93. Automation in Textile Machinery - Instrumentation and Control System Design Principles Số trang: 457 trang Ngôn ngữ: English ------------------------------------ Book Description Automation is the use of various control systems for operating equipment such as machinery and processes. In line, this book deals with comprehensive analysis of the trends and technologies in automation and control systems used in textile engineering. The control systems descript in all chapters is to dissect the important components of an integrated control system in spinning, weaving, knitting, chemical processing and garment industries, and then to determine if and how the components are converging to provide manageable and reliable systems throughout the chain from fiber to the ultimate customer. Key Features: • Describes the design features of machinery for operating various textile machineries in product manufacturing • Covers the fundamentals of the instrumentation and control engineering used in textile machineries • Illustrates sensors and basic elements for textile automation • Highlights the need of robotics in textile engineering • Reviews the overall idea and scope of research in designing textile machineries Table of Contents CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING. 2. INSTRUMENTATION. 3. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL SYSTEMS. 4. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS ON BLOWROOM SEQUENCE. 5. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM IN CARDING. 6. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS IN DRAWFRAME AND SPEED FRAME. 7. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS IN RING AND ROTOR SPINNING. 8. CONTROL SYSTEMS IN CONE WINDING MACHINE. 9. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS IN WARPING AND SIZING MACHINE. 10. CONTROL SYSTEMS IN WEAVING. 11. CONTROLS IN KNITTING. 12. CONTROLS IN TESTING INSTRUMENTS. 13. AUTOMATION AND CONTROL IN CHEMICAL PROCESSING. 14. AUTOMATION IN GARMENTS. 15. CAD/CAM SOLUTIONS FOR TEXTILES.
Trang 12 Park Square, Milton Park Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK
Automation is the use of various control systems for operating equipment such as
machinery and processes In line, this book deals with comprehensive analysis of
the trends and technologies in automation and control systems used in textile
en-gineering The control systems descript in all chapters is to dissect the important
components of an integrated control system in spinning, weaving, knitting, chemical
processing and garment industries, and then to determine if and how the
compo-nents are converging to provide manageable and reliable systems throughout the
chain from fiber to the ultimate customer
Key Features:
• Describes the design features of machinery for operating various textile
machineries in product manufacturing
• Covers the fundamentals of the instrumentation and control engineering
used in textile machineries
• Illustrates sensors and basic elements for textile automation
• Highlights the need of robotics in textile engineering
• Reviews the overall idea and scope of research in designing textile
machineries
Automation in Textile Machinery
K30019
Automation in Textile MachineryInstrumentation and Control System Design Principles
Trang 4Machinery Instrumentation and Control System
Design Principles
L Ashok Kumar
M. Senthilkumar
Trang 5CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Trang 6Organization of the Book xxi
About This Book xxiii
Preface xxv
Acknowledgments xxvii
Authors xxix
1 Control Systems Engineering 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Electrical Terminology 1
1.2.1 Inductance 2
1.2.2 Impedance 3
1.2.3 Amplitude 3
1.2.4 Phase 3
1.2.5 Measurement of Voltage 5
1.2.6 Measurement of Small Voltages 5
1.2.7 Measurement of Current 6
1.2.8 Measurement of Small Currents 6
1.2.9 Noise 7
1.2.10 Interference Noise 7
1.2.11 Screen Circuits 7
1.2.12 Avoid Signal or Ground Loops 7
1.2.13 Electronic Noise 8
1.2.14 Frequency Response and Filtering 8
1.2.15 Potential Divider 9
1.2.16 Operational Amplifiers 10
1.2.17 The Non-Inverting Buffer 10
1.2.18 Operational Amplifier Properties 11
1.2.19 Operational Amplifier Circuits—Unity-Gain Non-Inverting Buffer 12
1.2.20 Non-Inverting Voltage Amplifier 13
1.2.21 Differential Voltage Amplifier 13
1.2.22 Instrumentation Amplifier 13
1.2.23 Current Amplifier 14
1.2.24 Potentiostat 14
1.2.25 Galvanostat 14
1.2.26 Active Filter 15
1.3 Cell Design for Electrochemistry 17
1.3.1 The Working Electrode 17
1.3.2 The Counter Electrode (or Secondary or Auxiliary Electrode) 18
1.3.3 The Reference Electrode 18
1.3.4 Composition 19
1.3.5 Solution Flow 19
1.3.6 The Rotating Disk Electrode 19
Trang 7vi Contents
1.4 Principles of Control Systems 19
1.4.1 Open-Loop Control System 20
1.4.2 Closed-Loop Control System 21
1.4.3 Automatic Control System 24
1.4.3.1 Functions of Automatic Control 24
1.4.3.2 Elements of Automatic Control 25
1.4.3.3 Feedback Control System Block Diagram 26
1.4.3.4 Stability of Automatic Control Systems 28
1.4.3.5 Two Position Control Systems 29
1.4.3.6 Proportional Control Systems 29
1.4.3.7 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Control Systems 32
1.4.3.8 Controllers 32
1.5 Summary 34
References 35
2 Instrumentation 37
2.1 Introduction 37
2.1.1 Sensor and Transmitter 37
2.1.2 Primary Measuring Element Selection and Characteristics 38
2.1.2.1 Response Time 39
2.1.2.2 Accuracy 40
2.1.2.3 Precision 40
2.1.2.4 Sensitivity 41
2.1.2.5 Dead Band 41
2.1.2.6 Installation Problems 41
2.1.3 Signal Transmission 41
2.1.3.1 Signal Types 41
2.1.3.2 Standard Signal Ranges 41
2.1.3.3 Electronic Transmitter Adjusted 41
2.1.4 Transmission System Dynamics 42
2.1.4.1 Transmission Lag 42
2.1.4.2 Transmitter Gain 44
2.1.4.3 Smart Transmitters 44
2.1.4.4 Smart Transmitter Microprocessor-Based Features 45
2.1.5 Characteristics of Instruments 46
2.1.5.1 Static Characteristics 46
2.2 Order of Control and Measurements Systems 47
2.2.1 Zero Order Control Systems 47
2.2.2 First Order Control Systems 47
2.2.3 Second Order Control Systems 48
2.3 Temperature Measurement Systems 49
2.3.1 Thermocouple Temperature Detectors 50
2.4 Instrumentation and Control: Pressure Detectors 52
2.4.1 Bellows-Type Detectors 52
2.4.2 Bourdon Tube-Type Detectors 53
2.4.3 Resistance-Type Transducers 53
2.4.4 Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer 54
2.4.5 Strain Gauge Used in a Bridge Circuit 55
Trang 82.4.6 Resistance-Type Transducers 55
2.4.7 Inductance-Type Transducers 55
2.4.8 Differential Transformer 56
2.4.9 Capacitive-Type Transducers 57
2.4.9.1 Detection Circuitry 58
2.4.10 Pressure Detector Functions 58
2.5 Angular Displacement 59
2.5.1 Potentiometers 59
2.6 Encoders 60
2.6.1 Tachometers 61
2.7 Linear Position 62
2.7.1 Potentiometers 62
2.8 Level Detectors 62
2.8.1 Gauge Glass 63
2.8.2 Reflex Gauge Glass 64
2.8.3 Ball Float 64
2.8.4 Chain Float 65
2.8.5 Magnetic Bond Method 66
2.8.6 Conductivity Probe Method 67
2.8.7 Differential Pressure Level Detectors 67
2.8.8 Closed Tank, Dry Reference Leg 67
2.8.9 Closed Tank, Wet Reference Leg 69
2.8.10 Density Compensation 69
2.8.10.1 Specific Volume 69
2.8.10.2 Reference Leg Temperature Considerations 70
2.8.11 Level Detection Circuitry 71
2.8.11.1 Remote Indication 71
2.8.11.2 Environmental Concerns 72
2.9 Instrumentation and Control Module on Flow Detectors 73
2.9.1 Head Flow Meters 73
2.9.1.1 Orifice Plate 74
2.9.1.2 Venturi Tube 75
2.9.1.3 Pitot Tube 75
2.9.2 Hot-Wire Anemometer 76
2.9.3 Electromagnetic Flowmeter 76
2.9.4 Ultrasonic Flow Equipment 76
2.9.5 Steam Flow Detection 77
2.9.6 Simple Mass Flow Detection System 77
2.9.6.1 Flow Circuitry 79
2.9.6.2 Use of Flow Indication 79
