Automotive Informatics and Communicative Systems Principles in Vehicular Networks and Data Exchange

Automotive Informatics and Communicative Systems: Principles in Vehicular Networks and Data Exchange Huaqun Guo Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore Hershey • New York In

Automotive Informatics and Communicative

Systems:

Principles in Vehicular

Networks and Data Exchange

Huaqun Guo

Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

Hershey • New York

InformatIon scIence reference

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Automotive informatics and communicative systems : principles in vehicular

networks and data exchange / Huaqun Guo, editor.

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Summary: "This book advances the understanding of management methods, information technology, and their joint application in business processes" Provided by publisher.

ISBN 978-1-60566-338-8 (hardcover) ISBN 978-1-60566-367-8 (ebook) 1 Automobile industry and trade Management 2

Information technology I Guo, Huaqun, 1967- HD9710.A2A8725 2009 388.3'12 dc22

200805016

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.

Editorial Advisory Board

Lawrence Wai-Choong Wong, National University of Singapore, Singapore Weihua Zhuang, University of Waterloo, Canada

Ozan K Tonguz, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

Javier Ibađez-Guzmán, RENAULT S.A.S., France

Todd Hubing, Clemson University, USA

Nicholas F Maxemchuk, Columbia University, USA

Farid Nạt-Abdesselam, University of Sciences and Technologies of Lille, France Yul Chu, University of Texas–Pan American, USA

List of Reviewers

Sohel Anwar, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, USA

Rẳl Aquino-Santos, Universidad de Colima, México

Teck Yoong Chai, Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

Yul Chu, University of Texas–Pan American, USA

Gavin Holland, HRL Laboratories, LLC., USA

Todd Hubing, Clemson University, USA

Javier Ibađez-Guzmán, RENAULT S.A., France

Tie Yan Li, Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

Nicholas F Maxemchuk, Columbia University, USA

Farid Nạt-Abdesselam, University of Sciences and Technologies of Lille, France Lek Heng Ngoh, Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

Fabienne Nouvel, Laboratory IETR/INSA, France

Stephan Olariu, Old Dominion University, USA

Vasudha Ramnath, Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

Biplab Sikdar, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Joseph Chee Ming Teo, Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

Satish Ukkusuri, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Ziyuan Wang, University of Melbourne, Australia

Lawrence Wai-Choong Wong, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Yew Fai Wong, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Zonghua Zhang, National Institute of Information and Communication Technology, Japan Weihua Zhuang, University of Waterloo, Canada

Foreword xiii Preface xv Acknowledgment xxi

Chapter I

Introduction: An Emerging Area of Vehicular Networks and Data Exchange 1

Huaqun Guo, Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

Chapter II

Drive by Wire Systems: Impact on Vehicle Safety and Performance 12

Sohel Anwar, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, USA

Chapter III

Electromagnetic Compatibility Issues in Automotive Communications 48

Todd H Hubing, Clemson University International Center for Automotive Research, USA

Chapter IV

Automotive Network Architecture for ECUs Communications 69

Fabienne Nouvel, Laboratory IETR-UMR, INSA, France

Wilfried Gouret, Laboratory IETR-UMR, INSA, France

Patrice Mazério, Laboratory IETR-UMR, INSA, France

Ghais El Zein, Laboratory IETR-UMR, INSA, France

Chapter V

Enabling Secure Wireless Real-Time Vehicle Monitoring and Control 91

Lek Heng Ngoh, Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

Chapter VI

MAC and Routing Protocols for Vehicle to Vehicle Communications 105

Xiaobo Long, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Biplab Sikdar, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Table of Contents

Chapter VII

Inter-Vehicular Communications Using Wireless Ad Hoc Networks 120

Raúl Aquino-Santos, University of Colima, Mexico

Víctor Rangel-Licea, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico

Miguel A García-Ruiz, University of Colima, Mexico

Apolinar González-Potes, University of Colima, Mexico

Omar Álvarez-Cardenas, University of Colima, Mexico

Arthur Edwards-Block, University of Colima, Mexico

Margarita G Mayoral-Baldivia, University of Colima, Mexico

Sara Sandoval-Carrillo, University of Colima, Mexico

Chapter VIII

The Role of Communications in Cyber-Physical Vehicle Applications 139

Nicholas F Maxemchuk, Columbia University, USA & IMDEA Networks, Spain

Patcharinee Tientrakool, Columbia University, USA

Theodore L Willke, Columbia University, USA & Intel Corporation, USA

Chapter IX

Integrating Traffic Flow Features to Characterize the Interference in Vehicular Ad Hoc

Networks 162

Lili Du, Purdue University, USA

Satish Ukkusuri, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Shivkumar Kalyanaraman, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Chapter X

Proactive Traffic Merging Strategies for Sensor-Enabled Cars 180

Ziyuan Wang, University of Melbourne, Australia

Lars Kulik, University of Melbourne, Australia

Kotagiri Ramamohanarao, University of Melbourne, Australia

Chapter XI

The Localisation Problem in Cooperative Vehicle Applications 200

Javier Ibañez-Guzmán, RENAULT S.A.S., France

Efficient and Reliable Pseudonymous Authentication 247

Giorgio Calandriello, Politecnico di Torino, Italy

Antonio Lioy, Politecnico di Torino, Italy

Chapter XIV

Simulation of VANET Applications 264

Valentin Cristea, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania

Victor Gradinescu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania

Cristian Gorgorin, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania

Raluca Diaconescu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania

Liviu Iftode, Rutgers University, USA

Chapter XV

In-Vehicle Network Architecture for the Next-Generation Vehicles 283

Syed Masud Mahmud, Wayne State University, USA

Compilation of References 303 About the Contributors 330 Index 338

Foreword xiii Preface xv Acknowledgment xxi

Chapter I

Introduction: An Emerging Area of Vehicular Networks and Data Exchange 1

Huaqun Guo, Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

This chapter gives an overview of this emerging area of vehicular networks, its potential applications, its potential wireless technologies for data exchange, and its research activities in the Europe, the United States (U.S.), Japan, and Singapore

Chapter II

Drive by Wire Systems: Impact on Vehicle Safety and Performance 12

Sohel Anwar, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, USA

An overview of the drive-by-wire technology is presented along with in-depth coverage of salient drive

by systems such as throttle-by-wire, brake-by-wire, and steer-by-wire systems, and hybrid-electric sion A review of drive-by-wire system benefits in performance enhancements and vehicle active safety is then discussed This is followed by in-depth coverage of technological challenges that must be overcome before drive-by-wire systems can be production ready Current state of the art of possible solutions to these technological hurdles is then discussed Future trends in the drive-by-wire systems and economic and commercialization aspects of these system are presented at the conclusion of the chapter

propul-Chapter III

Electromagnetic Compatibility Issues in Automotive Communications 48

Todd H Hubing, Clemson University International Center for Automotive Research, USA

Detailed Table of Contents

This chapter reviews automotive EMC requirements and discusses the design of automotive ics for EMC The objective of the chapter is to provide non-EMC engineers and engineering managers with basic information that will help them recognize the importance of designing for electromagnetic compatibility, rather than addressing electronic noise problems as they arise

electron-Chapter IV

Automotive Network Architecture for ECUs Communications 69

Fabienne Nouvel, Laboratory IETR-UMR, INSA, France

Wilfried Gouret, Laboratory IETR-UMR, INSA, France

Patrice Mazério, Laboratory IETR-UMR, INSA, France

Ghais El Zein, Laboratory IETR-UMR, INSA, France

This chapter introduces the most widely used automotive networks like LIN (Local Interconnect work), CAN (Controller Area Network), MOST (Media-Oriented Systems Transport), and FlexRay

