequency and purposes of using Vietnamese

All the students surveyed were from three grade 7 classes, totaling 94 students with mixed levels of English It could be initially seen from the survey that the primary language used for instruction in their classrooms were mostly both English and Vietnamese (Figure 3) This refers translanguaging was commonly applied in their English classes, which also supported the data that despite many students having studied English for a number of years, their communicative abilities and language proficiency were not sufficient enough for comprehending everything if the teachers spoke in English totally

Figure 3 Primary language of instruction in EL classrooms

The first Likert question in the questionnaire investigated how often translanguaging is used in EL lessons for 9 different purposes The uses surveyed in the questionnaire were classified into three groups according to their purpose, namely content- oriented purposes (including to explain grammar, to describe vocabulary, to check for understanding and to quickly clarify ideas or content during class activities), classroom- oriented purposes (including to give instructions and to manage the classrooms) and student- oriented purposes (including to give feedback to individuals, to build bonds between teachers and students and to enable participation of lower-proficiency students) Participants were asked to rate the frequency at which Vietnamese was currently used across different purposes, using a scale from 1 to 5 (never, rarely, sometimes, often, and always) A range of the ways translanguaging was applied in different contexts were captured and shown in the table and figures below a How translanguaging is used for content- oriented purposes

To begin with, in terms of content- oriented purposes, the researcher mainly investigated the practice of translanguaging in five situations, which included

Language of instruction in EL classrooms

English Vietnamese Both English and Vietnamese explaining grammar, describing vocabulary, checking students’ understanding and quickly clarifying ideas or content during class activities The table and figures below illustrated how much Vietnamese was in use in these circumstances

For the first four uses in the group of content- oriented purposes (question 2.1 to 2.4), it could be seen from the percentage figures (Figure 4) that the majority of students reported that their teachers “sometimes” used Vietnamese for the aim of explaining grammar, describing vocabulary, checking for understanding and quickly clarifying ideas during class activities with the proportion of 47,9%, 43,6%, 48,9% and 40,4% respectively Besides, to some extent, Vietnamese was claimed to be used

“rarely” or “often” in these situations by a moderate number of students as well, at approximately 20% for each

Figure 4 Percentage figures of the frequency of translanguaging's use for content- oriented purposes

2.4 To quickly clarify ideas/ content during class activities

Frequency of translanguaging's use for content- oriented purposes

Table 1 Statistics of frequency of translanguaging’s use for content- oriented purposes

2.4 To quickly clarify ideas/ content during class activities 3,01 1,102

In addition to the percentage figures, the mean score and standard deviation (table 4) also provided valuable findings In general, most mean scores hovered around 3 on the scale, which means “sometimes” Particularly, question 2.1 had a relatively higher mean score with 3,19, suggesting that participants rated the frequency of using Vietnamese for explaining grammar between "sometimes" and

"often”, more frequently than in the other three situations On the other hand, the mean score for the aim of explaining vocabulary was a little slower than 3, which demonstrated that teachers tended to use students’ mother tongue less than other options In terms of standard deviation, while question 2.1 and 2.3 had quite lower figures with 0,807 and 0,982, indicating more consistent responses among participants, questions 2.2 and 2.4 showed higher variability (standard deviations above 1), implying that the frequency levels might be more divided b How translanguaging is used for classroom- oriented purposes

Secondly, considering the use of Vietnamese for two mentioned classroom- oriented purposes (question 2.5 and 2.6), nearly half of the students pointed out that it was used “sometimes” to assist teachers to give instructions and manage the classrooms (46,8% and 42,6%) However, the extent to which L1 was integrated in the lessons might vary since the proportion of other options was fairly high as well

In order to give instructions to students, approximately 30% of participants selected to use little Vietnamese Similarly, more than one- third of respondents shared that their teacher might “never” or “rarely” utilize translanguaging to manage class Meanwhile, L1 was reported to be in used more “often” by over one-fifth of the surveyed students As could be seen from the table, their choices varied among participants The statistics of mean scores and standard deviation revealed the similar findings (table 5)