2.9.6.3 Environmental Concerns 80
2.10 Instrumentation and Control Module on Position Indicators 80
2.11 Switches 82
2.11.1 Limit Switches 82
2.11.2 Reed Switches 82
2.12 Variable Output Devices 83
2.12.1 Potentiometer 83
Trang 9viii Contents
2.12.2 Linear Variable Differential Transformers 83
2.12.3 Position Indication Circuitry 85
2.13 Summary 86
References 86
3 Programmable Logic Control Systems 89
3.1 Introduction 89
3.1.1 Ladder Logic 89
3.1.2 Programming 91
3.1.3 PLC Connections 92
3.1.4 Ladder Logic Inputs 93
3.1.5 Ladder Logic Outputs 93
3.2 Programmable Logic Controller Hardware 94
3.2.1 Inputs and Outputs 95
3.2.1.1 Inputs 96
3.2.1.2 Output Modules 98
3.2.2 Relays 100
3.2.3 Electrical Wiring Diagrams 101
3.2.3.1 Joint International Committee Wiring Symbols 101
3.3 Logical Sensors 103
3.3.1 Sensor Wiring 103
3.3.1.1 Switches 103
3.3.1.2 Transistor–Transistor Logic 103
3.3.1.3 Sinking/Sourcing 104
3.3.1.4 Solid-State Relays 108
3.3.2 Presence Detection 108
3.3.2.1 Contact Switches 108
3.3.2.2 Reed Switches 108
3.3.2.3 Optical (Photoelectric) Sensors 108
3.3.2.4 Capacitive Sensors 110
3.3.2.5 Inductive Sensors 112
3.3.2.6 Ultrasonic 112
3.3.2.7 Hall Effect 112
3.4 Logical Actuators 113
3.4.1 Solenoids 113
3.4.2 Valves 113
3.4.3 Cylinders 115
3.4.4 Hydraulics 116
3.4.5 Pneumatics 116
3.4.6 Motors 117
3.5 Boolean Logic Design 118
3.5.1 Boolean Algebra 118
3.5.2 Logic Design 119
3.5.2.1 Process Description 120
3.5.2.2 Control Description 120
3.5.2.3 Define Inputs and Outputs 120
3.5.2.4 Boolean Equation 120
Trang 103.5.3 Common Logic Forms 121
3.5.3.1 Complex Gate Forms 121
3.5.3.2 Multiplexers 122
3.6 Programmable Logic Controller Operation 123
3.6.1 Operation Sequence 124
3.6.1.1 The Input and Output Scans 125
3.6.1.2 The Logic Scan 126
3.6.2 Programmable Logic Controller Status 127
3.6.3 Memory Types 127
3.6.4 Software-Based Programmable Logic Controllers 128
3.7 Latches, Timers, Counters, and More 128
3.7.1 Latches 129
3.7.2 Timers 130
3.7.3 Counters 132
3.7.4 Master Control Relays (MCRs) 134
3.8 Structured Logic Design 134
3.8.1 Process Sequence Bits 135
3.8.2 Timing Diagrams 136
3.9 Flowchart-Based Design 137
3.10 Programmable Logic Controller Memory 141
3.10.1 Memory Addresses 141
3.10.2 Program Files 142
3.10.3 Data Files 143
3.10.4 Ladder Logic Functions 144
3.11 Analog Inputs and Outputs 145
3.11.1 Analog Inputs 146
3.11.1.1 Analog Inputs with a PLC 148
3.11.2 Analog Outputs 148
3.11.2.1 Pulse Width Modulation Outputs 148
3.12 Continuous Actuators 149
3.12.1 Electric Motors 149
3.12.1.1 Basic Brushed DC Motors 150
3.12.1.2 AC Motors 151
3.12.1.3 Brushless DC Motors 153
3.12.1.4 Stepper Motors 153
3.12.1.5 Wound Field Motors 155
3.12.2 Hydraulics 156
3.13 Continuous Control 156
3.13.1 Control of Logical Actuator Systems 157
3.13.2 Control of Continuous Actuator Systems 158
3.13.2.1 Block Diagrams 158
3.13.2.2 Proportional Controllers 159
3.13.3 PID Control Systems 159
3.13.3.1 Water Tank Level Control 160
3.14 Summary 161
References 161
Trang 11x Contents
4 Instrumentation and Control Systems on Blowroom Sequence 163
4.1 Introduction 163
4.2 Bale Management 163
4.2.1 Objective Measurement and Quality Control 164
4.3 Mixing Bale Opener 165
4.4 Bale Pluckers 165
4.5 Compact Blowroom 166
4.5.1 Automatic Bale Opener 166
4.5.2 The Multi-Function Separator 167
4.5.3 Mixer–Cleaner Combination with High Production Cleaner 167
4.5.3.1 Computer Controlled Cleaning Efficiency 168
4.5.3.2 Servo Motors 169
4.5.4 Foreign Part Separator 169
4.6 Detection and Removal of Contamination 169
4.6.1 Premier Fiber Eye 169
4.6.1.1 Double Value with Premier Fiber Eye 170
4.6.2 Textile Cotton Eye—Contaminant Removal in Cotton 171
4.6.3 Detection and Removal of Contamination by Securomat 171
4.6.3.1 Operating Principle 171
4.6.3.2 Operator Interface 172
4.6.4 Cotton Contamination Cleaning Machine 174
4.7 Dust and Metal Extraction Machine 175
4.8 Automatic Waste Evacuation System (Intermittent) 175
4.9 Chute Feeding Systems 176
4.10 Summary 176
References 176
5 Instrumentation and Control System in Carding 179
5.1 Introduction 179
5.1.1 Function of Carding 180
5.1.2 Autoleveling 180
5.1.2.1 Different Types of Autolevelers 180
5.2 Measuring Devices 182
5.3 Sensofeed 183
5.4 Flat Control 184
5.5 Precision Flat Setting 185
5.6 IGS Top Automatic Grinding System 185
5.7 Carding Drives 185
5.8 Coiler Sliver Stop Motion 185
5.9 Thermistor Protection Unit 186
5.10 Safety Switches 186
5.11 On Card Filter 186
5.12 Continuous Quality and Production Monitoring 186
5.13 Card Manager 187
5.14 Summary 187
References 187
Trang 126 Instrumentation and Control Systems in Draw Frame and Speed Frame 189
6.1 Control Systems in Draw Frame 189
6.1.1 Introduction 189
6.1.2 Autoleveler 189
6.1.2.1 Principle of Measurement and Auto Levelling 190
6.1.2.2 Application Concept 191
6.1.2.3 Position and Range of Correction 191
6.1.2.4 Storage of the Measured Values 191
6.1.3 Sliver Data 192
6.1.4 Sliver Alarm 192
6.1.4.1 Principle of Measurement 192
6.1.5 Sliver Watch 193
6.1.5.1 Contamination Detection on Draw Frames and Lappers 193
6.1.5.2 Yarning Principle of Sliver Watch 193
6.1.5.3 Sliver Watch on Heather Yarns 193
6.1.5.4 Production and Quality Data 194
6.1.6 Sliver Monitoring 194
6.1.7 Automation Material Transport 194
6.1.7.1 Cubican 194
6.1.7.2 CANlog—Handling System for Cans on Trolleys 194
6.1.7.3 CAN Link—Draw Frame Interlinking System 195
6.1.7.4 Cannyone 195
6.1.8 Sliver Expert System 195
6.1.8.1 Machine Setting Recommendations 195
6.1.8.2 Rapid Elimination of Faults 196
6.1.9 Integrated Draw Frame 196
6.2 Control Systems in Comber 196
6.2.1 Sliver Lap Machine 196
6.2.2 Ribbon Lap Machine 197
6.2.2.1 Ribbon Breakage Photo Cell 197
6.2.2.2 Comber Photo Control for Entry Lamp 197
6.2.3 Computer Aided Top Performance 197
6.2.4 Automatic Lap Transport 198
6.2.4.1 SERVOlap 198
6.3 Speed Frame Controls 198
6.3.1 Introduction 198
6.3.2 Multimotor Drive System 199
6.3.3 Automatic Winding Tension Compensating Device 200
6.3.3.1 Pneumostop Unit 200
6.3.3.2 Photo Master or Back Creel Stop Motion Unit 200
6.3.3.3 Roving Stop Motion 200
6.3.3.4 Roving Eye 201
6.3.4 Monitoring 201
6.4 Automatic Doffing 201
6.5 Summary 202
References 202
Trang 13xii Contents
7 Instrumentation and Control Systems in Ring and Rotor Spinning 205
7.1 Control Systems in Ring Spinning 205
7.1.1 Existing Manual Operations 205
7.1.1.1 Need to Automate 206
7.1.2 The Possibilities for Automation 206
7.1.2.1 Drive of Highest Operational Reliability-PLCV 206
7.1.2.2 Electrical Controls 206
7.1.2.3 Other Automations 207
7.1.3 Individual Spindle Monitoring 207
7.1.3.1 Three-Level Operator Guiding System 207
7.1.4 Piecing Devices 208
7.1.5 Automations with Auto Doffer 208
7.1.5.1 Speed Control Through Inverter System 208
7.1.5.2 SERVOtrail 209
7.1.6 Ringdata 210
7.1.6.1 Production Data Collection 210
7.1.6.2 Production and Single Data Collection 210
7.1.7 Magnetic Spinning 212
7.1.7.1 Active Magnetic Levitation Principles 212
7.1.7.2 Flux Density and Force from Circuit Theory 213
7.1.7.3 Typical Magnetic System Geometry and Control 215
7.1.8 Monitoring and Control of Energy Consumption for Ring Frames in Textile Mills 216
7.1.8.1 Design of the System 217
7.1.8.2 The Input/Output Data of the System 217
7.1.8.3 The Features of the Instrument System 218
7.2 Controls in Rotor Spinning 219
7.2.1 Tasks of Rotor Spinning 219
7.2.1.1 Automations in Rotor Spinning 220
7.2.2 Compact SpinBox 221
7.2.2.1 Adjustable BYPASS 221
7.2.3 Automatic Piecing Devices 222
7.2.3.1 Piecing Principle 222
7.2.4 Event Identification System: Electronically Controlled Yarn Transfer 223
7.2.5 Automatic Suction Devices 224
7.2.5.1 New Suction System: Optimum Through-Flow 224