Net-To fulfill the increasing demand of intra-vehicle communications, a new technique based on power line communication (PLC) is then proposed This allows the transmission of both power and messages without functional barriers On the other hand, there are several infotainment applications (like mobile phones, laptop computers) pushing for the adoption of intra-vehicle wireless communications Thus, some potential wireless technologies used in the automotive domain, namely Bluetooth, IEEE 802.11 b/g wireless technology – WiFi, and Zigbee are covered here Finally, the chapter highlights the chal-lenges of these wired or wireless alternative solutions in automotive networks

Chapter V

Enabling Secure Wireless Real-Time Vehicle Monitoring and Control 91

Lek Heng Ngoh, Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

In this chapter, the author extends the use of these embedded vehicular networks by proposing to remotely monitor and control the vehicles through them, in order to realize safety and driver assistance related applications To accomplish this task, additional technologies such as real-time wireless communications and data security are required, and each of them is introduced and described in this chapter

Chapter VI

MAC and Routing Protocols for Vehicle to Vehicle Communications 105

Xiaobo Long, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Biplab Sikdar, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Numerous efforts are currently under progress to enhance the safety and efficiency of vehicular traffic through intelligent transportation systems In addition, the growing demand for access to data and infor-mation from human users on the go has created the need for advanced vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-roadside communication systems capable of high data rates and amenable to high degrees of node mobility Vehicular communications and networks are expected to be used for a number of purposes such

as for enabling mobile users to transfer data and information from other networks such as the Internet and also for implementing services such as Intersection Decision Systems (IDS), Automated Highway Systems (AHS), and Advanced Vehicle Safety Systems (AVS) In this chapter the authors describe me-

dium access control (MAC) and routing protocols for vehicular networks and the various factors that affect their design and performance.

Chapter VII

Inter-Vehicular Communications Using Wireless Ad Hoc Networks 120

Raúl Aquino-Santos, University of Colima, Mexico

Víctor Rangel-Licea, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico

Miguel A García-Ruiz, University of Colima, Mexico

Apolinar González-Potes, University of Colima, Mexico

Omar Álvarez-Cardenas, University of Colima, Mexico

Arthur Edwards-Block, University of Colima, Mexico

Margarita G Mayoral-Baldivia, University of Colima, Mexico

Sara Sandoval-Carrillo, University of Colima, Mexico

This chapter proposes a new routing algorithm that allows communication in vehicular ad hoc networks

In vehicular ad hoc networks, the transmitter node cannot determine the immediate future position of the receiving node beforehand Furthermore, rapid topological changes and limited bandwidth compound the difficulties nodes experience when attempting to exchange position information

Chapter VIII

The Role of Communications in Cyber-Physical Vehicle Applications 139

Nicholas F Maxemchuk, Columbia University, USA & IMDEA Networks, Spain

Patcharinee Tientrakool, Columbia University, USA

Theodore L Willke, Columbia University, USA & Intel Corporation, USA

The authors describe applications that improve the operation of automobiles, control traffic lights, and distribute the load on roadways The requirements on the communications protocols that implement the ap-plications are determined and a new communications paradigm, neighborcast, is described Neighborcast communicates between nearby entities, and is particularly well suited to transportation applications

Chapter IX

Integrating Traffic Flow Features to Characterize the Interference in Vehicular Ad Hoc

Networks 162

Lili Du, Purdue University, USA

Satish Ukkusuri, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Shivkumar Kalyanaraman, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

The research in this chapter investigates several fundamental issues, such as the connectivity, the ability, the interference, and the capacity, with respect to information propagation in VANETs The authors’ work is distinguished with previous efforts, since they incorporate the characteristics of traffic into these issues in the communication layer of VANETs; this mainly address the issue of the interference Previous efforts to solve this problem only consider static network topologies However, high node mobility and dynamic traffic features make the interference problem in VANETs quite different

reach-Chapter X

Proactive Traffic Merging Strategies for Sensor-Enabled Cars 180

Ziyuan Wang, University of Melbourne, Australia

Lars Kulik, University of Melbourne, Australia

Kotagiri Ramamohanarao, University of Melbourne, Australia

This chapter surveys traffic control strategies for optimizing traffic flow on highways, with a focus on more adaptive and flexible strategies facilitated by current advancements in sensor-enabled cars and vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) The authors investigate proactive merging strategies assuming that sensor-enabled cars can detect the distance to neighboring cars and communicate their velocity and acceleration among each other Proactive merging strategies can significantly improve traffic flow by increasing it up to 100% and reduce the overall travel delay by 30%

Chapter XI

The Localisation Problem in Cooperative Vehicle Applications 200

Javier Ibañez-Guzmán, RENAULT S.A.S., France

In this chapter, V2V and V2I applications are considered as a spatio-temporal problem The tenet is that sharing information can be made only if this is time stamped and related to a spatial description of the in-formation sources The chapter formulates the spatio-temporal problem having as constraint the precision

of the pose estimates of the vehicles involved It regards the localisation problem and accuracy of digital road maps as a combined issue that needs to be addressed for the successful deployment of cooperative vehicle applications Two case studies, intersection safely and an overtaking manoeuvre are included Recommendations on the precision limits of the vehicle pose estimations and the potential uncertainties that need to be considered when designing V2V and V2I applications complete the chapter

Chapter XII

An Overview of Positioning and Data Fusion Techniques Applied to Land Vehicle

Navigation Systems 219

Denis Gingras, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada

In this chapter, the authors will review the problem of estimating in real-time the position of a vehicle for use in land navigation systems After describing the application context and giving a definition of the problem, they will look at the mathematical framework and technologies involved to design positioning systems The authors will compare the performance of some of the most popular data fusion approaches and provide some insights on their limitations and capabilities

Chapter XIII

Efficient and Reliable Pseudonymous Authentication 247

Giorgio Calandriello, Politecnico di Torino, Italy

Antonio Lioy, Politecnico di Torino, Italy

Privacy, security, and reliability are key requirements in deploying vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANET) Without those the VANET technology will not be suitable for market diffusion In this chapter, the au-

thors are concerned with how to fulfill these requirements by using pseudonym-based authentication, designing security schemes that do not endanger transport safety while maintaining low overhead At the same time the design improves the system usability by allowing nodes to self-generate their own pseudonyms.