Figure 5 Percentage figures of the frequency of translanguaging's use for classroom- oriented purposes Table 2 Statistics of the frequency of translanguaging’s use for classroom- oriented purposes

On average, for both uses, the mean score of 2,96 and 2,77 for each respectively indicated that the practice of Vietnamese in these purposes was just below and slightly closer to "sometimes" Nevertheless, it was revealed that teachers

2.5 To give instructions 2.6 To manage the classrooms

Frequency of translanguaging's use for classroom- oriented purposes would be less inclined to use Vietnamese frequently in classroom management than in giving instructions The standard deviation at around 1,0 indicated some diversity in responses, affirming the percentage data c How translanguaging is used for student- oriented purposes

Lastly, it appeared that Vietnamese was applied more regularly in student- oriented situations (question 2.7 to 2.9)

Figure 6 Percentage figures of the frequency of translanguaging's use for student- oriented purposes Table 3 Statistics of the frequency of translanguaging’s use for student- oriented purposes

2.7 To give feedback to individuals 3,11 0,967

2.8 To build bonds with students 3,21 1,025

2.9 To enable participation of lower proficiency students 3,41 0,873

2.7 To give feedback to individuals

2.8 To build bonds with students

2.9 To enable participation of lower proficiency students

Frequency of translanguaging's use for student- oriented purposes

The percentage figures pointed out that in terms of using translanguaging to give feedback and enable participation from lower- level students, the frequency of

“sometimes” remained dominant with slightly more than 40% Additionally, 25,5% and 31,9% of pupils assumed that Vietnamese was “often” used for these two situations respectively As for the aim of building connections between teachers and students, a nearly similar proportion of participants said that their teachers use Vietnamese “sometimes” (36,2%) and “often” (30,9%), which were high frequency as well

The data of mean score and standard deviation showed a general trend towards a moderate to slightly higher frequency for using Vietnamese in these situations Question 2.7 received a mean score with 3,11, which means that students rated their teachers’ frequency of using Vietnamese to give feedback slightly above

“sometimes” Question 2.8 for building bonds between teachers and students had the mean score of 3.21, which was between “sometimes” and “often”, closer to “often” Finally, question 2.9 held the highest mean score among these questions at 3.41, indicating a greater practice of using Vietnamese to assist lower- level students, leaning towards "often" Less variability in responses was recorded in question 2.7 and 2.9 when the standard deviation was below 1 On the contrary, question 2.8 had the standard deviation higher than 1, implying more diversity in opinions

Overall, the questionnaire findings revealed that while there was a moderate practice of using Vietnamese in English language classrooms, the frequency of its usage varies depending on the specific purposes The variability in responses also highlighted that the amount of L1 in EL classrooms might be influenced by factors such as students’ individual levels or situations

Discussion

The findings presented in this chapter align with previous research This research investigated how students perceived the use of translanguaging in English teaching and learning Through surveys and semi- interviews, the study demonstrated the current practice of translanguaging in EL classrooms It also revealed that translanguaging received positive preferences and evaluations from secondary students The data collected through these methods provided crucial insights and facilitated a more effective exploration of two key research questions

Firstly, translanguaging was being applied in various situation for different purposes and skills Among nine surveyed purposes, there were some differences in frequency for using Vietnamese L1 was reported to be used at a slightly lower frequency than “sometimes” for managing classrooms, describing vocabulary and giving instructions Furthermore, data showed that teachers “sometimes” use students’ native language to check for understanding and quickly clarify ideas or content during activities In addition, when teaching grammar or giving feedback, teachers tended to use translanguaging slightly more regularly, but just a little above

“sometimes” Lastly, Vietnamese was witnessed to be used more often to build bonds between teachers and students and especially to encourage participation from students whose English ability is not good In reading and writing lessons, teachers also made use of translanguaging more regularly than in speaking and listening ones However, the frequency still remained under “often”, ensuring the proportion of L1’s amount used below 50% in any circumstances This result supported Makulloluwa’s

