Book of Biology, Part 1: Vertebrata, by H. G. Wells pot

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Biology, Part 1: Vertebrata, by H.

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***START OF THE PROJECTGUTENBERG EBOOK TEXT BOOK OFBIOLOGY, PART 1: VERTEBRATA***

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Eyes" Anderson

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and Dedicated To Destanie;

With Hopes Her Dream of Becoming Aveterinarian Comes True

Special Thanks to Deborah Furness of theUniversity College London for her help,and research, in learning about this book,and helping me understand it better Spell-checked with www.thesolutioncafe.com

Transcriber's Note:

I try to edit my e-texts so they can easily

be used with voice speech programs, Ibelieve blind people and children shouldalso be able to enjoy the many books nowavailable electronically I use the for anem-dash, with a space either before orafter it depending on its usage This helps

to keep certain programs from squishingthe words together, such as down-stairs.Also to help voice speech programs I'veenclosed upper case text between - and _(-UPPER CASE TEXT_), and usedunderscores to show chapter and sectionheaders I also added a second contentsthat shows the other sections of this e-text.This e-text was made with a "Top can"text scanner, with a bit of correcting here

and there.

This book is volume one of two It waslater reworked by A M Davies in 1898under the title "Text-book of Zoology",then revised and rewritten by J T.Cunningham about 1909 and W H Leigh-Sharpe around 1932 Although theseeditions gave Wells the main credit, most

of Wells' writing and all his drawingswere removed; only his rough outlineseems to have been used It was re-published by University Tutorial Press

The First Edition, as well as The Secondand Revised Edition (with dissectionsredrawn by Miss A C Robbins) are used

in this e-text The First Edition had somesmall minor errors, as well as dissection

abbreviations that are shown on theDissection Sheets, but no mention of themwas listed in the text Certain figures onthe Dissections Sheets are missing (such

as Figures 1, 2, 4, with no mention to a 3,

as if Mr Wells drew a Figure 3 but found

it was not needed and removed it from thebook) Rather then leaving it as is, I put {}marks around my notes saying things like{No Figure 3} For the "Second andRevised Edition" Wells was able tochange some of these errors and missingparts, but many of the same printing tabletswere used and with almost each additionother things were removed, (in oneinstance one entire section from achapter), and many of the helpfulsuggestions were shortened or removed soother things could be explained more In

an ideal version of the book both couldhave been used, but with reprinting theentire book from the first to the secondeditions almost as many things were lost

as were gained, so I've tried to indicatewhere both text go separate paths with thefollowing;

[Second Edition only text] and -FirstEdition only text,- and also

{Lines from Second Edition only.}and {Lines from First Edition only.}

where more than just a sentence is added

or removed Other things to notice is howsome words are spelt or punctuateddifferently throughout the book, such as;

Blood Vessels

-Text-Book Of Biology._

by

With An Introduction by G.

B Howes,Fellow of the Linnean Society, Fellow of

the Zoological Society.

Assistant Professor of Zoology, Royal College of Science, London.

Part 1. Vertebrata.

Contents

Introduction Preface

6 Muscle and Nerve

7 The Nervous System

8 Renal and Reproductive Organs

9 Classificatory Points

10 Questions and Exercises

The

Frog 1 General Anatomy

2 The Skull of the Frog

(and the Vertebrate Skull generally)

3 Questions on the Frog

The Development of the Frog

The Development of the Fowl

The Development of the Rabbit

The Theory of Evolution

Questions on Embryology

Miscellaneous Note on Making Comparisons Syllabus of Practical Work {Contents part 2}

Questions Key for Dissection Sheets, and

In the year 1884 I was invited to givetuition by correspondence, in Biology.Although disposed at the time to ridiculethe idea of imparting instruction in naturalscience by letter, I gladly accepted theopportunity thus afforded me ofascertaining for myself what could andcould not be accomplished in thatdirection Anyone familiar with the scope

of biological enquiry, and the methods ofbiological instruction, will not need to bereminded that it is only by the mostrigorous employment of precise directionsfor observation, that any good results are

to be looked for at the hand of theelementary student True to this principle,

I determined to issue to mycorrespondence pupils rigid instructions,and to demand in return faithful annotateddrawings of facts observed in their usage

In the case of two among the few studentswho passed through my hands, the resultfar exceeded my most sanguineanticipations The notes sent in by one ofthem a man working at a distance, aloneand unaided far excelled those wrungfrom many a student placed under the mostfavourable surroundings; and their

promise for the future has been fulfilled tothe utmost, the individual in questionbeing now a recognised investigator Itthus became clear that, not-with-standingthe complex conditions of work in thebiological field, tuition bycorrespondence would suffice to awakenthe latent abilities of a naturally qualifiedenquirer The average members of aUniversity Correspondence Class will befound neither better nor worse than those

of any other, and they may therefore passunnoticed; if however, the correspondencesystem of tuition may furnish the means ofarousing a latent aptitude, when thepossibilities of other methods of approachare excluded and in so doing, ofelevating the individual to that position forwhich he was by nature qualified,

ensuring him the introduction to the onesphere of labour for which he was born

it will have created its own defence, andhave merited the confidence of all right-thinking people The plucking of one suchbrand from the burning is amplecompensation for the energy expended onany number of average dullards, who butrequire to be left alone to find their naturallevel