Chapter XIV

Simulation of VANET Applications 264

Valentin Cristea, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania

Victor Gradinescu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania

Cristian Gorgorin, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania

Raluca Diaconescu, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania

Liviu Iftode, Rutgers University, USA

This chapter systematically presents actual issues regarding the simulation of VANET applications Some of them refer to challenges in developing VANET simulators The chapter discusses simulator architectures, models used for representing the communication among vehicles, vehicles mobility fea-tures, and simulation tool implementation methods A critical analysis of the solutions adopted in some well-known actual simulators is also included

Chapter XV

In-Vehicle Network Architecture for the Next-Generation Vehicles 283

Syed Masud Mahmud, Wayne State University, USA

This book chapter describes a number of ways using which the networks of future vehicles could be designed and implemented in a cost-effective manner The book chapter also shows how simulation models can be developed to evaluate the performance of various types of in-vehicle network topologies and select the most appropriate topology for given requirements and specifications

Compilation of References 303 About the Contributors 330 Index 338

xiii

Foreword

Huaqun Guo has introduced the emerging areas of vehicular networks in the forms of Intra-Vehicle, to-Vehicle, and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure communications and edited this new book to reflect the advance information technologies that shape the modern automobiles These new technologies on automotive infor-matics and communicative systems will enable a variety of applications for safety, traffic efficiency, driver assistance, as well as infotainment to be incorporated into modern automobile designs

Vehicle-Over the last century, the design, manufacture and operation of the automobile have grown into complex system integration paradigms cutting across applications of traditional disciplines in physical sciences, en-gineering, social and behavioral sciences and business Today, this complexity is compounded and acceler-ated by the advent of enabling technologies in advanced materials, sensing, actuation, computing, controls, diagnostics, electronics and software, all amid myriad – and often conflicting – policy changes This creates new possibilities and challenges in simultaneously providing effective means of transportation - with a high degree of driver and occupant safety - along with reduced energy use and environmental impact

Informatics, telematics, electronics and communication systems play an ever increasing role in the vancement of the automobile and are critical from a number of perspectives The advances that are most easily noticed by a consumer are vehicle options such as infotainment systems, navigation systems, and con-nectivity such as Bluetooth However, other onboard systems such as active stability control, engine control, and the several supporting in-vehicle communication networks and protocols are the real technologies that are propelling the automobile into the 21st Century Such systems are key elements in achieving the desired operational characteristics of the vehicle such as performance, emissions, safety and fuel efficiency To achieve these ever more stringent desired characteristics in a cost effective manner, the amount of information and processing that occurs on a typical vehicle is staggering Most vehicles today have well over 50 processors

ad-on board, and the number cad-ontinues to grow Indeed, electrad-onics can account for over 40% of the vehicle’s cost and this percentage will continue to grow

Onboard systems are only part of the explosion of automotive informatics and commutations ture -to-vehicle and vehicle-to-vehicle communicants are enabling a host of new frontiers related to safety, traffic control and maintenance Onboard navigation systems can now route an individual vehicle through significant traffic jams or disruptions However, in the near future, coordinated efforts between the traffic infrastructure and multiple vehicles may distribute the traffic load to minimize congestion or the effects of construction or a traffic accident Furthermore, information from adjacent vehicles may be used to avoid collisions For example, vehicles that are rapidly decelerating on a highway might warn subsequent cars of

Infrastruc-an impending “stopped traffic hazard.” From a maintenInfrastruc-ance perspective, connectivity has already enabled the vehicle to communicate its health status and potential failures to service personnel Such information is not only critical to keep a vehicle functioning properly, but also enables fleet manufacturers to track potential problems, and address them as rapidly as possible Furthermore, this information can easily and rapidly be utilized in improving next generation vehicles

xiv

For both onboard systems and supporting infrastructure systems, the acceleration of technological change

is driving vehicle designers, manufacturers and consumers to rethink how the automobile is developed from conceptualization to production to service to end of life The rapidly changing electronics and informatics sector has pushed vehicle system design and integration to a new level of agility The consumer desires state-of-the-art capabilities, and automobile producers no longer have several years to incorporate the latest technology into their products This is fostering a change in the way vehicles are designed and perceived Indeed, if one looks at the automobile, it is changing rapidly and the pace of change is ever increasing The car of today is vastly different from its predecessors of 30 or 40 years ago, and next generation vehicles will continue to change dramatically driven by multiple issues of which many are related to informatics and com-munication systems

This book has provided fundamental principles, as well as practice, and new research/trend for vehicular networks and advanced information technologies applied in the automotive area First, this book presents the impact of drive-by-wire systems on vehicle safety and performance, and electromagnetic compatibility issues affecting automotive communications It then introduces Intra-vehicle networks like LIN (Local Interconnect Network), CAN (Controller Area Network), MOST (Media-Oriented Systems Transport), Flexray, power-line communication, and so forth It also describes in-vehicle network architecture for the next-generation vehicles and elaborates the potential applications and related technical challenges in achieving secure remote monitoring and control of vehicles via CAN

Second, this book presents the technologies related to Vehicle-to-Vehicle, and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure communications by describing the current medium access control (MAC) and routing protocols for vehicular networks, and the role of communications in cyber-physical vehicle applications Furthermore, it incorporates the characteristics of traffic flow into the interference issue in the communication layer of VANETs (Vehicular

Ad Hoc Networks), and presents new research into proactive traffic merging algorithms and the potential benefits of applying sensor-enabled cars The book has also captured the state-of-the-art in the area of traffic control with the assistance of VANETs, and reviewed the problem of estimating in real-time the position of

a vehicle for use in land navigation system

Last but not least, privacy, security and reliability as key requirements in deploying VANETs are addressed,

as well as simulation architectures and simulation tools implementation methods with the aim to improve the traffic safety and control Through all chapters, this book has discussed the future trends for the automotive informatics and communicative systems in each individual domain

I highly recommend Dr Guo’s timely book I believe it will benefit many readers and be a good ence

refer-Thomas R Kurfess

International Center for Automotive Research, Clemson University, USA

Thomas R Kurfess received his SB, SM and PhD degrees in mechanical engineering from M.I.T in 1986, 1987 and 1989, respectively He also received an SM degree from MIT in electrical engineering and computer science in 1988 Following graduation,

he joined Carnegie Mellon University where he rose to the rank of associate professor In 1994 he moved to the Georgia Institute of Technology where he rose to the rank of Professor in the George W Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering In 2005 he was named Professor and BMW Chair of Manufacturing in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Clemson University He is also the Director of the Campbell Graduate Engineering Center at Clemson University’s International Center for Automotive Research

He has served as a special consultant of the United Nations to the Government of Malaysia in the area of applied mechatronics and manufacturing, and as a participating guest at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in their Precision Engineering Program His research focuses on the design and development of advanced systems targeting the automotive sector (OEM and supplier) including vehicle and production systems He has signi.cant experience in high precision manufacturing and metrology systems He has received numerous awards including a National Science Foundation (NSF) Young Investigator Award, an NSF Presidential Faculty Fellowship Award, the ASME Pi Tau Sigma Award, SME Young Manufacturing Engineer

of the Year Award, the ASME Blackall Machine Tool and Gage Award, the ASME Gustus L Larson Award He is a Fellow of the SME and of the ASME.

xv

Preface

The automotive industry is undergoing a continuous transformation; vehicles are no longer thermo chanical systems with some electronic components used to start engines and lighting Today’s vehicles are complex systems, with networks of computers controlling their most important functions Increas-ing fuel costs, as well as increasing awareness of vehicular pollution and noise affecting large human agglomerations and unacceptable numbers of traffic accidents and road congestion are exerting much pressure for change on the automotive industry What kind of change is expected?

me-Within a short period, mobile communications have changed our lifestyles allowing us to exchange information, almost anywhere at anytime The introduction of such mobile communications systems

in motor vehicles should be therefore only a matter of time This should bring a new paradigm, that of sharing information amongst vehicles and infrastructure, and lead to numerous applications for safety, traffic efficiency as well as infotainment