(2013) research He argues that while teachers prefer using the students' first language (L1), its usage in lower proficiency classes generally falls between 20% and 40% As a result, the target language should be used at least 60% of the time, even in classes with lower proficiency levels In short, it is clear that the application of translanguaging is an integral part of the learning process; however, the appropriate level and efficient amount of translanguaging in classrooms needs to depend on specific situations More importantly, Vietnamese should not be overused, as suggested by Macaro (2011) that L1 should not be implemented too much in the lessons, only when the use of English fails to work effectively in that circumstance In other words, the use of target language still needs to take priority in EL classrooms

Secondly, regarding students’ attitudes towards nine surveyed uses of translanguaging in EL classrooms, the study indicated that students have a generally favorable views on translanguaging’s usage (for the purposes listed in the questionnaire) The majority of students valued the necessity of the students’ use of L1 in classrooms Despite having some variability in opinions, most of the participants view translanguaging positively for all the purposes mentioned in the survey questionnaires The current findings on students’ supportive views towards translanguaging are consistent with the conclusions made by several pervious researchers in this field It is indicated that students strongly favored the use of translanguaging due to its benefits in simplifying complex concepts, challenging grammar or difficult words (Levine (2003), Baker (2006), Schweers (1999)), checking, assisting and increasing students’ comprehension (Duong (2006)) and especially aiding low level students (Le (2011) The study also yielded findings similar to previous studies on the advantages of using translanguaging in increasing teachers and students’ connection (Schweers, 1999), time-saving during lessons (Critchley, 2002; Macaro, 2005; Rezvani & Eslami-Rasekh, 2011), and the ability to express words or phrases that have no equivalent in the second language (Baker, 2006; Eldridge, 1996) They found Vietnamese efficient for reading and writing skills as well due to its aid in grasping the main or specific ideas and support brainstorming activities This finding was consistent with Kieu’s (2010) claim

Besides the general agreement to most of the practices of translanguaging in classrooms, this study typically revealed that students might express different extent of approval for certain uses of translanguaging Participants hold slightly positive attitudes to translanguaging used for describing vocabulary, implying that in this situation, L1’s application was perceived differently Additionally, students had moderate preferences for using translanguaging in quickly providing clarifications They greatly advocated the use of L1 for helping lower- level students For the remaining contexts, namely explaining grammar, checking for understanding, giving instructions, managing classrooms, giving feedback and connecting with pupils, they showed essentially favorable opinions This result was consistent with the practice of translanguaging found above It suggested that students were satisfied with the frequency and the way their teacher integrated translanguaging in EL lessons Nevertheless, it is also worth emphasizing that there remained some diversity of students’ opinions, which suggests that while some students see the benefit of translanguaging, others may have reservations depending on the context of its use

Furthermore, the results supported the idea that the frequency of translanguaging’s use in classrooms might vary, depending on specific situations, students’ proficiency levels and the objective skills of the lesson Common situations necessitating translanguaging were identified to ensure students' understanding The use of translanguaging increased with lower proficiency levels and more challenging or lengthy lessons, while better-performing classes required it less frequently This finding is similar with the view made by Ellis (1984), Edstrom (2006) and Greggio and Gil (2007), who claimed that the judicious use of L1 by both teachers and students could not be all the same as it was affected by specific factors of each particular classroom On average, the use of translanguaging is believed to be at the level of

“sometimes” for most purposes, which is in line with the argument made by Thu Trang (2016) and Le (2014)

Finally, apart from the potential advantages of translanguaging, participants reported that the use of translanguaging might bring detrimental effects when the contents were not so challenging or when having the equivalent English expressions to describe Additionally, if teachers assign students a presentation, not using Vietnamese during the presentation should be a must In terms of skills, teachers were recommended not applying translanguaging in pronunciation, reading and writing lessons Using Vietnamese for these purposes was perceived unnecessary and could limit the exposure to English of the students (Kim Anh (2010)) To sum up, judicious use of Vietnamese in EL classrooms should be made with careful attention to the situations.