7.2.6 Foreign Fiber Detection System 225
7.2.6.1 Optical Measuring Principle Using Infrared Light 225
7.2.6.2 Individual Corolab ABS System 225
7.2.6.3 The Measuring Principle 226
7.2.7 Fault Recognition and Clearing 226
7.2.8 Moiré and Nep Detection 227
7.2.8.1 Nep Detection 227
7.2.9 “Sliver-Stop” Function 227
7.2.10 Monitoring Devices 228
7.2.10.1 Precise Monitoring of Yarn Counts 228
7.2.10.2 Spectrogram 228
Trang 147.2.10.3 Histogram 228
7.2.10.4 Variation-Length Curve 229
7.2.10.5 Alarm Functions 229
7.2.10.6 Online Hairiness Monitoring on OE Rotor Spinning Machines 229
7.2.10.7 Principles of Operation of the Hairiness Measuring Systems 229
7.2.10.8 UNIfeed®: The Universal Tube Supply System 230
7.2.10.9 Automatic Can Transport 230
7.2.10.10 Package Removal 230
7.3 Summary 231
References 231
8 Control Systems in Cone Winding Machine 233
8.1 Introduction 233
8.2 Electronic Yarn Clearer 233
8.2.1 Capacitance Type 233
8.2.2 Photo-Cell Type 234
8.3 Electronic Anti-Patterning Device 235
8.3.1 Drum Lap Guard 235
8.4 Length and Diameter Measuring Device 235
8.5 Sensor-Monitored Winding Process 235
8.6 The Informator: Central Operating and Control Unit 236
8.7 Automatic Tension Controlling Device 236
8.7.1 Direct Drive System—Auto Torque Transmission 236
8.8 Yarn Clearer 238
8.9 Variable Material Flow Systems 239
8.10 Winding Head Control 240
8.11 Full Cone Monitors 240
8.12 Automatic Package Doffer 240
8.13 Cleaning and Dust Removal Systems 241
8.14 Automation Variants 241
8.15 Caddy Identification Systems 242
8.16 Spindle Identification 242
8.17 Package Quality Control 242
8.18 Variopack System 243
8.19 Summary 243
References 244
9 Instrumentation and Control Systems in the Warping and Sizing Machine 245
9.1 Control Systems in Warping 245
9.1.1 Introduction 245
9.1.2 Automatic Feed Control System 246
9.1.3 Automatic Tension Controller 247
9.1.3.1 Optostop Tensioner 248
9.1.3.2 Reliable Fault Detection 248
9.1.4 Automatic Warp Divider 249
9.1.5 Automatic Warp Stop Motion 249
Trang 15xiv Contents
9.1.6 Precision Length Measuring Unit 251
9.1.7 Automatic Braking System 251
9.1.8 Beam Pressing Device 251
9.2 Measurement and Control Systems Used in Sizing 252
9.2.1 Pre-Wet Sizing 253
9.2.1.1 Compact Roller Arrangement 253
9.2.1.2 Eliminates Pre-Drying 253
9.2.2 Temperature Control 254
9.2.3 Size Level Control 254
9.2.4 Automatic Tension Control on Single End Sizing 255
9.2.5 Stretch Control 255
9.2.6 Size Application Measurement Control 256
9.2.7 Computer Slasher Control 257
9.2.8 Auto Moisture Controller 258
9.2.9 Evaluation of Sized Yarn 259
9.2.10 Automatic Marking System (Diagram) 259
9.3 Summary 259
References 260
10 Control Systems in Weaving 261
10.1 Introduction 261
10.2 Electronic Shedding 261
10.3 Electronic Jacquard 263
10.4 Automatic Pick Controller 263
10.5 Controls in Weft Insertion System 263
10.6 Let-Off Electronic Control Warp Beam 264
10.7 Electronic Take-Up Motion 265
10.7.1 Electronic Weft Detectors 265
10.7.2 Weft Sensors 265
10.8 Warp Stop Motion 266
10.8.1 Classifications 266
10.8.2 The Warp Stop Motions for Large Width Weaving Machines 266
10.8.2.1 The Harness Warp Stop Motions 266
10.8.2.2 The Electro-Optical Warp Stop Motions 267
10.8.2.3 The Hayashi Optic-Electronic Warp Stop Motion 267
10.8.2.4 The Warp and Reed Protector Motions 267
10.8.2.5 The Contactless Stop Motions 268
10.9 Electronic Controls and Monitoring Devices on Shuttle Weaving Machines 268
10.9.1 Shuttle Flight Monitoring 269
10.9.1.1 The Principle of Operation of Electronic Shuttle Flight Monitoring 269
10.9.2 Electronic Monitoring Devices on Rapier Weaving Machines 271
10.9.3 Real Time Monitoring and Planning for the Weave Room 271
10.9.3.1 Color Mill 272
10.9.3.2 Cockpit View 272
10.9.3.3 Film Report 272
Trang 1610.10 Electronic Yarn Tension Control 272
10.10.1 The Production Sensor 273
10.10.2 The Central Unit 273
10.10.3 The Three-Stop Connection 274
10.10.3.1 Standard Reports 274
10.10.4 Connection Capacity of the Central Unit 276
10.10.4.1 Data Assurance with a Mains Breakdown 277
10.10.4.2 Function Control 277
10.10.4.3 Distributed Control System 277
10.10.4.4 Memory Card 277
10.10.4.5 Handy Function Panel 277
10.10.5 Configuration of Loom Data System 277
10.10.6 Software for Loom Data 278
10.10.7 Data Processing in the Air-Jet Weaving Machine 279
10.10.7.1 Intelligent Pattern Data Programming 280
10.10.7.2 Network-Ready Touch-Screen Terminal 280
10.11 Sumo Drive System 280
10.11.1 Programmable Filling Tensioner 280
10.11.2 Automatic Pick Repair 280
10.11.3 Quick Style Change 281
10.12 Electronic Selvedge Motions 281
10.13 Weave Master Reporting Report and Formula Generator 281
10.13.1 Integrated Graphics 282
10.13.2 Automatic Printing and Data Export 282
10.14 WeaveMaster Production Scheduling 282
10.14.1 Planning Warps and Pieces: The Graphical Plan Board 282
10.14.2 Printing of Warp Tickets and Piece Labels 282
10.14.3 Warp Out Prediction and Yarn Requirements Calculation 282
10.14.4 Looms with Ethernet Interface 283
10.15 Summary 283
References 283
11 Controls in Knitting 285
11.1 Designing and Patterning 285
11.2 Electronic Jacquard 286
11.2.1 Pattern Computer 286
11.2.2 Binary Mechanism 286
11.3 Control Systems 287
11.3.1 Feeding Zone 287
11.3.2 Feeding Cone Indicator 287
11.3.3 Feeding Package Indicator 288
11.3.4 Knitting Zone 288
11.3.5 Winding Length 289
11.3.6 Oil Level Controller 289
11.4 Individual Needle Selection 290
11.5 Knitting Machine-Needle Detector 290
Trang 17xvi Contents
11.6 Knit Master System 291
11.6.1 Machines with Surface-Driven Packages 291
11.6.2 The Functions of the Knit Master System 291
11.6.3 All Solid-State Doff Counter for Knitting 292
11.7 Simodrive Sensor Measuring Systems 292
11.8 Monitoring Yarn Input Tension for Quality Control in Circular Knitting 293
11.8.1 Measuring System 294
11.8.2 Representation of the Waveform by a Measured Value 295
11.8.3 Defect Identification by Stitch Formation Differences 295
11.9 Warp Knitting Machine Control 296
11.9.1 Scanner Head 297
11.9.2 Hand Terminal 297
11.10 Summary 297
References 298
12 Controls in Testing Instruments 299
12.1 Introduction 299
12.2 Fiber Properties 299
12.2.1 Fiber Length 300
12.2.2 Principle of Fiber Length Measurement 300
12.3 Fiber Diameter Analyzer 300
12.4 Fiber Fineness 301
12.5 Fineness and Maturity Testing 302
12.5.1 Fiber Contamination Technology 303
12.6 High Volume Instrument 303
12.7 Advanced Fiber Information System 304
12.8 Auto Sorter 306
12.9 Electronic Twist Tester 306
12.10 Yarn Evenness Measuring Instruments 306
12.10.1 Photoelectric Method 306
12.10.2 Capacitance Method 306
12.10.2.1 Choice of Measuring Indicator 307
12.10.2.2 Normal and Inert Testing 307
12.10.2.3 The Imperfections Indicator 307
12.10.3 Infrared Sensing Method 308
12.10.3.1 Keisokkis Laserspot 308
12.10.4 Variation in Thickness under Compression Method 309
12.10.5 Classimat 310
12.11 Electronic Inspection Board 312
12.11.1 Electronic Inspection Board Process for Yarn Appearance Grade Evaluation 312
12.12 Hairiness Measurement—Photoelectric Method 313
12.12.1 Photoelectric Counting Method 313
12.13 Tensile Strength Testing of Textiles 314
12.13.1 Breaking Force Measurement 315
12.13.2 The Instron Tensile Testing Instrument 317
12.13.3 The Load Weighing System 317
Trang 1812.14 Optical Trash Analysis Device 318
12.15 Summary 319
References 319
13 Automation and Control in Chemical Processing 321
13.1 Control Systems in Dyeing Process 321
13.1.1 Novel Control Concepts 322
13.1.2 Novel Control Schemes 324
13.1.3 Fuzzy Logic Control 325
13.1.4 Auto Jigger Controller System 326
13.1.5 Automatic Dispensing System 326
13.1.6 Online pH Measurement and Control 327
13.1.6.1 Introduction 327
13.1.6.2 pH Monitoring 328