The main purpose of this book is to provide an overview of the information and communications technologies that are to be deployed in the new generations of vehicles – to provide valuable insights into the technologies for vehicular networks and data exchange, from both theoretical and practical perspectives We hope that the contents can be used in graduate level courses as a reference and by the automotive industry as training material The book should provide a concise background and a good foundation to students entering the field of automotive information and communications technologies

We also hope that it would serve as a reference to researchers/scientists and practitioners by enabling them to offer exciting and novel technologies and applications that would, in the future, transform our land transportation systems

Information technology is the driving force behind innovations in the automotive industry In the past years, control systems of cars have moved from the analog to the digital domain In particular, x-by-wire systems began to appear, and have driven research efforts of the whole automotive industry in the last decade Networked Electronic Control Units (ECUs) are increasingly being deployed in cars to realize diverse functions such as engine management, air-bag deployment, and even in intelligent brake systems At the same time, emerging vehicular networks in the forms of intra-vehicle, vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications are fast becoming a reality They will enable a variety of applications for safety, traffic efficiency, driver assistance, as well as infotainment to be incorporated into modern automobile designs

This book introduces the advanced information technologies that shape the ultra-modern tive industry today Contributions to this publication are made by professors, researchers, scientists and practitioners throughout the world, bringing together their rich expertise and results of their cur-rent endeavors The authors have several years of expertise in their respective domains, and have good publication records

automo-xvi

As can be seen from the table of contents, the book comprises of 15 chapters It spreads across many technical areas with car communications as the central theme The first chapter is an introductory chap-ter on the emerging area of vehicular networks in the forms of Intra-Vehicle (InV), Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V), and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communications Chapters II to III and a large part of Chapter

V cover the technologies related to InV networks The rest of Chapter V and Chapters VI to XII present the technologies related to V2V and V2I communications which will enable a variety of applications for safety, traffic efficiency, driver assistance and infotainment Privacy, security, and reliability as key requirements in deploying VANETs (Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks) are addresses in Chapter XIII Chapter XIV discusses simulation architectures, models used for representing the communication among vehicles, vehicle mobility features, and ways to implement simulation tools with the aim to improve traffic safety and control Chapter XV describes in-vehicle network architectures for the next-generation vehicles Chapter-wise details are presented bellow

The introductory chapter presents the emerging area of vehicular networks in the forms of hicle (InV), Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V), and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communications This will enable a variety of applications for safety, traffic efficiency, driver assistance, as well as infotainment, to

Intra-Ve-be incorporated into modern automotive designs Critical data is Intra-Ve-being exchanged within a vehicle and with outside the vehicle via vehicular networks Thus, this chapter first introduces car communications, potential vehicular applications and wireless technologies, as well as specially designed technologies DSRC (Dedicated Short Range Communications) standards and communication stack for data exchange

As the emerging area of vehicular networks is attracting widespread interest from research groups around the world, this chapter next introduces the consortiums and initiatives working on advanced automotive technologies in Europe, the United States, Japan, and Singapore Finally, in the future trend, vehicular networks still plays a vital role in enhancing the automotive industry for safety, security and entertain-ment

Chapter II presents the impact of drive by wire systems on vehicle safety and performance An overview of the drive-by-wire technology is presented along with in-depth coverage of salient drive by systems such as throttle-by-wire, brake-by-wire, and steer-by-wire systems, and hybrid-electric propul-sion This is followed by in-depth coverage of technological challenges and the current state-of-the-art solutions to these technological hurdles For example, an analytical redundancy/model-based fault-tolerant control can not only reduce the overall system cost by reducing the total number of redundant components, but also further improve overall reliability of the system through the usage of a diverse array of sensory information Future trends in the drive-by-wire systems include various drive-by-wire systems in the same vehicle sharing a diversity of sensors and actuators via data fusion methodologies, integrated control of various drive by wire systems and future communication bus for x-by-wire systems, for example FlexRay,

Chapter III provides a basic overview of the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) issues affecting automotive communications As the number of electronic systems in automobiles rises, the potential for electromagnetic interference increases Designing for electromagnetic compatibility is important to devote proper attention to electromagnetic compatibility at every stage of an automobile’s development Problems discovered late in the design cycle can seriously impact development schedules and product cost This chapter provides basic information of electromagnetic compatibility issues affecting automo-tive communications for non-EMC engineers and engineering managers who work with automotive networks

Chapter IV introduces the most widely used automotive networks like LIN (Local Interconnect Network), CAN (Controller Area Network), MOST (Media-Oriented Systems Transport), and FlexRay

To fulfill the increasing demand of intra-vehicle communications, a new technique based on power

xvii

line communication (PLC) is then proposed This allows the transmission of both power and messages without functional barriers On the other hand, there are several infotainment applications (like mobile phones, laptop computers) pushing for the adoption of intra-vehicle wireless communications Thus, some potential wireless technologies used in the automotive domain, namely Bluetooth, IEEE 802.11 b/g wireless technology – WiFi, and Zigbee are covered here Finally, the chapter highlights the chal-lenges of these wired or wireless alternative solutions in automotive networks

Chapter V elaborates one of the most popular in-vehicle networking technologies called Controller Area Network (CAN) The chapter begins with an overview of the basis and the general technology of CAN in automotive industry and the deployment of in-vehicle CAN networks It then presents the vari-ous existing and future potential applications that make use of the CAN data, and the related technical challenges in achieving secure remote monitoring and control of vehicles via CAN Furthermore, the chapter elaborates two key components in achieving remote vehicle monitoring and control, namely, the wireless communication component and data security component It stresses the importance of secure data and information flow between vehicles and an application server Finally, the chapter presents an overall architecture for secure wireless real-time vehicle monitoring and control environment In future rends, the author foresees the area of real-time monitoring and control being a fertile ground for future automotive innovations and services

Chapter VI describes the current medium access control (MAC) and routing protocols for vehicular networks, and the various factors that affect their design and performance The mobility and speed of the communicating nodes in vehicular networks add extra dimensions to the challenges faced by the MAC protocols, in addition to the existing requirements of reliability and efficiency This chapter reviews some of the existing MAC protocols for vehicular network For example, basic MAC protocols, the IEEE 802.11 MAC Extension for Vehicular Networks, and other MAC Protocols for Vehicular Networks (ADHOC-MAC, the Directional MAC (D-MAC) protocol) Future Intelligent Transportation Systems require fast and reliable communication between cars (vehicle-to-vehicle) or between a car and a road side unit (vehicle-to-infrastructure) Ad hoc unicast routing schemes can be divided into two categories:

topology-based routing and position-based routing Topology-based schemes use a variety of

proac-tive routing schemes (DSDV ((Destination Sequenced Distance Vector routing), Optimized Link State

Routing (OLSR), Fisheye State Routing (FSR)) or reactive approaches (AODV (Ad Hoc On-Demand

Distance Vector Routing), DSR ((Dynamic Source Routing), Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm

(TORA), Associativity Based Routing Algorithm (ABR), or hierarchical protocols (Cluster Based

Routing Protocol (CBRP), Core Extraction Distributed Ad-hoc Routing (CEDAR) and Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)) to create routes