Summary

In conclusion, this chapter has presented the major findings collected via questionnaires and interviews, followed by a discussion of these findings The way translanguaging was implemented was revealed through the frequency and purposes that teachers utilized L1 for The frequency of translanguaging, especially the use of

Vietnamese, was flexible, depending on the difficulty of the lesson content and the students’ English proficiency levels Moreover, despite having a neutrality and slight disagreement towards the application of translanguaging in group discussion and permission asking, students demonstrated positive attitude toward using L1 in their

EL classrooms, recognizing its potential effectiveness in facilitating teaching and learning English in a wide variety of aspects for content- oriented, classroom- oriented and students- oriented purposes A few situations that translanguaging might hinder second language acquisitions were discussed The research, therefore, proposed a prudent use of Vietnamese which resulted in having teachers and students adjust the level of native language used in each specific situation and individual.

CONCLUSION

Major findings of the study

Translanguaging, the systematic use of L1 in teaching a foreign language, has gained increasing approval among researchers in the field of foreign language education Recent literature on translanguaging demonstrates that incorporating this approach into language classrooms enhances students' proficiency in L2 The purposes of the current study were to explore the practice of translanguaging currently applied in EL classrooms and to examine secondary students’ perceptions towards translanguaging in various situations Questionnaires and semi- structured interviews were utilized to gather data from participants and positive results were observed

The study described the common practice in English language classrooms in the context of a secondary school in Hanoi The results indicated that L1 was used from “slightly less than sometimes” to “under often” in the lesson activities according to the purposes and skills Vietnamese was found to be used the most frequently for providing assistance to low-level students, regularly for building connections between teachers and students, slightly more often in teaching grammar and giving feedbacks In addition, it is applied sometimes for checking understanding and quickly clarifying during class activities, finally a little less often for describing vocabulary, giving instructions and managing classrooms Vietnamese was also claimed to be in use more often in reading and writing lessons rather than in listening and speaking skills Despite agreeing that the exclusion of Vietnamese in EL classrooms is impractical, students reported their teachers’ attempt in limiting Vietnamese usage to instances of genuine students’ need The amount of Vietnamese was believed to fall under 50% In general, translanguaging was applied in cases that full English method appears to be unproductive or causing more confusion to students

Moreover, the research revealed that although there were some variabilities in the extent of support towards specific situation, the majority of participants expressed generally positive attitudes toward teachers’ use of translanguaging in their EL classrooms They favored applying translanguaging because it enhanced content- oriented activities such as teaching grammar and vocabulary, checking for students’ comprehension and providing quick clarification to ideas Translanguaging was perceived to be effective for classroom- oriented purposes regarding teachers giving instructions or managing classrooms more easily Moreover, students showed strong preference as to using translanguaging for student- oriented purposes including giving feedback, building teachers- students bond and helping low proficiency students Among these situations, supporting students of low level was perceived the most positive from participants The results consistently showed students’ satisfaction to the way teachers were using translanguaging in classrooms However, it should be highlighted that students’ perceptions may vary, depending on their English level as well The fact that most of participants joining this research have limited ability in English also gives light to their general positive perceptions to translanguaging

On the other hand, translanguaging was claimed to be detrimental when being overused or when having English equivalent expressions or for simple contents where using English could fully work Using Vietnamese is not advisable during presentation as well Additionally, using Vietnamese was considered negative in pronunciation lesson, speaking and listening skills Acknowledging the potential drawback along with effectiveness of translanguaging will provide teachers the ground for flexibly employing this method in teaching English

To conclude, these findings are expected to increase awareness about the importance of translanguaging in EL classrooms from students’ perspectives, from which teachers could have better plan in confidently integrating appropriate L1 usage in their L2 instruction.