13.1.6.3 pH Control 328
13.1.6.4 On–Off Control—Two Step 330
13.1.6.5 On–Off Control—Three Step 330
13.1.6.6 On–Off Control of Two Reagents 331
13.1.6.7 Proportional, Integral, and Derivative Control 331
13.1.6.8 pH Control in the Dyeing of Polyamide 332
13.1.7 Indigo Dyeing 338
13.1.7.1 The pH Value Guides the Way 339
13.1.8 Automatic Control of the Dyeing the Dosing of the Agents 340
13.1.8.1 The Smart Gray Cells of the Controller 340
13.1.9 Automation in Dyehouse 341
13.1.10 Plant Manager System for Dyeing and Finishing 342
13.2 Control Systems in Textile Finishing Machinery 343
13.2.1 Stenters 343
13.2.1.1 Control of the Fabric Temperature 344
13.2.1.2 Residual Moisture after Dryer 346
13.3 Special Purpose Drying Machine and Felt Finishing Range 348
13.3.1 Predryer 348
13.3.2 Belt Stretcher 348
13.3.3 Compressive Shrinkage Unit for Tubular Knitted Fabrics 348
13.3.4 Controls in Compressive Shrinkage Unit 349
13.3.5 Air Relax Dryer 349
13.4 Digital Textile Printing Ink Technologies 349
13.4.1 Process Color 350
13.4.1.1 Quality and Productivity 351
13.4.2 Advantages of Digital Printing 351
13.4.2.1 Advantages of Analog Printing 352
13.4.3 Digital Printing Technologies 352
13.4.3.1 Hybrid Digital-Analog Printing Technologies 352
13.4.4 Continuous Multi-Level Deflected Inkjet 353
13.4.5 Piezoelectric Shear Mode 354
13.5 Summary 355
References 355
Trang 19xviii Contents
14 Automation in Garments 357
14.1 Introduction 357
14.2 Automated Fabric Inspection 358
14.2.1 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Visual Fabric Inspection 359
14.2.2 Requirements for the Automatic Fabric Inspection 359
14.2.2.1 The Inspection Process 361
14.2.2.2 The Reports 361
14.2.2.3 New Generation in Fault Detection 361
14.2.3 Inspecting Elastics 362
14.2.4 I-Tex System 362
14.3 Automatic Pattern Making System 363
14.3.1 The Requirements of Marker Planning 363
14.3.2 The Design Characteristic of the Finished Garment .363
14.3.3 Computerized Marker Planning 364
14.3.4 Optitex Marker Making 364
14.3.5 Pattern Design System 365
14.3.5.1 Numonics Accugrid Digitizers 366
14.4 Body Measurement System 366
14.4.1 System Design 366
14.4.2 Sensor Design 367
14.4.3 System Software Design 367
14.4.4 Theory of Operation 367
14.4.5 Image Acquisition 368
14.4.6 Scanning Results 368
14.4.7 Measurement Extraction 368
14.4.8 Actual Scan—Raw Data 368
14.4.9 Automatic Pattern Alteration Using Commercial Apparel CAD, and the Virtual Try-On 369
14.5 Automatic Fabric Spreading Machine 369
14.5.1 Cradle Feed Spreading System 370
14.6 Automatic Fabric Cutting Process 371
14.6.1 Precision of Cut 371
14.6.1.1 Clean Edges 371
14.6.1.2 Unscorched, Unfused Edges 371
14.6.1.3 Support of the Lay 372
14.6.1.4 Consistent Cutting 372
14.6.2 Cutting and Spreading System 372
14.6.3 Continuous Cutting Conveyor System 372
14.6.4 EasiMatch Software System 373
14.6.5 EasiCut Software System 374
14.6.5.1 Powerful Variable Speed Motor 374
14.6.6 Conveyorized Cutting System 374
14.6.7 Automatic Labeler Option 375
14.7 Sewing 375
14.7.1 Stitch Types 376
14.7.1.1 Sewing M/C Automation 377
14.7.2 Electronic Lockstitch Pocket Setter Sewing System 378
Trang 2014.7.3 Automatic Two-Needle Hemmer Sleeves and Shirt Bottoms 378
14.7.3.1 Automatic Two-Needle Hemmer for Sleeves 378
14.7.3.2 Automatic Two-Needle Coverstitch Hemmer for Sleeves and Pockets 378
14.7.4 Automatic Clean Finish Elastic Waistband Station with Fold-in-Half Stacker 379
14.7.5 Computer-Controlled, Direct-Drive, High-Speed, One-Needle, Lockstitch, and Zigzag Stitching Machine 379
14.7.6 Direct-Drive, High-Speed, Needle-Feed, Lockstitch Machine with an Automatic Thread Trimmer 379
14.7.7 Automatic Short Sleeve Closing System 380
14.7.8 Computer-Controlled Lockstitch Buttonholing Machine 380
14.7.8.1 Feed Mechanism Using a Stepping Motor 380
14.7.8.2 Bobbin Thread Winder 381
14.7.9 Automatic Placket Fusing, Cutting, and Stacking 381
14.7.9.1 Control Panel 381
14.7.10 High-Speed, Over Lock/Safety Stitch Machine 382
14.8 Finishing Process 382
14.8.1 Fusing Interlining 383
14.8.1.1 Making Sewing Easier and Increasing Production 383
14.8.2 Permanent Fusing and Temporary Fusing 383
14.8.2.1 Continuous Fusing Machine 384
14.8.2.2 High Pressure Fusing Machine for Collars, Cuffs, and Plackets 384
14.8.3 Pressing 384
14.8.3.1 Press to Finish 384
14.8.3.2 Pressing System with Automatic Segmented Frames 384
14.9 Automatic Material Transport 385
14.9.1 Garment Storage with a Simple Hook Release from Horizontal to Vertical Position 385
14.9.2 Packaging 385
14.10 Summary 386
References 386
15 CAD/CAM Solutions for Textiles 389
15.1 Introduction 389
15.2 Textile Design Systems 389
15.2.1 Knitted Fabrics 390
15.2.2 Printed Fabrics 391
15.2.3 Illustrations/Sketch Pad Systems 391
15.2.4 Texture Mapping 392
15.2.5 Embroidery Systems 392
15.2.6 Design Desk—For Yarn Dyed and Dobby Woven Fabrics 392
15.2.6.1 Yarn Development and Management 392
15.2.6.2 Weave Creator 392
15.2.6.3 Design Creation 393
Trang 21xx Contents
15.3 CAD/CAMs Effect on the Jacquard Weaving Industry 393
15.3.1 Jacquard Design History 393
15.3.1.1 Industrial and Commercial Trends 394
15.3.1.2 The Designer 395
15.3.1.3 Design Editing in Grid 396
15.3.1.4 Weave Creation 396
15.3.1.5 Weave Mapper 396
15.3.1.6 Simulation of Fabrics 396
15.4 Computer Aided Manufacturing 397
15.4.1 The Software Fundamentals of Fashion Design 397
15.4.2 Vector-Based Programs 397
15.4.3 Raster-Based Programs 398
15.4.4 Common File Formats 398
15.4.5 Texture Mapping 399
15.5 CIM—Data Communications Standards for Monitoring of Textile Spinning Processes 399
15.5.1 Data Communications 400
15.5.2 Network Function 400
15.5.3 Layered Network Model 400
15.5.4 Analogy of the Three Layer Model and the Telephone System 401
15.5.5 Manufacturing Network Topology 401
15.5.6 Machine-Level Network 401
15.5.7 Work-Cell Network 402
15.5.8 Data Storage System 402
15.5.9 Corporate Office Computers 402
15.5.10 Systems Integration 402
15.5.11 Components of a Communication Standard for Textiles 403
15.5.12 Data Dictionary 403
15.5.13 Physical Layer and Protocol Stack 403
15.5.14 Application Layer and Common Data Structure 403
15.5.15 Application of Relational Databases for Monitoring of Textile Processes 403
15.5.16 Interface to Uster SliverData System 404
15.5.17 Interface Using Proprietary Protocol 404
15.5.18 Interface Using Standard Protocols 405
15.5.19 Application of Common Database 405
15.5.20 Flexible Applications 405
15.6 Summary 406
References 406
Index 407
Trang 22Chapter 1 provides the reader a deep knowledge about electrical and electronic nologies and about the basic working principles of the important components The control systems principles and their types are explained Also, different types of controllers used
termi-in control systems are detailed
Chapter 2 helps users understand the classification of different types of instruments The working and methods of measurement of electrical and non-electrical parameters is explained The concept of working of sensors and transducers and their classifications have been elaborated in detail
Chapter 3 explains the working of programmable logic controller (PLC) and gives a clear view of programming methods of PLC The types of inputs and outputs used in PLC are explained in detail The user will understand the procedure to program a PLC for an industrial concept
Chapter 4 deals with the process involved in the blowroom sequence, and the ments and measuring devices used in the blowroom process are explained Different control systems used in the process are explained to give a clear picture of a working blowroom sequence
instru-Chapter 5 explains the working of carding machine and the working principle of ent sensors and transducers used in the carding machine The importance of automation