Popular location services in position-based routing protocols are Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility (DREAM) and Grid Location Service (GLS) Context Assisted Routing (CAR) and Spatially Aware Routing (SAR) are proposed routing algorithms to overcome the problem of topology holes in position-based routing Current multicast protocols that can be used in V2V networks include: Posi-tion-based Multicast (LBM), GeoGRID, Unicast Routing with Area Delivery and Inter-Vehicle Geocast Overall, routing of communications for vehicular safety applications remains a challenging topic.Chapter VII presents a new reactive algorithm based on location information in the context of vehicular ad-hoc networks It proposes a Location Routing Algorithm with Cluster-Based Flooding (LORA-CBF), which is formed with one cluster head, zero or more members in every cluster, and one

or more gateways to communicate with other cluster heads It first validates the model at one, two, and three hops by comparing the results of the test bed with the results of the model developed in OPNET For more than three hops, it validates the model by comparing with two non-position-based routing algorithms (AODV and DSR) and one position-based routing algorithm (GPSR (Greedy Perimeter

xviii

Stateless Routing)) Results show that mobility and network size affects the performance of AODV and DSR more significantly than LORA_CBF and GPSR It is also observed that GPSR and LORA-CBF behave similarly in terms of the end-to-end delay, and LORA_CBF is more robust in terms of delivery ratio, routing overhead, route discovery time, and routing load compared with GPSR

Chapter VIII presents the role of communications in cyber-physical vehicle applications Cyber-physical systems use sensing, communications and computing to control the operation of physical devices The embedded computers and sensors both within the vehicles and in the infrastructure will be networked into cyber-physical systems to reduce accidents, improve fuel efficiency, increase the capacity of the transportation infrastructure, and reduce commute time Communications between nearby vehicles will enable cooperative control paradigms that reduce accidents more than computing and sensors alone, and communications between vehicles and the infrastructure will improve the scheduling of traffic signals and route planning The chapter describes applications that improve the operation of automobiles, control traffic lights and distribute the load on roadways The requirements on the communications protocols that implement the applications are determined and a new communications paradigm, neighborcast,

is described Neighborcast communicates between nearby entities, and is particularly well suited to transportation applications

Chapter IX incorporates the characteristics of traffic flow into the interference issue at the munication layer of VANETs There are several fundamental issues, such as connectivity, reachability, interference and capacity, with respect to information propagation in VANETs This chapter mainly addresses the issue of interference, by incorporating the characteristics of traffic into this issue at the communication layer of VANETs High node mobility and dynamic traffic features make the interfer-ence problem in VANETs quite different As compared with previous efforts to solve this problem which only considered static network topologies, this work is (to the best of our knowledge), the first to demonstrate the interference features in VANETs by incorporating realistic traffic flow characteristics based on a validated simulation model Analytical expressions are developed to evaluate the interfer-ence in VANETs taking account of both the macroscopic and the microscopic traffic flow characteristics These analytical expressions are validated within the simulation framework The results show that the analytical characterization performs very well to capture the interference in VANETs The results from this work can facilitate the development of better algorithms for maximizing throughput in VANETs, and the research efforts bridging the features of both the communication layer and the transportation layer will help to build more efficient systems

com-Chapter X first captures the state-of-the-art in the area of traffic control with the assistance of VANETs in terms of vehicular traffic models, vehicular traffic theories, flow control strategies, and performance measurement methodologies It surveys traffic control strategies for optimizing traffic flow

on highways, with a focus on more adaptive and flexible strategies facilitated by current advancements

in sensor-enabled cars and VANETs It provides an overview of new ideas and approaches in the area

of traffic flow control with the assistance of VANETs This chapter then presents new research into proactive traffic merging strategies and the potential benefits of applying sensor-enabled cars It shows how sensor-enabled cars can assist in improving merging algorithms, and compares proactive merg-ing algorithms against a conventional merging strategy: priority-based merging Assisted by advanced sensing and communication technologies, traffic control strategies and merging algorithms will lead

to more efficient use of the current road networks and ultimately help to alleviate traffic congestion It has shown that the significant improvement in traffic flow and the decrease in travel time mainly result from the decoupling of the merging point and the decision point, and multilane optimizations, such as pre-lane-changing Proactive merging strategies can significantly improve traffic flow by increasing it

by up to 100% and reduce overall travel delay by 30%

condi-of the information sources The chapter formulates the spatio-temporal problem having as constraint the precision of the pose estimates of the vehicles involved It formulates the localization problem and accuracy of digital road maps as a combined issue that needs to be addressed for the successful deploy-ment of cooperative vehicle applications The problem formulation is completed by two case studies, the use of V2V or V2I communications to traverse safely an intersection and an overtaking manoeuvre The chapter concludes by including comments and recommendations on the precision limits of the ve-hicle pose estimations and the potential uncertainties that need to be considered when designing V2V and V2I applications.

Chapter XII reviews the problem of estimating (in real-time) the position of a vehicle for use in land navigation systems After describing the application context and giving a definition of the problem, it looks at the mathematical framework and technologies involved in the design of positioning systems Through a review of some of the various sensor fusion techniques usually encountered in such sys-tems, it compares the performance of some of the most popular data fusion approaches, and provides some insights on their limitations and capabilities The extended Kalman filter (EKF) in data fusion centralized architectures remains a design of choice for most applications The chapter then describes how to make positioning systems more robust and adaptive by detecting and identifying sensor faults Finally, it explores possible architectures for collaborative positioning systems, where many vehicles are interacting and exchanging data to improve their own position estimate using a collaborative and geometric data fusion approach One major trend seen in the field of dense sensor networks is in the use

of multilateration techniques for location accuracy Despite significant errors in range estimates between sensors, multilateration is able to render more accurate location estimates, thus making it suitable for use

in vehicle navigation With the current evolution of automotive technologies, all vehicles are becoming networked and equipped with wireless communication capabilities, thus allowing the use of distributed and collaborative techniques for navigation and positioning Wireless communications networks are becoming attractive to localize vehicles using various radio-based range technologies such as received signal strength indicators (RSSI), power signal attenuation or time-of-arrival (TOA) techniques.Privacy, security, and reliability as key requirements in deploying VANETs are addressed in Chapter XIII Without these strengths, the VANET technology will not be suitable for market diffusion This chapter concerns with how to fulfill these requirements by using pseudonym-based authentication, and designing security schemes that do not endanger transport safety while maintaining low overhead

At the same time, the design improves system usability by allowing nodes to self-generate their own pseudonyms It manages security credentials in VANET through self-generation and self-certification

of pseudonyms, which greatly simplifies the security management and makes a step towards a usable system It employs group signatures to generate certificates which satisfy the requirements of anonymity and liability attribution, and results show that the computational cost and the overhead are comparable

to the baseline approach Next, it analyzes the costs imposed by security on the transportation systems

by analyzing data link performance to obtain packet reception probability curves for the based security systems, and analyzing the impact of safety messaging, security and privacy-enabling technologies on transportation safety to show that secure communication schemes achieve safety levels

pseudonym-xx

comparable to those with no security at all This chapter performs a detailed investigation of based authentication by analyzing several system issues and showing how these security mechanisms can be applied in practice

pseudonym-Chapter XIV systematically presents actual issues faced by developers and engineers in the simulation

of VANET applications, some of which are related to the challenges in developing VANET simulators

It discusses simulation architectures, models used for representing the communication among vehicles, vehicles mobility features, and simulation tools implementation methods The focus is on the new trends

in communication protocols and traffic models, and on new facilities incorporated in simulation tools Advances in VANET technology and protocols support the adoption and use of more complex mobil-ity models and of more flexible and adaptable traffic controls VANETs’ rapid topology changes or the changes in the vehicles mobility as reaction to traffic changes are captured by the simulation models, which become more or less complicated and include more elements that constrain vehicle mobility: maps, real traffic conditions (congestion), driver behavior, fuel consumption, pollutant emissions, and so forth

