ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY pptx

There is, now, an anthropology of capitalism and global consumerism, an anthropology of gender, an anthropology of war and an anthropology of peace; there is a lot of anthropology in mus

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Edited by

Alan Barnard Jonathan Spencer

London & New York

First published 1996 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York,

NY 10001 First published in paperback 1998 This edition first published 2002

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor and Francis Group

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005

“ To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of

thousands of eBooks please go to http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk/.”

© 1996, 1998, 2002 Routledge All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or

by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission

in writing from the publishers

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from the Library of Congress

ISBN 0-203-45803-6 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-25684-0 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-28558-5 (Print Edition)

Acknowledgements

Many people have helped the editors to bring this volume to completion The project itself was first suggested by Mark Barragry of Routledge and, at different times, we have been ably supported by Michelle Darraugh, Robert Potts and Samantha Parkinson of the Routledge Reference Section Friends and colleagues too numerous to mention have withstood our many casual requests for advice and support, not to mention contributions—some of which have been provided under heroic pressures of time and space Our editorial board has also been a source of sound advice and ideas The Department of Social Anthropology in Edinburgh has provided space, calm and, in the final stages of the work, a smoking laser-printer At different times we have been helped there by Francis Watkins, Colin Millard, Sandra Brown and especially Joni Wilson—all past or present PhD students in the department Colin Millard and Robert Gibb, together with the editors, translated contributions from the French We have been especially fortunate to work with Alan McIntosh who has brought a rare combination of skill, patience and good advice to the copy-editing and indexing of this book

The editors have other, more personal debts to acknowledge For Spencer, Janet Carsten has been a source of amused tolerance as the project drifted out of control, while Jessica Spencer gleefully set it all back a few months Spencer learnt a great deal of what

he knows about lexicography from John Simpson, Yvonne Warburton and Edmund

Weiner of the Oxford English Dictionary He learnt most, though, about the pleasure of

words and food and many other things, from Julia Swannell

Barnard would like to thank Joy Barnard for putting up with his mild obsession for the biographical details of long-dead anthropologists, and for providing strength and the voice of common sense throughout the long hours the project has required Corrie and Buster added the calm atmosphere that only cats can create, while Jake the labrador was

as long-suffering as he was bemused by it all Barnard has benefited much from discussions with his students too, especially those in ‘Anthropological Theory’ Their repeated request for a work of this kind has, we both hope, now been met with a source that both embodies their inspirations and serves their intellectual desires

ALAN BARNARD and JONATHAN SPENCER

Edinburgh, January 1996

The very idea of an encyclopedia seems eminently anthropological—in at least two different ways In its earliest use in classical Rome the term ‘encyclopedia’ referred to the

‘circle of learning’, that broad knowledge of the world which was a necessary part of any proper education In its employment in post-Renaissance Europe it has come to refer more narrowly to attempts to map out systematically all that is known about the world Anthropology likes to think of itself as the great encyclopedic discipline, provoking, criticizing, stimulating, and occasionally chastening its students by exposure to the extraordinary variety of ways in which people in different places and times have gone about the business of being human But anthropology, through most of its 150–year history as an academic discipline, has also been alternately seduced and repulsed by the lure of great taxonomic projects to pin down and catalogue human differences

If anthropology is indeed the most encyclopedic of disciplines, it is not especially well—served with reference works of its own This book aims to meet some of the need for an accessible and provocative guide to the many things that anthropologists have had

to say It focuses on the biggest and most influential area of anthropology, generally known as cultural anthropology in North America and social anthropology (or ethnology)

in Europe By combining ‘social’ and ‘cultural’, the American and the European, in our title we have tried to indicate our desire to produce a volume that reflects the diversity of anthropology as a genuinely global discipline That desire is also shown in the topics we have covered, from nutrition to postmodernism, incest to essentialism, and above all in the specialists we have invited to contribute Inside this book you will find a Brazilian anthropologist charting the anthropological history of the idea of society, an Indian reflecting on inequality, two Russians discussing ethnicity and an Australian writing on colonialism, as well as a systematic set of entries on what anthropologists have had to say about the lives and cultures of people living in different regions of the world