differ-in the carddiffer-ing process is expladiffer-ined
Chapter 6 deals with the working of draw frame and speed frame machines The detailed explanation of sensors, transducers, and measuring devices used in these machines is given The importance of the monitoring various parameters used in the machines is explained
Chapter 7 describes the control systems used in the ring and rotor spinning machine The working of different instruments and measuring devices is explained in detail.Chapter 8 deals with various control systems, and automation processes are discussed
in detail The sensors and transducers used in the machine are explained clearly to help the user understand the working of the cone winding machine
Chapter 9 describes the working principle of the warping and sizing machines The control system concepts and the importance of measuring devices are explained in detail
Chapter 10 deals with the control system concepts used in the weaving machine The necessary measuring device used in the machinery is explained with its working principle The interface of the weaving machine with monitoring systems is also discussed
Trang 23xxii Organization of the Book
Chapter 13 explains the concept of automation used in chemical processing The importance of measuring the textile parameters is discussed in detail The different types of plant manager systems in chemical processing are explained
Chapter 14 deals with the machinery used in the garment industry The working and electronic components used in the machinery are described in detail The automation involved in the garment machinery is explained
Chapter 15 discusses the importance of CAD/CAM for the textile industry The design procedure and CAM usage in garment industries are explained in detail
Trang 24Automation or automatic control is the use of various control systems for operating ment such as machinery, processes in textile industries Automation referred to as “the creation and application of technology to monitor and control the production and delivery
equip-of products and services.” A control and instrumentation knowledge is essential for textile and electrical engineers to work in various sectors in textile manufacturing industries These engineers are responsible for designing, developing, installing, managing, and/or maintaining equipment that is used to monitor and control engineering systems, machin-
ery, and processes Automation in Textile Machinery: Instrumentation and Control System Design Principles— is a comprehensive analysis of the current trends and technologies in automation and control systems used in textile engineering Instrumentation is the use
of measuring instruments to monitor and control a process It is the art and science of measurement and control of process variables within a production, laboratory, or manu-facturing area In this text, we dissect the important components of an integrated control system in spinning, weaving, knitting, chemical processing, and garment industries and then determine if and how the components converge to provide manageable and reliable systems throughout the chain from fiber to the ultimate customer Although the imple-mentation of advanced process control strategies is not foreseen in the immediate future,
it is apparent that the textile industry is slowly moving toward modular machines and systems The dedicated systems still prevalent today are gradually being replaced by stan-dard units, distributed automation concepts, and an increasing connectivity of the produc-tion floor with planning and scheduling systems
We hope that this text will provide a guideline to engineers, researchers, scientists, and industrialists, as well as students of various disciplines such as EEE, ECE, robotics, instrumentation and control engineering, and textile engineering, and be a useful source
of information in automation, instrumentation, and control systems in textile machinery
Salient Features
The salient features of this book include:
• Fundamentals of electrical and electronic engineering in textiles
• Application of sensors, transducers, and control systems in textiles
• Instrumentation and control systems in spinning, weaving, knitting, and wet processing in the garment industry
Trang 26The textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the world In most sectors of textile manufacturing, automation is one major key to quality improvement and cost competi-tiveness Early modernization and technical developments in textiles concentrated on the automation of individual machines and their processes The textile industry has made
many strides thanks to the advent of automation The term automation is defined as the use
of equipment and machinery to help make production easier and more efficient Textiles such as cloth, yarn, cotton, and other fabrics have been made easier to produce thanks to automation
Automation made it possible for the same tasks to be performed but with fewer hours of labor for employees For example, inventions such as Eli Whitney’s cotton gin made it pos-sible to separate the seeds from cotton without using manual labor Similar inventions of automation were created with the purpose of making textile-related jobs easier to perform and with less human labor
Automation in the textile industry has provided safer working conditions for employees The textile industry is known for transforming various cloths and fibers into fabrics This process often includes dyeing and spinning, which are textile processes that can be rela-tively dangerous to an individual Automation has created equipment to handle the bulk
of these processes, making working conditions safer for all in the textile industry
Automation in spinning has taken place in various processes such as picking and ning, which were completely manual in the past The high volume instrument (HVI) system has made it possible to carry out the cotton fiber test in seconds; this process used to take hours HVI tests have improved the accuracy in measuring the cotton’s sta-ple lengths, color grade, micronaire, strength, elongation, and uniformity index Cotton mixing has been automated so that uniformity can be achieved in the yarn Blowroom performance has been improved by using a sequence of different machines, arranged
gin-in series and connected by transport ducts, for opengin-ing, cleangin-ing, and blendgin-ing Automation is recently being used to separate the contamination of any color, size, and nature in the fiber Machines using ultraviolet, optic, and acoustic technologies are being used for the detection and elimination of contaminant of any color, size, and nature, thus improving the overall quality of the final yarn produced Automation has been achieved in spinning by the invention of machines such as ring spinning, air-jet spinning, rotor spinning, vortex spinning, and so on Improvements in ring spinning machines have taken place through drive systems, drafting systems, and use of robotics Yarn fault detection has been automated to improve production and to achieve uniform yarn quality Yarn knots have now been replaced with the joints using splicing techniques such as air splicing, wet splicing, hot air splicing, and moist air splicing, which minimizes the defects in the final fabric
All this automation in the spinning process has reduced the need for skilled manpower Weaving machines have improved greatly in last three decades, resulting in improved quality and production Major developments such as automatic shuttle and shuttleless looms have taken the industry to a new level Shuttleless machines have made possible the efficient production of fault-free cloth Developments in shuttleless machines have spanned three basic picking principles: rapier, projectile, and air-jet and water-jet