It also includes a critical analysis of the solutions adopted in some well-known actual simulators Other issues related to the use of simulation in the evaluation of applications that aim at improving traffic safety and control are discussed Representative city and highway application scenarios are analyzed, and results obtained by simulation, along with ways these results can be exploited by VANET developers and users, are highlighted Future trends in the development of simulators that produce more accurate results, and their use for the evaluation of more sophisticated traffic control solutions, are also included

Chapter XV takes a more futuristic look at various types of topologies and protocols that could be used specifically in in-vehicle networks Varying functionalities of vehicles will require different types

of communication networks and networking protocols As the size and complexity of the network grows, integration, maintenance and troubleshooting will become a major challenge To facilitate integration and troubleshooting of various nodes and networks, it would be desirable that networks of future vehicles

be partitioned, and the partitions be interconnected by a hierarchical or multi-layer physical network These partitions must be appropriately interconnected to handle functional dependencies and for better diagnostics A number of network topologies have been presented and analyzed for cost, bandwidth and message latencies This chapter describes a number of ways using which the networks of future vehicles could be designed and implemented in a cost-effective manner Since future vehicles will also be com-municating with external entities for various reasons, the chapter also addresses the issues of security, safety and privacy which should be taken into consideration at the time of designing the in-vehicle net-work components Finally, some ideas have been presented in developing simulation models to analyze various types of networks which will ultimately help in selecting the most appropriate network topology and various network components for a given set of requirements and specifications

Thus, we have walked through the world of new information and communication technologies ing developed for vehicular systems We hope that the book is of interest to academia and industry We earnestly hope that the insights provided by this book, on the specific information and communication technologies used in vehicles, will help inspire and spawn a multitude of novel applications and in-novations

be-This book is dedicated to my parents Lanying Guo and Tianfu Guo

Huaqun Guo

Singapore,October 2008

xxi

Acknowledgment

I would like to extend my utmost gratitude to the people who have, in one way or other, inspired, aided and contributed to the successful completion of this book

First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Deputy Executive Director (Research)

my editing works

I would also like to thank the A*CAR (A*STAR Capabilities for Automotive Research) taskforce, and the management of Institute for Infocomm Research (I2R) for providing me the opportunity to carry out research into the exciting area of vehicular networks In particular, I would like to thank Dr Feng Bao and Dr Yongdong Wu at I2R for their support

Special thanks to all reviewers for their expertise, time, effort and timely response throughout the peer evaluation process In particular, I wish to express my appreciation to the members of the Editorial Advisory Board for their guidance, support and constant encouragement

I would also like to take this opportunity to thank Tyler Heath and Heather A Probst for their sistance with this book

as-Last but not least, the heartiest gratitude is given to my family for their love and encouragement

Huaqun Guo

Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore



Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Chapter I Introduction:

An Emerging Area of Vehicular Networks

and Data Exchange

Huaqun Guo

Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, control systems of automobiles

have moved from the analog to the digital

do-main In particular, x-by-wire systems are

ap-pearing and have driven research efforts of the

whole automotive industry for the recent decade

Networked Electronic Control Units (ECUs) are

increasingly being deployed in automobiles to realize diverse functions such as engine manage-ment, air-bag deployment, and even in intelligent brake systems For example, at least 70 networked ECUs are employed in a Mercedes S-Class car (Heffernan & Leen, 2008; Vasilash, 2005) At the same time, emerging vehicular networks in the forms of Intra-Vehicle (InV), Vehicle-to-Vehicle

ABSTRACT

Emerging vehicular networks in the forms of Intra-Vehicle (InV), to-Vehicle (V2V), and to-Infrastructure (V2I) communications will enable a variety of applications for safety, traffic efficiency, driver assistance, as well as infotainment to be incorporated into modern automobile designs At the same time, networked Electronic Control Units (ECUs) are increasingly being deployed in automobiles to realize functions such as engine management, air-bag deployment, and even in intelligent brake systems

Vehicle-In addition, users now expect to sit in an automobile and have their brought-in devices, and beamed-in services harmoniously integrated with the built-in interfaces inside the automobile Thus, widespread adoption of vehicular networks is fast becoming a reality and critical data is being exchanged with-inside and with-outside vehicle via vehicular networks This chapter gives an overview of this emerging area

of vehicular networks, its potential applications, its potential wireless technologies for data exchange, and its research activities in the Europe, the United States (U.S.), Japan, and Singapore.



Introduction

(V2V), and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I)

com-munications are fast becoming a reality and will

enable a variety of applications for safety, traffic

efficiency, driver assistance, as well as

infotain-ment to be incorporated into modern automobile

designs

There are currently a number of study groups

working on car communications and

defin-ing the standards for various applications InV

Communications, such as CAN (Controller Area

Network, 2008; CiA, 2008), LIN (Local

Inter-connect Network, 2008), FlexRay (2008), are

used for interconnecting in-car ECUs, sensors,

and so on V2V Communications, such as IEEE

802.11p (IEEE 802.11p, 2008; Jiang & Delgrossi,

2008), Dedicated Short Range Communications

(DSRC) (Dedicated Short Range

Communica-tions, 2008), may be used for safety applications

V2I communications, e.g IEEE 802.11p and IEEE

1609 Family of Standards for Wireless Access in

Vehicular Environments (WAVE, 2008) may be

used for traffic information

In addition, users now expect to sit in an

au-tomobile and have their brought-in devices and

beamed-in services harmoniously integrated with

the built-in interfaces inside the automobile To

integrate mobile phones and digital music players,

Ford designs Ford Sync that integrates

voice-ac-tivated in-car communication and entertainment

system (Ford Sync, 2008) RM MICHAELIDES

provides wireless CAN interfaces to transmit

CAN between different networks using Bluetooth,

RFID (radio-frequency identification), Infrared,

UHF (ultra high frequency), etc (Michaelides,

2008) A Controller Area Network Gateway to

ZigBee was described in (Kuban, 2007) There

are some wireless CAN products, such as CANRF

(Dammeyer, 2008) and CAN Bridge (Matric,

2008) The performance of wireless CAN in terms

of latency and throughput was studied in (Dridi,

Gouissem, Hasnaoui, & Rezig, 2006)

Thus, with vehicular networks fast becoming

commonplace, critical data is being exchanged

with-inside and with-outside vehicle via

vehicu-lar networks, and new technologies have been developed for vehicular networks This chapter is meant to introduce the emerging area of vehicular networks and data exchange, give an overview of the new technologies for car communications, and present automotive research activities in the Europe, the United States (the U.S.), and Japan

as well as in Singapore

CAR COMMUNICATIONS

New technologies are being developed for hicular networks and these networks provide an efficient method for today’s complex car com-munications Figure 1 shows the example of InV,

ve-V2V and V2I communications.