Mr Wells' little book is avowedlywritten for examination purposes, and inconformity with the requirements of thenow familiar "type system" of teaching.Recent attempts have been made todepreciate this While affording adiscipline in detailed observation andmanipulation second to that of no other

branch of learning, it provides for that

"deduction" and "verification" by whichall science has been built up; and thisappears to me ample justification for itsretention, as the most rational systemwhich can be to-day adopted Evidencethat its alleged shortcomings are duerather to defective handling than to anyinherent weakness of its own, would not

be difficult to produce Although rigid inits discipline, it admits of commentatorialtreatment which, while heightening theinterest of the student, is calculated tostimulate alike his ambition and hisimagination That the sister sciences ofBotany and Zoology fall under onediscipline, is expressed in the Englishusage of the term "Biology." Experiencehas shown that the best work in either

department has been produced by thosewho have acquired on all-roundknowledge of at least the elementarystages of both; and, that the advancedmorphologist and physiologist are alikethe better for a familiarity with theprinciples not to say with theprogressive advancement of each other'sdomain, is to-day undeniable These andother allied considerations, render itadvisable that the elementary facts ofmorphology and physiology should bepresented to the beginner side by side aprinciple too frequently neglected inbooks which, like this one, are speciallywritten for the biological neophyte.Although the student is the wiser for theactual observation of the fact of nature, hebecomes the better only when able to

apply them, as for example, by thejudicious construction of elementarygeneralizations, such as are introducedinto the pages of this work So long asthese generalizations, regarded as firstattempts to deduce "laws" in the form of

"generalized statement of facts basedobservation," are properly introduced into

an elementary text-book, intended for theisolated worker cut off from the lectureroom, their intercalation is both healthyand desirable

Mr Wells has kept these preceptsconstantly in mind in the preparation of hiswork, and in the formulation of his plansfor its future extension, thereby enhancingthe value of the book itself, and at thesame time, discouraging the system of

pure cram, which is alien to the discipline

when the objects of study are tangiblethings can rival that prosecuted under thedirection and in the constant presence of a

teacher who has also a living and vivid

knowledge of the matter which he handleswith the student In the ideal world there

is a plentiful supply of such teachers, andeasy access to their teaching, but in thisreal world only a favoured few enjoythese advantages Through causes thatcannot be discussed here, a vast number ofsolitary workers are scattered through thecountry, to whom sustained help in thisform is impossible, or possible only indays stolen from a needed vacation; and tosuch students especially does this bookappeal, as well as to those more fortunatelearners who are within reach of orderlyinstruction, but anxious to save their

teachers' patience and their own time bysome preliminary work.

One of the most manifest disadvantages

of book-work, under the conditions of thesolitary worker, is the rigidity of itsexpressions; if the exact meaning isdoubtful, he can not ask a question Thishas been kept in view throughout; thewriter has, above all, sought to beexplicit has, saving over-sights, used nouncommon or technical term without adefinition or a clear indication of itsmeaning

In this study of Biology, the perception

and memory of form is a very important

factor indeed Every student should drawsketches of his dissections, and accustom

himself to copying book diagrams, inorder to train his eye to perception ofdetails he might otherwise disregard Thedrawing required is within the reach ofall; but for those who are veryinexperienced, tracing figures is a usefulpreliminary exercise.

By the time the student has read the

"Circulation of the Rabbit" (Sections 34 to49), he will be ready to begin dissection

It is possible to hunt to death even such asound educational maxim as the "thingbefore the name," and we are persuaded,

by a considerable experience, thatdissection before some such preparatoryreading is altogether a mistake At the end

of the book is a syllabus (withsuggestions) for practical work, originally

drawn up by the writer for his own privateuse with the evening classes of theUniversity Tutorial College classes ofstudents working mainly in their sparetime for the London examination, and at anenormous disadvantage, as regards thenumber of hours available, in comparisonwith the leisurely students of a Universitylaboratory This syllabus may, perhaps byitself, serve a useful purpose in somecases, but in this essential part of the studythe presence of some experiencedoverlooker to advise, warn, and correct,

is at first almost indispensable

A few words may, perhaps be said withrespect to the design of this volume It ismanifestly modelled upon the syllabus ofthe Intermediate Examination in Science

of London University That syllabus, as atpresent constituted, appears to me toafford considerable scope for fairlyefficient biological study The four typesdealt with in this book are extremelyconvenient for developing the methods ofcomparative anatomy and morphologicalembryology Without any extensivereference to related organisms, these fourforms, and especially the three vertebrata,may be made to explain and illustrate oneanother in a way that cannot fail to beeducational in the truest sense Afterdealing with the rabbit, therefore, as anorganic mechanism, our sections upon thefrog and dog-fish, and upon development,are simply statements of differences, and acommentary, as it were, upon the anatomy

of the mammalian type In the concluding

chapter, a few suggestions of the mostelementary ideas of it is hoped to makethis first part of our biological coursecomplete in itself, and of some real andpermanent value to the student And thewriter is convinced that not only is aconstant insistence upon resemblances anddifferences, and their import,intellectually the most valuable, but alsothe most interesting, and therefore theeasiest, way of studying animal anatomy.That chaotic and breathless cramming ofterms misunderstood, tabulated statements,formulated "tips," and lists of names, inwhich so many students, in spite ofadvice, waste their youth is, I sincerelyhope, as impossible with this book as it isuseless for the purposes of a Londoncandidate On the other hand, our chief

endeavour has been to render the matter ofthe book clear, connected, progressive,and easily assimilable In the second partPlants, Unicellular Organisms, andInvertebrata will be dealt with, in a widerand less detailed view of the entirebiological province.