The great encyclopedic projects of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are, with grand theories of all kinds, rather out of fashion in contemporary anthropology Classification, it is widely argued in the humanities and social sciences, is but one form

of ‘normalization’, and even Murray’s great Oxford English Dictionary has been

deconstructed to reveal a meaner project of imperial hegemony lurking beneath its elaborate Victorian structure What the world does not need, it seems, is an encyclopedia which promises the last word and the complete truth on all that anthropologists know (And what teachers of anthropology do not need, it might be added, is the prospect of

endless course papers made up of apparently authoritative quotations from such a work.) Instead of attempting the impossible task of fitting all that our colleagues do into some final Procrustean schema, we have worked with more modest aims -to help our readers find their way around a discipline which is far too interesting and important to be left in the hands of academic specialists

Since the Second World War, anthropology has grown enormously, and its concerns are far wider than popular preconceptions about the study of ‘primitive peoples’ There

is, now, an anthropology of capitalism and global consumerism, an anthropology of gender, an anthropology of war and an anthropology of peace; there is a lot of

anthropology in museums but more and more anthropology of museums; anthropologists

are still interested in the political life of people who live on the margins of the modern state, but they are also increasingly interested in nationalism and ethnicity and the rituals and symbols employed by modern politicians at the centre of modern states; anthropologists are often now employed to advise on development projects, but they have also started to look at the very idea of ‘development’ as a product of a particular culture and history, one more way to imagine what it is to be human Even the idea of the

‘primitive’, it has lately been discovered, tells us rather more about the people who use the term to describe other people, than it does about the people so described

Readers should think of this book, then, as a guide and an introduction, a map which will help them find their way around the anthropological landscape rather than an authority set up to police what counts as anthropologically correct knowledge about the world The readers we have imagined as we worked on the volume include, of course, students and coileagues in university departments of anthropology around the world; but they also include students and teachers in other disciplines—history, archaeology, sociology, psychology, cultural studies among many others—who may feel the need to come to terms with particular areas of anthropological work Above all we hope we also reach all sorts of people who are plain curious about who anthropologists are, what they

do, and what we can learn from them We hope that all these different kinds of reader will find material here which stimulates and provokes as well as informs

Coverage and contributors

In drawing up our headword list we tried to balance a number of considerations Obviously we wanted to cover as broad a spectrum of contemporary social and cultural anthropology as we could, but we were also aware that anthropology is oddly self-conscious about its own past Arguments in the present are frequently couched in the form of revisionist versions of familiar charter myths, and controversies between contemporaries ritually re-enact the great arguments of the ancestors Students, in particular, often find this confusing, knowing little about the collective memory of the discipline and wondering why they should worry so much about the ancestors When they read the ancestors, there is often further confusion—key terms like ‘culture’ or ‘structure’ have shifted meaning over time, while much of the argument at any one time has been

about what exactly we should mean by these terms

we have also tried to reflect the fact that anthropology is, as it has always been, a pluralistic and occasionally fractious discipline We have not tried to impose an editorial orthodoxy on our contributors, and we have encouraged all our authors to be explicit about their own opinions and arguments The balance in our coverage comes from

combining different points of view, rather than hiding behind some pretence of editorial

distance (Dismayed students may, at this point, realize that this means they should never read a single entry; the safe minimum is always to read two on related subjects, but by different authors.) This makes the choice of contributors as important as the original choice of headwords Again we have tried to achieve balance by combining difference: European, North American, Asian and Australasian; women and men; seasoned scholars and (we believe) rising stars Our minimal criteria were simple: each contributor should

be able to write with clarity and authority on the topic in question; and taken together, the contributors should reflect the different contexts in which anthropology can be found today