InV provides communication among ECUs/sensors in a vehicle while V2V and V2I provide communications among nearby vehicles and be-tween vehicles and nearby fixed roadside equip-ments Vehicular networks are a cornerstone of the envisioned Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) By enabling vehicles to communicate with its function systems via InV communication, with other vehicles via V2V communication as well as with roadside base stations via V2I com-munication, vehicular networks will contribute

to safer and more efficient roads by providing timely information to drivers and concerned authorities

Potential Applications

The emerging vehicular networks will enable a variety of applications for safety, traffic efficiency, driver assistance and infotainment:

1 Safety: Vehicular network technologies will

be applied to reduce accidents so as to save lives and reduce injuries Examples of such applications include vehicle breakdown and obstacle detection, lane departure warn-ing, accident warnings, collision warning,



Introduction

over-height / over-width warning, turnover

warning, work zone warnings, black box,

and so on

2 Traffic Efficiency: Vehicular network

technologies will be applied to improve

the flow of traffic and reduce congestion,

for example, cooperative adaptive cruise

control, highway/rail intersection traffic

management, congestion information for

traffic control, electronic toll collection,

etc

3 Driver Assistance: Vehicular networks can

also provide accurate information and data,

as well as good communications for drivers

to improve safety and security, e.g., digital

road maps downloading, advanced

navi-gation system, parking information,

real-time traffic information, various warning

information, driver’s daily blog, automatic

emergency call, etc

4 Infotainment: Vehicles in future are

fore-seen to be dominated with feature-rich

au-dio-video infotainment Users can expect to

sit in an automobile and have their brought-in

devices and beamed-in services

harmoni-ously integrated with the built-in interfaces

inside the automobile Furthermore, users can also wirelessly purchase and synchro-nize the latest movies and songs when they top up fuel at the kiosk Last but not least, wide range of applications for entertainment through Internet will be brought to automo-tive passengers

Potential Wireless Technologies

With the rapid development of information nologies, there are a number of wireless technolo-gies which are potential for wireless InV, V2V and

tech-V2I communications, and listed in Table 1 and

Table 2 These new technologies could be used for data exchange between users’ devices and vehicles, among vehicles, and between vehicles and infrastructure The details of application scenarios of data exchange with each technology are listed in two tables as well

DSRC is the recent technological trends to provide real time traffic information for effective implementation of ITS Thus, in the following subsection, we focus on introducing the new technologies of DSRC for vehicular networks

ECU

ECU ECU

ECU ECU ECU ECU

CAN BUS

Figure 1 Example of InV, V2V, and V2I communications

First launched (1998) Short-range,

high-bandwidth based

on the WiMedia Alliance’s UWB

CANRF (CAN over RF)/

CAN Bridge

Coverage 10 and 75 meters < 60 cm for a 500

MHz wide pulse, <

23 cm for a 1.3 GHz bandwidth pulse

Bit Rate 20-250 kbit/s per

channel extremely high data rates

1000+ Mbps

3 Mbit/s (Version 2.0 + EDR)

53-480 Mbps (WiMedia Alliance (proposed)

480 Mbit/s at tances up to 3 meters and 110 Mbit/s at up

Connect and exchange information between devices such as mobile phones, laptops, personal computers, video game consoles, etc

Game controllers, digital cameras, MP3 players, hard disks and flash drives

Also suitable for transferring parallel video streams.

Communication among sensors and ECUs

Table 1 Wireless technologies for InV communications

Applications Between Vehicle and

mobile phone

communi-cation

Roadside to vehicle and vehicle to vehicle com- munication

Internet access, Email, VoIP (Voice over IP) Roadside to vehicle and vehicle to vehicle com-

munication

Table 2 Wireless Technologies for V2V & V2I communications

Dedicated Short Range

Communications

DSRC is a short to medium range wireless

pro-tocol specifically designed for automotive use It

supports both public safety and private operations

for V2V and V2I communication environments

DSRC is a complement to cellular

communica-tions by providing very high data transfer rates in

circumstances where minimizing latency in the

communication link and isolating relatively small

communication zones are important (Armstrong, 2008) This technology for ITS applications is working in the 5.9 GHz band (the U.S.) or 5.8 GHz band (Japan & Europe) DSRC standards and communication stack are shown in Figure 2 (Jiang & Delgrossi, 2008)

IEEE 80.p

IEEE 802.11p is a draft amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard to add wireless access in the



Introduction

vehicular environment It defines enhancements

to 802.11 required to support ITS applications

This includes data exchange between high-speed

vehicles and between the vehicles and the roadside

infrastructure in the licensed ITS band of 5.9 GHz

(5.850-5.925 GHz) (IEEE 802.11p, 2008) IEEE

802.11p supports physical layer management

entity (PLME), lower MAC (Medium Access

Control) layer management entity (L_MLME),

Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments

physical layer (WAVE PHY) as well as WAVE

lower MAC in DSRC technology The 802.11p

Task Group is still active, resolving comments

on Draft 3.0, and the final approval is expected

in March 2009

IEEE 609—Family of Standards for

Wireless Access in Vehicular

Environments (WAVE)

The WAVE standards define an architecture and

a complementary, standardized set of services

and interfaces that collectively enable secure V2V and V2I wireless communications To-gether these standards provide the foundation for a broad range of applications in the trans-portation environment, including vehicle safety, automated tolling, enhanced navigation, traffic management and many others The IEEE 1609 Family of Standards for Wireless Access in Ve-hicular Environments (WAVE) consists of IEEE P1609.1—Standard for Wireless Access in Vehicu-lar Environments (WAVE)—Resource Manager, IEEE P1609.2—Standard for Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE)—Security Ser-vices for Applications and Management Messages, IEEE P1609.3—Standard for Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE)—Network-ing Services, and IEEE P1609.4—Standard for Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE)—Multi-Channel Operations (WAVE, 2008)

WAVE PHY IEEE 802.11p

WAVE lower MAC IEEE 802.11p

WAVE upper MAC IEEE P1609.4 LLC

IP

UDP TCP WSMP

IEEE 1609.3

WME IEEE P1609.3

PLME IEEE 802.11p

L_MLME IEEE 802.11p

U_MLME IEEE P1609.4

Safety Applications Non- Safety Applications

6

Introduction

CONSORTIUMS AND INITIATIVES

Vehicular networks, as an emerging area, attract

a number of R&D groups in the Europe, the

U.S., Japan and Singapore to work on the new

technologies

Car 2 Car Communication Consortium

The Car 2 Car Communication Consortium (2008)

is initiated by European vehicle manufacturers

and partners include Audi, BMW, Daimler, Fiat,

Honda, Opel, Renault, and Volkswagen Its

objec-tive is to further increase road traffic safety and

efficiency by means of inter-vehicle

communica-tions The schedule for the official agreements of

consortium is from July 2005 for the basic concept

till December 2010 for frequency allocation

Network on Wheels, Germany

Network on Wheels (NoW) (2008) was founded

in 2004 and the current partners include Daimler

AG, BMW AG, Volkswagen AG, Fraunhofer

In-stitute for Open Communication Systems, NEC

Deutschland GmbH, IMST GmbH and embedded

wireless GmbH Besides the partners, the

Uni-versities of Mannheim, Karlsruhe and Munich

and the Carmeq GmbH also cooperate within

NoW NoW is a German research project which

is supported by Federal Ministry of Education

and Research Its main objectives are to solve

technical problems on communication protocols

and data security for car-to-car

communica-tions and to submit the results to the Car 2 Car

Communication Consortium On May 8, 2008,

NoW presented its results in a final workshop at

the Daimler Research & Development Center in

Ulm (Germany)