{Lines from First Edition only.}

-In this volume, we study fourorganisms, and chiefly in theirrelation to each other; in the next, weshall study a number of organismslargely in relation to theirenvironment In this part our key note

is the evidence of inheritance; in oursecond part it will be of adaptation

to

circumstances.-This book will speedily, under thescrutiny of the critical reader, revealabundant weakness For these the authorclaims the full credit For whatever merit

it may posses, he must however,acknowledge his profound indebtedness tohis former teacher, Professor Howes Notonly has the writer enjoyed in the past theprivilege of Professor Howes' instructionand example, but he has, during thepreparation of this work, received thereadiest help, advise, and encouragementfrom him assistance as generous as itwas unmerited, and as unaffected as it wasvaluable

{Lines from Second Edition only.}[The publication of a second andrevised edition of this Part affords

the author an opportunity ofexpressing his sense of the generalkindliness of his reviewers, and thehelp they have him in improving thismaiden effort To no one is therevouchsafed such a facility in thediscovery of errors in a book as to itsauthor, so soon as it has passedbeyond his power of correction.Hence the general tone ofencouragement (and in some casesthe decided approval) of themembers of this termination to aperiod of considerable remorse andapprehension.]

I have been able through their counsel,and the experience I have had while usingthis book in teaching, to correct several

printer's errors and to alter variousambiguous or misleading expressions, aswell as to bring the book up to date again

in one or two particulars

My thanks are particularly due to myfriend Miss Robbins, who has very kindlyredrawn the occasionally rather blottesquefigures of the first edition Not only havethese plates gained immensely in graceand accuracy, but the lettering is nowdistinct an improvement that any studentwho has had to hunt my reference letters inthe first edition will at once appreciate

G Wells

1892 {First Edition.}

1893 {Second Edition.}

-The Rabbit._

1 _External Form and General

Considerations._

Section 1 It is unnecessary to enter upon adescription of the appearance of thisfamiliar type, but it is not perhapssuperfluous, as we proceed to consider itsanatomy, to call attention to one or twopoints in its external, or externallyapparent structure Most of our readersknow that it belongs to that one of twoprimary animal divisions which is called

t h e vertebrata, and that the distinctive

feature which place it in this division isthe possession of a spinal column or

backbone, really a series of small like bones, the vertebrae (Figure 1 v.b.)strung together, as it were, on the mainnerve axis, the spinal cord (Figure 1 s.c.).This spinal column can be felt along theneck and back to the tail This tail issmall, tilted up, and conspicuously white

ring-beneath, and it serves as a "recognitionmark" to guide the young when, duringfeeding, an alarm is given and a bolt ismade for the burrows In those moreprimitive (older and simpler-fashioned)vertebrata, the fishes, the tail is muchlarge and far more important, as comparedwith the rest of the body, than it is in most

of the air-inhabiting vertebrates In theformer it is invariably a great muscularmass to propel the body forward; in thelatter it may disappear, as in the frog, besimply a feather-bearing stump, as in thepigeon, a fly flicker, as in the cow orhorse, a fur cape in squirrel, or beotherwise reduced and modified to meetspecial requirements

Section 2 At the fore end, or as English

zoologists prefer to say, anterior end, of

the vertebral column of the rabbit, is ofcourse the skull, containing the anteriorportion of the nerve axis, the brain (Figure

1 br.) Between the head and what iscalled "the body," in the more restrictedsense of the word, is the neck The neckgives freedom of movement to the head,enables the animal to look this way andthat, to turn its ears about to determine thedirection of a sound, and to performendless motions in connexion with bitingand so forth easily We may note that intypes which swim through the water, theneck dose not appear in the fish andfrog, for instance and the head simplywidens out as one passes back to thebody The high resistance offered bywater necessitates this tendency to a cigar

or ship outline, just as it has determinedthe cigar shape of the ordinary fishtorpedo.

Section 3 In the body of the rabbit, asexamined from the outside, we can makeout by feeling two distinct regions, just as

we might in the body of a man; anteriorly

a bony cage, having the ribs at the sides, a rod-like bone in the front, the sternum

(Figure 1 -st.-, [stm.]), and the backbonebehind, and called the chest or thorax;and posteriorly a part called the

abdomen, which has no bony protection

over its belly, or ventral surface These

parts together with the neck constitute the

trunk As a consequence of these things,

in the backbone of the rabbit there are four

regions: the neck, or cervical part,