Pedagogical implications

Viewing the application of translanguaging in learning and teaching English from students’ perspectives would offer teachers profound insights in how to implement it successfully A number of pedagogical implications could be discussed as following:

Firstly, the results of this research affirmed the significance of translanguaging in teaching and learning English in the context of the public secondary school It remains essential for various purposes As students show favorable preferences towards using Vietnamese in several situations, teachers should encourage and validate such uses when it is beneficial, especially in teaching grammar, vocabulary, reading and writing skills This requires teachers to actively integrate opportunities for translanguaging into their teaching practices Teachers can not only allow but also strategically promote moments where students can use L1 to clarify concepts, express ideas, or find support or clarification Moreover, teachers could design activities that encourage both L1 and English use interchangeably This approach helps students to gradually transition to more English-only interactions while still benefiting from L1 support when necessary By doing so, teachers can take advantage of the native language as a resource to enhance understanding and engagement in the EL classrooms and create a supportive environment for learning English effectively

Furthermore, since the frequency of translanguaging use for different purposes varies, it is suggested that teachers should adopt a flexible approach to the use of translanguaging in accordance with students’ English proficiency, lesson content and specific purposes In order to do this, teachers may need to consider situations to evaluate its effectiveness and negative effects as well The approach should be balanced, emphasizing that the use of L1 in EL classrooms is a learning aid rather than a way to avoid English Therefore, teachers need to guide students to know when and how to use Vietnamese strategically to support their English learning, from which teachers encourage them to gradually increase their use and exposure to English

Lastly, policy makers and educators are expected to provide professional development opportunities and trainings to guide teachers on effective translanguaging strategies There should be a guideline for translanguaging in classrooms The guideline will make teachers become more confident in managing and incorporating L1 use in the classroom, understanding its impact on language learning, and developing a positive attitude towards linguistic diversity among students.

Limitations

Although the study was conducted with much care and effort, some inevitable limitations exist

First of all, the numbers of sample in this research were limited because it surveyed 94 students and interviewed 10 participants but all of them were grade 7 Consequently, the results cannot be generalized to present the attitudes of secondary students in general

Secondly, the research focused on examining participants’ opinions on mainly nine situations of three groups of purposes for using translanguaging in classrooms, which means that there remain other uses of translanguaging not listed or specific aspects of each skill such as reading, writing, listening, speaking not discussed in details Therefore, it might not capture a full picture of students’ thoughts on every situation or aspect of a skill The findings of this study revealed their general views on surveyed purposes as mentioned in the list

Furthermore, this study mainly explored how students thought about teachers’ practice of translanguaging for different purposes in classrooms Students’ use of translanguaging was not discussed The results, therefore, uncovered students’ feelings for teachers’ use of L1 only

Finally, this study’s target participants were from a public secondary school where students might somehow pay great attention to the high school entrance exam and focus on learning to successfully pass such exams As a result, their aim and method of learning English may differ from those of private institutions or center, from which their opinions can be different

These aforementioned weaknesses should be considered in future related studies.

Suggestions for future research

Based on the findings and shortcomings mentioned above, other researchers in the future can carry out to further study to investigate the topic on these following suggested aspects Due to the limitation on the small samples of participants, other research should include larger scale, maybe with students from all four grades of secondary level, to be able to make more accurate generalization

Other uses and aspects of translanguaging such as specific activities in reading, writing, listening and speaking lessons can also be discussed further to explore how students perceive using Vietnamese and how to use it with productivity They may conduct research to examine students’ feeling to both teachers’ and students’ use of translanguaging

Moreover, there is space for more study conducted in the context of private schools or centers, where the aims of learning English do not mainly focus on preparing for the exam Therefore, researchers may examine diverse attitudes towards translanguaging and its effectiveness in supporting L2 acquisition from pupils to make more profound recommendations for successfully integrate Vietnamese in EL lessons

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APPENDICES APPENDIX A: STUDENT’S SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

I am currently conducting my MA research on the topic of “Students’ perceptions towards translanguaging in English classrooms at a secondary school” It would be of great help to me if you can spend your time completing this short survey

It should take from ten to fifteen minutes of your time Your cooperation in completing this questionnaire will provide valuable insights to my study All of your information and responses as well as other data collected in this survey will be kept confidential and used for the research purpose only

Thank you for your time and support!