There was one other important editorial decision that had to be made Anthropology involves two kinds of academic work: detailed study of the lives of people in different social and cultural contexts, based on long-term fieldwork and resulting in that curious genre known as ethnography; and theoretical and comparative work which draws upon ethnographic knowledge but seeks to move beyond its particularity This book, we felt, needed to give due weight to both sides of the discipline, but this presented us with two difficulties Drawing up a list of entries on particular ‘peoples’, ‘tribes’, or ‘ethnic groups’ seemed inappropriate for all sorts of reasons, even though casual references to

‘Nuer-type’ political organization, or ‘Kachin-style equilibrium’ abound in the literature And writing a set of abstract theoretical entries with no reference to the particular knowledge of particular people on which the discipline is based would be both dull and misleading We therefore decided to deal with the first problem by commissioning a set

of entries surveying the regional traditions of ethnographic writing—writing on Southern Africa, Lowland South America, Southern Europe, and so on And we decided to supplement this by encouraging individual authors to use detailed, and sometimes extended, ethnographic examples wherever appropriate in all the entries

Other editorial decisions can be discerned in the list of entries The history of the discipline is covered in entries on topics like diffusionism and evolutionism, as well as separate entries on the main national traditions of anthropology—British, French, American, as well as Indian and East European, divisions which are now beginning to crumble but which have been important in shaping modern anthropology There is also an

entry covering writing about the history of anthropology We have tried to systematically

cover anthropology’s relations with our neighbours in the humanities and social sciences—linguistics, archaeology, biological anthropology (with cultural anthopology, the ‘four fields’ of American anthropology), sociology, history, classical studies After four years of planning, commissioning, editing and writing, we recognize how dangerous

it would be to claim that this book is complete We hope, though, that what is here is enough

How to use this book

There are three kinds of entry in this encyclopedia

• The main text is taken up with 231 substantial entries, organized alphabetically, on

important areas of anthropological work Each of these entries includes a guide to further reading and cross-references to other related entries

• At the end of the main text there is a separate section containing short biographical

entries on leading figures who have been important in the development of

anthropology

• Finally, there is a glossary providing definitions and explanations of technical terms

used in the encyclopedia itself and elsewhere in anthropology

The choice of headwords is inevitably rather arbitrary—should we look for information

on theories of ritual, or rituals of power under ritual itself, under religion, under the names of the more important theorists, or even under politics or kingship? We have tried

to make the index as full and explicit as possible, and this is where most readers should start their search for what they want to know When they have found the entry that seems most relevant they should also pay attention to the cross-references to other entries: at the end of each main entry there is a list of other entries which touch on similar subject matter; within the text of each entry cross-references are indicated by either an asterisk or

a dagger symbol:

* indicates another main entry

† indicates a name or a term in the biographical appendix or the glossary

In the list of further reading at the end of each entry we encouraged our contributors to

err on the side of economy Our readers, we felt, did not need a list of everything that had

been written on a particular topic; they needed a selective list of those books and articles most helpful as an introduction to the topic

Americas: Latin America

Americas: Native North America

Americas: Native South America (Highland)

Americas: Native South America (Lowland)