Trang 27xxvi Preface
Microprocessors are now integrated with weaving machines that monitor, control, regulate, and optimize all key aspects of the machines Automation has been achieved with the help of microelectronics to control warp tension, picking of multi-filling colors, break detection, data collection, and so on, which has helped in improving the production
as a lesser labor cost Garmenting has undergone many advancements in the recent past.Weaving and knitting machine builders have been leading the way in utilizing computer technology in textile manufacturing for many years with their use of CAD, bidirectional communication, and artificial intelligence With the availability of electronic dobby and jacquard heads, automatic pick finding, needle selection, and so on, these technologies are easily integrated into computer networks of any production machines Bidirectional communication systems can be used to control many functions on a weaving machine.The automatic control of dyeing machines dates well back into the 1960s, and each succeeding year has shown miniaturization and enhancement in the management of information on a timelier basis Automation started with the introduction of a system that controlled a set temperature by switching heaters on or off A short time later, these were replaced by systems that controlled the dyeing cycle according to a time/temperature sequence The processes of dye and auxiliary chemical addition as well as loading and unloading of textile materials were also automated to result in automated dye-house man-agement Now, the jiggers have been fully computerized with total automated control over the process In the pad-batch dyeing system, the most outstanding development is the special dye dispensing system, online color monitoring, and dye pickup control
Recent advances in imaging technology have resulted in high-quality image tion and advances in computer technology that allow image processing to be performed quickly and cheaply This has given rise not only to a number of developments for labo-ratory quality testing equipment for fibers, yarns, and fabrics but also to development
acquisi-of online equipment for continuous monitoring acquisi-of quality in textiles such as the fiber contamination eliminator, intelligent yarn grader, and automatic fabric inspection.Research and development is being done in the textile machinery to achieve further automation and enhancements The emphasis is on further improving quality and pro-duction and at the same time bringing down costs Advancements are taking place to reduce the space and power requirements for various textile machinery, increasing their speed and efficiency Big data and the Internet of things is also going to play a big role in future textile machinery to analyze machine behavior and proactively make decisions to improve the quality and productivity of the machines
Automation technologies have helped the textile industry to increase output multiple times at a cheaper cost Automation products and solutions are available now not only for the individual process or machine, but for the entire production line Some of the key ben-efits achieved through automation are improved production at cheaper cost, better quality, safety for humans and machines, predictable production and inventory, energy savings, lower impact on the environment, better machine uptimes, self-diagnostics and predictive maintenance, efficient packaging and transport, and improved customer satisfaction
Trang 28The authors are always thankful to the Almighty for perseverance and achievements The authors owe their gratitude to Shri L Gopalakrishnan, Managing Trustee, PSG Institutions, and Dr R Rudramoorthy, Principal, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India, for their wholehearted cooperation and great encouragement in this successful endeavor
Dr L Ashok Kumar would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge those people who helped me in completing this book This book would not have come to its completion without the help of my students, my department staff and my institute, and especially my project staff I am thankful to all my research scholars and students who are doing their project and research work with me But the writing of this book is greatly possible mainly because of the support of my family members, parents, and sisters Most importantly, I am very grateful to my wife, Y Uma Maheswari, for her constant support during writing Without her, all these things would not be possible I would like to express my special gratitude to my daughter A K Sangamithra for her smiling face and support; it helped a lot in completing this work
Dr M Senthilkumar would like to thank the management, the principal, PSG Polytechnic College, and all my colleagues who have been with me in all my endeavors with their excellent, unforgettable help and assistance in the successful execution of this work I am very grateful to my family, especially my son S Harish, for their support in completing this project
Trang 30Dr L Ashok Kumar is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow from San Diego State University, California He is a recipient of the BHAVAN fellowship from the Indo-US Science and Technology Forum His current research focuses on integration of renewable energy systems in the smart grid and wearable electronics He has 3 years of industrial experi-ence and 18 years of academic and research experience He has published 137 technical papers in international and national journals and presented 107 papers in national and international conferences He has completed 16 government of India funded projects, and currently 5 projects are in progress His PhD work on wearable electronics earned him a National Award from ISTE, and he has received 24 awards on the national level Ashok Kumar has five patents to his credit He has guided 82 graduate and postgraduate projects He is a member and in prestigious positions in various national forums He has visited many countries for institute industry collaboration and as a keynote speaker He has been an invited speaker in 125 programs Also he has organized 62 events, including conferences, workshops, and seminars He completed his graduate program in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from University of Madras and his post-graduate from PSG College of Technology, India, and Masters in Business Administration from IGNOU, New Delhi After completion of his graduate degree, he joined as project engineer for Serval Paper Boards Ltd., Coimbatore (now ITC Unit, Kovai) Presently he is working as a professor and associate HoD in the Department of EEE, PSG College of Technology and also doing research work in wearable electronics, smart grid, solar PV, and wind energy systems He is also a Certified Charted Engineer and BSI Certified ISO 500001 2008 Lead
Auditor He has authored the following books in his areas of interest (1) Computational Intelligence Paradigms for Optimization Problems Using MATLAB ® /SIMULINK ® , CRC Press,
(2) Solar PV and Wind Energy Conversion Systems—An Introduction to Theory, Modeling with MATLAB/SIMULINK, and the Role of Soft Computing Techniques—Green Energy and
Technology, Springer, USA (3) Electronics in Textiles and Clothing: Design, Products and Applications, CRC Press, (4) Power Electronics with MATLAB, Cambridge University Press, London (5) Monograph on Smart Textiles (6) Monograph on Information Technology for Textiles, and (7) Monograph on Instrumentation & Textile Control Engineering.