How long have you been learning English? (Number of Years): ………

Please rate your level of English on the following scale: o 1: I only know a few basic words and phrases o 2: I am able to have limited conversation on every day topics o 3: I am able to discuss a variety of topics without having too much troubles o 4: I have no problem communicating with native speakers on a wide range of topics

SECTION B: PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS TRANSLANGUAGING IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS

Question 1 What is the language of instruction in your English Language classrooms? o English o Vietnamese o Both English and Vietnamese

Question 2 How often do your teachers use Vietnamese in the following situations in EL classrooms?

On a scale from 1 to 5, please tick number that best indicates your answer

(1= never; 2= rarely; 3= sometimes; 4 = often; 5= always)

I The use of translanguaging for content- oriented purposes

2.4 To quickly clarify ideas/ content during class activities

II The use of translanguaging for classroom- oriented purposes

III The use of translanguaging for student- oriented purposes

2.7 To give feedback to individuals

2.8 To build bonds between teachers and students

2.9 To enable participation of lower proficiency students

Question 3 What is your opinion towards the use of translanguaging in the following situations?

On a scale from 1 to 5, please tick number that best indicates the extent to which you agree with these statements

(1= strongly disagree; 2= disagree; 3= neutral; 4 = agree; 5= strongly agree)

I The use of translanguaging for content- oriented purposes

3.1 I understand how to use grammar better when my teacher uses Vietnamese along with English to explain

3.2 I feel that describing vocabulary in both English and Vietnamese is helpful

3.3 I find it effective when my teacher uses translanguaging to check for understanding

3.4 I think using translanguaging to quickly clarify ideas/ content during class activities is necessary

II The use of translanguaging for classroom- oriented purposes

3.5 I find it easier to follow when my teacher gives instructions in both English and Vietnamese

3.6 I think my teacher can manage the classrooms better if he/ she uses translanguaging

III The use of translanguaging for student- oriented purposes

3.7 I find it more efficient when feedback is given in both English and Vietnamese

3.8 I feel that my translanguaging enables my teacher to build bonds with students more easily

3.9 I think that translanguaging can enable better participation of lower proficiency students

*** Are you willing to participate in an oral interview later? o Yes o No

Your answers will remain confidential and will be used for research purpose only

PHIẾU KHẢO SÁT DÀNH CHO HỌC SINH

Các em học sinh thân mến,

Cô hiện đang thực hiện nghiên cứu thạc sĩ về đề tài "Nhận thức của học sinh đối với việc sử dụng chuyển ngữ trong lớp học tiếng Anh ở một trường THCS tại Hà Nội

" Việc các em dành thời gian hoàn thành khảo sát ngắn này sẽ giúp ích rất nhiều cho nghiên cứu của cô Các em có thể dành ra từ 10 -15 phút để trả lời các câu hỏi trong khảo sát này Sự tham gia và các câu trả lời sẽ giúp cô đưa ra được những kết luận và kết quả quý giá cho nghiên cứu này Tất cả thông tin và phản hồi của em cũng như dữ liệu khác được thu thập trong cuộc khảo sát này sẽ được bảo mật hoàn toàn và chỉ sử dụng cho mục đích nghiên cứu

Xin chân thành cảm hơn sự cộng tác của các em!

PHẦN A: THÔNG TIN CÁ NHÂN

Số năm em học Tiếng Anh: ………

Hãy chọn trình độ Tiếng Anh của em theo thang dưới đây: o 1: Em chỉ biết một vài từ hoặc cụm từ cơ bản o 2: Em có thể nói chuyện một cách hạn chế về các chủ đề hàng ngày o 3: Em có thể thảo luận về nhiều chủ đề khác nhau mà không gặp quá nhiều khó khăn o 4: Em không gặp vấn đề khi giao tiếp với người bản xứ về nhiều chủ đề khác nhau

PHẦN B: QUAN ĐIỂM VỀ VIỆC SỬ DỤNG CHUYỂN NGỮ TRONG CÁC LỚP HỌC TIẾNG ANH

Câu 1 Trong các lớp học Tiếng Anh của em, ngôn ngữ được sử dụng để giảng dạy là gì? o Tiếng Anh o Tiếng Việt o Cả Tiếng Anh và Tiếng Việt

Câu 2 Giáo viên của em đang sử dụng Tiếng Việt với tần suất như thế nào trong lớp học Tiếng Anh cho các mục đích sau?