componential analysis conception, theories of consumption

cosmology

Crow—Omaha systems cultural materialism

emic and etic

Enlightenment anthropology environment

essentialism

ethnicity

ethnography

Europe: Central and Eastern Europe: North

myth and mythology

names and naming

Russian and Soviet anthropology

sacred and profane

urban anthropology violence

war, warfare witchcraft

work

world system

Prof Marc Abélès

Laboratory of Social Anthropology

State University of New York, Stony Brook, USA

Prof Donald W.Attwood

Department of Anthropology

McGill University, Montreal, Canada

Prof Lawrence Babb

Department of Anthropology and Sociology

Amherst College, MA, USA

Research Centre Religion and Society

University of Amsterdam, Netherlands

Dr Paul Baxter

Manchester, UK

Dr Barbara Bender

Department of Anthropology

University College London, UK

Prof Bernardo Bernardi

Rome, Italy

Prof André Béteille

Department of Sociology

Delhi School of Economics, India

Prof Maurice Bloch

Department of Anthropology

London School of Economics, UK

Prof Reginald Byron

Department of Sociology and Anthropology University College Swansea, UK

University of Virginia, USA

Prof Michael Dietler

University of Vienna, Austria

Prof Dale F.Eickelman

Department of Anthropology

Dartmouth College, Hanover, USA

Prof Roy Ellen

Prof James Ferguson

Department of Anthropology

University of California, Irvine, USA

Prof Ruth Finnegan

Faculty of Social Sciences

The Open University, UK

Prof Robin Fox

Department of Anthropology London School of Economics, UK

Prof John G.Galaty

Department of Anthropology McGill University, Montreal, Canada

Dr Lisa Gilad

Immigration and Refugee Board

St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada

Prof André Gingrich

Prof Ørnulf Gulbrandson

Department of Social Anthropology University of Bergen, Norway

Prof C.M.Hann

Eliot College

University of Kent, UK

Prof Judith Lynne Hanna

University of Maryland, USA

Stockholm University, Sweden

Harvard University, Cambridge, USA

Prof Signe Howell

Department and Museum of Anthropology University of Oslo, Norway

Dr Mary Tylor Huber

Carnegie Fund for Advancement of Teaching Princeton University, USA

University of Virginia, USA

Prof Victor T.King

Centre for Southeast Asian Studies

Prof Henrika Kuklick

Department of History and Sociology of Science University of Pennsylvania, USA

Prof Michael Lambek

Department of Anthropology, Scarborough College University of Toronto, Canada

Department of Social Anthropology

London School of Economics, UK

Prof Lamont Lindstrom

Department of Anthropology,

University of Tulsa, USA

Prof Roland Littlewood

Department of Anthropology

University College London, UK

Prof Kenneth Maddock

School of Behavioural Sciences

Macquarie University, New South Wales, Australia

Dr Marit Melhuus

Department of Social Anthropology

University of Oslo, Norway

Dr Jon P.Mitchell

Department of Social Anthropology

Department of Anthropology and Sociology

School of Oriental and African Studies, London, UK

Dr Claudia Barcellos Rezende

Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences

University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Dr David Riches

Department of Social Anthropology

University of St Andrews, UK

Prof Dan Rose

Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning University of Pennsylvania, USA

Prof Bernard Saladin d’Anglure

Department of Anthropology

Université Laval, Cité Universitaire, Québec, Canada

Prof Philip Carl Salzman

Department of Anthropology

McGill University, Montreal, Canada

Prof Roger Sanjek

Department of Anthropology

Queens College, City University of New

York, USA

Prof Gopala Sarana

University of Lucknow, India

Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK

University of Washington, USA

Prof Peter van der Veer

Research Centre Religion and Society

University of Amsterdam, Netherlands

Dr Han Vermeulen

Centre of Non-Western Studies

University of Leiden, Netherlands

Prof Joan Vincent

Department of Anthropology

Barnard College, Columbia University, NY, USA

Prof Eduardo Viveiros de Castro

Prof Mark P.Whitaker

Americas: Latin America

Americas: Native North America

Americas: Native South America (Highland)

Americas: Native South America (Lowland)

history and anthropology

language and linguistics

great and little traditions

honour and shame

transhumance

world system

Anthropological objects (the anthropology of…)

adoption and fostering

myth and mythology

names and naming

race

refugees

religion

reproductive technologies resistance

social structure and social organization

Alan Barnard and Jonathan Spencer

adoption and fostering

Walter Dostal and André Gingrich

German and Austrian

language and linguistics

honour and shame

patrons and clients

Americas: Native North America

hunting and gathering

Marxism and anthropology

modernism, modernity and modernization nationalism

Orientalism

peasants

psychoanalysis

resistance