Dr M Senthilkumar obtained his diploma in Textile Technology from PSG Polytechnic College, Coimbatore, India, and pursued his graduate degree, B.Tech (Textile Technology), from Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Tamilnadu, India He received best outgoing student award for the academic year 2000–2001 After serving for two years
in a knitted garment unit, he qualified in the GATE examination and ranked 75th He pursued his post-graduate degree, M.Tech (Textile Technology), from D.K.T.E Textile and Engineering Institute, Maharashtra, India He has been involved in teaching and research activities and completed his PhD in the area of Dynamics of elastic fabrics under the guid-ance of Dr N Anbumani, Department of Textile Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India, in 2012 He worked as a lecturer in the Department of Apparel and Fashion Technology, Sona College of Technology, Salem, Tamilnadu, from August 2004
to August 2006 Then he joined as a lecturer in the Department of Textile Technology, PSG Polytechnic College, Coimbatore, India, from September 2006 to June 2017 and was promoted to head of the department, his current position So far he has published nearly
Trang 31xxx Authors
50 research papers in various international and national journals He has contributed one
chapter as a coauthor for the book entitled Military Textiles, from Woodhead Publishing,
Cambridge, England He received the Young Engineer Award from the Institution of Engineers, Kolkata, India, in 2014 He is highly interested in academic and research activities in the area of weft knitting and its product development
Trang 32is not foreseen in immediate future, it is apparent that the textile industry is slowly ing toward modular machines and systems The dedicated systems still prevalent today are gradually being replaced by standard units, distributed automation concepts, and an increasing connectivity of the production floor with planning and scheduling systems.
mov-1.2 Electrical Terminology
Charge is the most fundamental concept in electricity It derives from the properties
of elementary particles, with protons (and hence the nucleus of the atom) being positively charged, and electrons negatively charged The unit of charge is the coulomb (C) The charge on the electron is 1.60219 × 10−19 C (i.e., one coulomb cor-responds to about 6 × 1018 electrons) An important quantity in electrochemistry, known as Faraday’s Constant (or often just the Faraday) and given the symbol F, is the charge associated with one mole of a singly charged species such as H+ or Cl−
As one mole contains Avogadro’s number (6.0228 × 1023) molecules, the Faraday is 6.0228 × 1023 × 1.60219 × 10−19 C, or 96485 C
Current is the rate of flow of charge along a conductor (note that this charge may
be electrons flowing in a metal or ions flowing in solution) One Amp (A) sponds to a flow of 1 coulomb per second
corre-LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• To comprehend the fundamentals of electrical and electronics engineering
• To identify electrical terminologies
• To know the concepts of basic electronics
• To understand the basic concepts of control systems
• To recognize the types of controllers
Trang 332 Automation in Textile Machinery
Potential is an indication of the potential energy of a unit charge at a particular point
in a circuit Strictly it is the potential energy involved in moving a charge of one coulomb to that point from infinity; therefore, it is quite difficult to measure
Potential difference or voltage is the difference in potential between two points There
is one volt between two points if one Joule is required to move one coulomb from one point to the other As with current, potential may apply to charge in the form
of ions or in the form of electrons However, for a valid potential difference, the charge must be the same at each location
Resistance is the tendency of a conductor to obstruct the flow of current Ohm’s Law
states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) flowing
through it:
V IR= where R is the resistance, which is measured in units of Ohm Like many laws, this
is an approximation, and many conductors, including the metal-solution interface, have a nonlinear resistance
Capacitance is the tendency of a device incorporating two conductors that are lated from each other to absorb charge when the voltage between the conductors
insu-is changed The charge, Q, insu-is given by
Q C V= ∆ where:
C is the capacitance (which is measured in Farads)
∆V is the change in voltage
It is noted that the symbol C is used conventionally both for capacitance and coulombs.
We can see the effect of trying to pass a current through a capacitor by ing that current is charge per unit time Hence:
remember-Q I t= ∆
dV dt
∆where:
∆t is the incremental change in time
dV is the instantaneous change in voltage
dt is the instantaneous change in time
1.2.1 Inductance
Due to the interrelation between electric currents and magnetic fields, there is a tendency for current to flow at a constant rate through a conductor In most real conductors, this tendency is counteracted by the resistance of the conductor, although in superconductors, which have no resistance, current will flow essentially forever unless the current is caused
Trang 34to change by the application of a voltage The inductance (L) of a particular conductor is a
measure of the voltage needed to cause the current to change at a particular rate
dI dt
=/
where dI/dt is the instantaneous rate of current change The units of inductance are Henrys One Henry will give a rate of change of current of one A/s with one voltage (V) applied
across it
1.2.2 Impedance
Impedance is a general term used to describe the relationship between the voltage across
a component (or essentially any device capable of allowing at least some current to flow) and the current flowing through that device It is normally used in relation to alternating current with a sine waveform, but it is perfectly valid to refer to the impedance at zero frequency (i.e., direct current)
1.2.3 Amplitude
For fluctuating voltage or current, the amplitude describes how large the fluctuations are There are several ways of describing the amplitude (Figure 1.1):
• The root mean square (RMS) value: As implied in the name, this is obtained by taking
the square root of the average value of the square of the voltage or current When applied specifically to ac signals, the dc level (the average value of the voltage
or current) may be subtracted before calculating the RMS value The RMS value indicates the power present in the signal
• The peak-to-peak value: This is simply the maximum value minus the minimum
value. While it is a simple value to measure, it has the disadvantage that signals may have the same peak-to-peak voltage, yet deliver very different powers into
a load
• The power spectrum: The two previous measurements only give an overall
indica-tion of the power present in the signal, with no indicaindica-tion of how that power is distributed in terms of the frequency The power spectrum presents the power present in the signal at each frequency (known as the power spectral density, with units of V2/Hz or I2/Hz)
• Note that both the RMS and the peak-to-peak amplitudes will depend on the quency response of the measurement system, with a wider bandwidth giving a larger measured amplitude
fre-1.2.4 Phase
The phase of a sine wave describes its position in time relative to a reference sine wave of the same frequency The units used are radians or degrees, and relate to the general equa-tion for a sine wave:
y a= sin (e tω +θ )
Trang 354 Automation in Textile Machinery
in the cycle after the reference signal Note that whether a lead or lag is observed depends
on which signal is taken as the reference (see the Figure 1.2) It is also valid to describe a 90° lag as a 270° lead When referring to impedance measurements, the current is taken as the reference signal; so the phase of the impedance at a particular frequency will be the phase
of the voltage with respect to the current (Figure 1.2)
50 1
Time
Amplitude of a sine wave
FIGURE 1.1
Amplitude.
50 1
90° Phase lag
Time
Phase of sine waves
FIGURE 1.2
Phases of sine waves.