Trên thang điểm từ 1 đến 5, vui lòng đánh dấu số thể hiện đúng nhất ý kiến của em

(1 = Không bao giờ; 2 = Hiếm khi; 3 = Đôi khi; 4 = Thường xuyên; 5 = Luôn luôn)

I Sử dụng chuyển ngữ cho các mục đích hướng đến nội dung học tập

2.1 Để giải thích ngữ pháp

2.3 Để kiểm tra lại sự hiểu bài

2.4 Để giải thích nhanh ý kiến hoặc nội dung nào đó trong các hoạt động ở lớp

II Sử dụng chuyển ngữ cho các mục đích hướng đến lớp học

2.6 Để quản lý lớp học

III Sử dụng chuyển ngữ cho các mục đích hướng đến học sinh

2.7 Để đưa nhận xét cho cá nhân

2.8 Để giáo viên xây dựng mối quan hệ gần gũi với học sinh

2.9 Để giúp các học sinh có trình độ Tiếng

Anh kém tham gia các hoạt động tốt hơn

Câu 3 Em có quan điểm như thế nào về việc sử dụng chuyển ngữ trong các tình huống sau đây?

Trên thang điểm từ 1 đến 5, vui lòng đánh dấu số thể hiện đúng nhất mức độ đồng ý của em với những nội dung sau

(1 = Hoàn toàn không đồng ý; 2 = Không đồng ý; 3 = Trung lập; 4 = Đồng ý; 5 = Hoàn toàn đồng ý)

I Sử dụng chuyển ngữ cho các mục đích hướng đến nội dung học tập

3.1 Em hiểu cách sử dụng ngữ pháp tốt hơn khi giáo viên sử dụng cả Tiếng Việt và

Tiếng Anh để giải thích

3.2 Em cảm thấy việc giải thích từ vựng bằng cả Tiếng Anh và Tiếng Việt là hữu ích

3.3 Em cảm thấy sử dụng chuyển ngữ mang lại hiệu quả trong việc giáo viên kiểm tra lại xem lớp/ học sinh có hiểu bài hay không

3.4 Em nghĩ việc sử dụng chuyển ngữ để giải thích nhanh các ý kiến hoặc nội dung nào đó trong các hoạt động lớp học là cần thiết

II Sử dụng chuyển ngữ cho các mục đích hướng đến lớp học

3.5 Em cảm thấy dễ hiểu và làm hơn khi giáo viên hướng dẫn bằng cả Tiếng Anh và

3.6 Em nghĩ rằng sử dụng chuyển ngữ sẽ giúp giáo viên quản lý lớp học tốt hơn

III Sử dụng chuyển ngữ cho các mục đích hướng đến học sinh

3.7 Em cảm thấy nhận xét bằng cả Tiếng

Anh và Tiếng Việt mang lại hiệu quả

3.8 Em cảm thấy rằng giáo viên có thể xây dựng mối quan hệ với học sinh dễ dàng hơn khi dùng cả Tiếng Anh và Tiếng Việt để trò chuyện và trao đổi

3.9 Em thấy rằng chuyển ngữ có thể giúp các bạn học kém Tiếng Anh tham gia tốt hơn trong các hoạt động của lớp học

*** Em có thể tham gia cuộc phỏng vấn trong thời gian tới đây không? o Có o Không

Các câu trả lời của em sẽ được bảo mật và chỉ sử dụng cho mục đích nghiên cứu