Trang 361.2.5 Measurement of Voltage
An ideal voltmeter will measure the voltage between its two input terminals, without
in any way affecting that voltage The main problem with voltage measurements is the requirement for current to flow through the voltmeter Real voltmeters can be treated as an ideal voltmeter, together with a resistor between the two input terminals, which requires
a current to flow in order to measure the voltage (Figure 1.3)
R m in the Figure 1.3 is referred to in voltmeter specifications as the input resistance or input impedance for conventional digital voltmeters or multimeters It will commonly
be 10 MOhm, although it can be up to 1000 MOhm Electrometers and pH meters are designed to give very high input impedance, typically in the region of 1014 Ohm The effect of these resistances is to allow current to flow, and if there are high resistances associated with the voltages being measured, this may lead to significant errors For example, if potential of a painted specimen is being measured with a voltmeter with
a 10 MOhm input resistance, and the resistance of the paint film is 1 MOhm, this will give an error of 10% If, as is entirely possible, the resistance of the paint film is
108 Ohm, the error will be 90% For most situations, electrometers are unlikely to give errors of any significance With modern microelectronic devices, it is very easy to con-struct an amplifier that will give an input impedance that is comparable to that of an electrometer
1.2.6 Measurement of Small Voltages
With conventional instrumentation, the smallest voltage that can be resolved accurately is controlled by the input offset voltage of the amplifier used, or the input bias current of the amplifier flowing through the source resistance of the voltage being measured The most stable amplifiers are automatically zeroed by switching the input between the voltage to
be measured and a short circuit This produces a device with input offset voltage less than
1 µV The best commercial digital voltmeters give resolutions down to 10 nV Great care must be taken to minimize noise pickup in such sensitive measurements, and thermal emfs associated with the interconnection of different metals can lead to significant errors (of the order of 1 µV)
Ideal voltmeter V Rresistancem Meter
R x Source resistance
E x
Ideal source voltage
FIGURE 1.3
Measurement of voltage.
Trang 376 Automation in Textile Machinery
1.2.7 Measurement of Current
An ideal ammeter will measure the current flowing between its two terminals while at the same time behaving as a perfect conductor, thus maintaining the two terminals at the same potential Real ammeters will create a potential difference between the terminals, and this may be represented as a resistor, known as the internal resistance, in series with
an ideal ammeter (Figure 1.4)
Typical digital multimeters measure current by measuring the voltage across a resistor, and they will usually develop 10–100 mV across the resistor for a full scale current read-ing This doesn’t cause any consequences in electrochemical experiments, as the potential drop will have a negligible effect on the current flowing For example, in a potentiostatic experiment the cell current may be measured in the lead between the potentiostat and the counter electrode, and the potentiostat will provide the extra voltage needed without any difficulty The main application of current measurements where it is important to minimize the potential drop across the meter is in the study of galvanic corrosion and the measurement of electrochemical current noise Current can be measured with essentially zero potential drop across the meter (<1 mV) using a current amplifier This is available within an ammeter, in which case it is known as a zero resistance ammeter, or it can
be constructed as an attachment for a conventional multimeter A potentiostat also can be configured to operate as a zero resistance ammeter
1.2.8 Measurement of Small Currents
Current amplifiers are the most sensitive devices for measuring very small currents In this device, the lower limit to the measurable current is controlled by the input bias currents
of the amplifier used, or by the input offset voltage of the amplifier acting on the source impedance of the current source being measured Devices are currently available with maximum input bias currents of 75 fA (75 × 10−15 A) Remembering that the charge on the electron is 1.6 × 10−19 C, this corresponds to only about 5 × 105 electrons per second, or one electron every 2 µs Similar performance can also be achieved with commercial elec-trometers, which provide very high quality zero resistance ammeters In order to maintain the very low leakage currents, it is essential to take great care with connections to the amplifier input, as leakage through dirty or poor quality insulators can far exceed the amplifier input leakage current
A
R m Meter resistance
R x Source resistance
I s
Ideal current source
FIGURE 1.4
Measurement of current.
Trang 381.2.9 Noise
Noise may be defined as an unwanted signal superimposed on a signal of interest, although the term may also be used to describe a signal consisting of apparently random fluctua-tions The latter may be of interest, as in the case of electrochemical noise However, in this section we are concerned with noise as an unwanted component of a signal, and the ways
in which we can reduce noise or cope with it
We shall typically find two types of noises They are random noise and interference noise “Random” noise has a wide frequency content, which derives from the properties
of conductors and electronic devices, and interference noise is derived from man-made sources, such as radio-frequency emissions, mains-frequency pick up, spikes due to fridges switching on or off, and so forth
to the ground This is reasonably effective, although it is difficult to extend the screening
to cover all parts of the circuit, in particular the electrochemical cell itself
For sensitive measurements, an approach is to surround the entire experiment by a
“Faraday cage.” Essentially this is a grounded conductive box that shields its contents from electromagnetic radiation Since the Faraday cage only shields against radiation coming from outside the box, it is usually best to use only battery-powered instruments inside the Faraday cage, in order to avoid introducing mains-frequency noise into the cage with mains-powered instruments Outputs from these devices should be carried through the wall of the cage by screened cables with the screen connected to the cage
1.2.12 Avoid Signal or Ground Loops
One of the main “man-made” noise problems is the pick-up of noise at mains frequency This is most severe when a loop of wire is exposed to a mains-frequency electromagnetic field, which, in effect, forms a single turn transformer If the loop is complete, large cur-rents can flow through it, developing significant potential differences between different parts of the loop Loops in ground circuits can be particularly insidious because instru-ments frequently have parts of their circuitry connected to ground
For example, the working electrode terminal of a potentiostat is commonly connected to ground, as is the negative input of an oscilloscope However, if both of these connections remain in place while trying to monitor the cell potential, this will establish a ground loop, which will increase the noise in the circuit due to circulating ac currents in the ground loop. The remedy to this problem is to disconnect all but one of the connections to ground In doing this, one must, of course, pay attention to safety requirements, since the ground connections serve
to protect against hazardous voltages in addition to controlling noise
Trang 398 Automation in Textile Machinery
1.2.13 Electronic Noise
There are various sources of noise in electronic components The most fundamental of these is due to the random motions of electrons in a conductor The random motion cor-responds to a fluctuating current, and this current will develop a voltage across the resis-tance of the conductor For good conductors, the amplitude of this noise is very small, but for large resistances it can become significant The phenomenon is known as Johnson noise, and the rms noise voltage ( )e x is given by
severe problems when we wish to measure over a wide frequency range (increasing b) with
very high source impedance
In “real” electronic components, other forms of noise are possible When a current is flowing through a circuit, there will inevitably be a level of shot noise as a result of the
quantized nature of electrical charge Additionally, semiconductors are subject to flicker noise, which gives particularly strong noise at low frequencies
1.2.14 Frequency Response and Filtering
In many electrochemical measurements, we are concerned with very low frequency surements, and there is a tendency to ignore the complications that result from the limited frequency response of the instruments being used However, these may become signifi-cant in some circumstances Frequency determining components tend to take the form of resistor–capacitor combinations, such as those shown in Figure 1.5
R
C
(b) (a)
Trang 40These two configurations are described as low and high-pass filters on the basis of those frequencies that the filter allows to pass through it Considering the low-pass filter, the
impedance of the resistor will be constant at R, while the impedance of the capacitor will
be 1 2/ πfC , where f is the frequency and C is the capacitance.
1.2.15 Potential Divider
A potential divider is simply two resistors, across which a voltage is applied, with the output being taken from the junction of the resistors Since the same current must be flow-ing through both resistors (assuming that the output is connected to a high impedance
device), we have V1/R1 = I = V2/R2 Hence V1/V2 = R1/R2, that is, the voltage applied across the resistors is divided into two parts according to the resistor values If a single variable
resistor is used for R1 and R2, then the output voltage can be varied, and this is the basis of the volume control
These two impedances will act as a potential divider, giving
R fC
V fRC
ππ
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
FIGURE 1.6
Frequency Gain.