SAFESPOT

SAFESPOT (2008) integrated research project

was co-funded by the European Commission

Information Society Technologies under the

initiatives of the 6th Framework Program The objective is to understand how intelligent vehicles and intelligent roads can cooperate to produce a breakthrough for road safety based on V2V and V2I communications

eSafety

eSafety (2008), the first pillar of the Intelligent Car Initiative (i2010 Intelligent Car Initiative, 2008), brings together the European Commission, public authorities, industry and other stakehold-ers with an aim to accelerate the development, deployment and use of Intelligent Vehicle Safety Systems that use information and communication technologies The main target is to contribute to the European Commission’s 2001 goal of reducing the road fatalities by 50% by 2010 (from 54 000

to 27 000 – between 2001 and 2010) (European Commission, 2008)

PReVENT

PReVENT (2008) is a European automotive dustry activity co-funded by the European Com-mission to contribute to road safety by developing and demonstrating preventive safety applications and technologies Membership in its Core Group consists of seven vehicle manufacturers (Daim-lerChrysler, BMW, Renault, PSA Peugeot Citroen, Ford, CRF, Volvo Technical Development), four automotive suppliers (Siemens VDO, Delphi, SAGEM and Bosch) and one research institute (INRETS) One goal of PReVENT is also to con-tribute to the European Commission’s 2001 goal

in-of halving the number in-of fatalities on Europe’s roads by 2010 as specified in eSafety for Road and Air Transport IP PReVENT Final Report can be found in PReVENT web site

EASIS

The EASIS (Electronic Architecture and tem Engineering for Integrated Safety Systems)



Introduction

(2007), which was part of the European

Com-mission’s 6th Framework Programme launched

in 2004, is a partnership of 22 European vehicle

manufacturers, automotive suppliers, tool

sup-pliers and research institutes with the aim to

develop technologies for the realization of future

ISS (Integrated Safety Systems)

SEVECOM

SEVECOM (Secure Vehicular

Communica-tion) (2008), an EU-funded project launched in

2006, focuses on providing a full definition and

implementation of security requirements for

ve-hicular communications A liaison with security

activities in EASIS supported the activities of

SEVECOM Its members include TRIALOG,

Bosch, Budapest University of Technology &

Economics, Daimler, EPFL, CRF-Fiat Research

Center, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, and Ulm

University The SEVECOM project will end by

January 1, 2009

Vehicle Safety Communications

Consortium

The Vehicle Safety Communications (VSC)

Proj-ect was a 2.5 year program started in May 2002

Vehicle Safety Communications Consortium

(2008) members, including BMW,

DaimlerChrys-ler, Ford, GM, Nissan, Toyota and Volkswagen,

participated with the U.S Department of

Trans-portation in this cooperative program The

objec-tive was to identify vehicle safety applications

enhanced or enabled by external communications,

determine their respective communication

re-quirements, evaluate the emerging 5.9 GHz DSRC

vehicle communications technology and align the

proposed DSRC communications protocols to

meet the needs of vehicle safety applications

UsDOT

The U.S Department of Transportation’s

(US-DOT, 2008) ITS program focuses on intelligent

vehicles, intelligent infrastructure and the creation

of an intelligent transportation system through the integration of these two components The Federal ITS Program Initiatives in 2004 included Vehicle Infrastructure Integration, Cooperative Intersection Collision Avoidance Systems, and In-tegrated Vehicle Based Safety Systems Through the Integrated Vehicle-Based Safety Systems initiative, the USDOT is seeking to establish a partnership with the automotive and commercial vehicle industries to accelerate the introduction

of integrated vehicle-based safety systems into the Nation’s vehicle fleet

VII Consortium (VIIC)

VII (Vehicle and Infrastructure Integration) Consortium (VIIC) (VIIC and VII Program Over-view, 2005; Robinson, 2006) was incorporated

in November 2004, and cooperative agreement was signed in December 2005 Current member participation includes Ford, DCX, Nissan, Honda,

VW and BMW The objective is to create an enabling communication infrastructure to save lives using intelligent warning systems, improve mobility and congestion, enhance driving expe-rience with new services and enhance roadway maintenance and planning VIIC provides single voice to USDOT and joint pre-competitive tech-nology development environment

is a multi-disciplinary and cooperative program for staffs, faculties and students from universities statewide to engage in cooperative projects with private industry, state and local agencies, and non-profit institutions Its mission is to develop

8

Introduction

solutions to the problems of California’s surface

transportation systems Current PATH research

projects are divided into four program areas:

Policy and Behavioral Research, Transportation

Safety Research, Traffic Operations Research,

and Transit Operations Research

CALM Continuous Communications

for Vehicles

CALM (2008) is under ISO TC 204 Working

Group 16 Wide Area Communications-Protocols

and Interfaces The scope of CALM is to provide

a standardized set of air interface protocols and

parameters for medium and long range, high

speed ITS communication including V2V and

V2I communications

AUTOSAR

AUTomotive Open System ARchitecture

(AU-TOSAR, 2008) is a partnership of automotive

manufacturers and suppliers working together to

develop and establish an open and standard

auto-motive software architectures Its core partners

are BMW, Bosch, Continental, Daimler, Ford,

OPEL, GM, PSA Peugeot Citroën, TOYOTA, and

Volkswagen The AUTOSAR project plan was

released in May 2003 and the first AUTOSAR

Open Conference held in October 2008

JasPar

JasPar (2008) is formed by the Japanese

automo-tive companies and its board members include

TOYOTA MOTOR CORPORATION, Nissan

Motor Co., Ltd, Toyota Tsusho Electronics, Honda

R&D Co., Ltd and DENSO CORPORATION The

aim of JasPar is to reduce technology

develop-ment costs and promote technology developdevelop-ment

by encouraging Japanese companies to

collab-oratively develop pre-competitive technologies

such as automotive LAN enabling technology,

middleware and software platform, and contribute

to development of global standards

Internet ITs Consortium (Japan)

Internet ITS Consortium (2008) is developing

a common Internet ITS platform and aims for promotion of a standardized global Internet ITS specification It is formed by Japanese companies and has 11 companies as Executive Members, 12 companies as Regular Members and 69 companies

as Supporting Members

A*CAR in Singapore

With the rapid growth in the global automotive population, the A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research) Capabilities for Automotive Research (A*CAR) began as a task-force with the aim of establishing an initiative

to address technical challenges in the tive area and provide technical leadership to the automotive supplier industry in Singapore through R&D (Yong, 2008) A*CAR taskforce has launched an automotive consortium to bring together automotive OEMs, suppliers and R&D community to work hand in hand in addressing key research areas in automotive technology The consortium is driven by 7 A*STAR research institutes namely, Data Storage Institute (DSI), Institute for Infocomm Research (I²R), Institute

automo-of Chemical and Engineering Sciences (ICES), Institute of High Performance Computing (IHPC), Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), Institute of Microelectronics (IME), and Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology (SIMTech) (A*CAR, 2008)

FUTURE TRENDS

The global automotive industry is the world’s largest manufacturing industry and most industry

9

Introduction

analysts predict that there will be a year-on-year

growth till 2012 (PwC Automotive Institute,

2008) The overall market for automotive

network-ing will grow at a 10% annual rate through 2011

and the components for the automobile networking

market will nearly triple between 2005 and 2011

Driving this trend is the introduction of more

electronics in every vehicle, and that accounts

for the much faster annual growth rate than the

auto industry’s 2 to 3% (Regt, 2007)

In the future, more and more control modules

will be attached into the high-speed data

network-ing backbones embedded in a vehicle Vehicular

networks will simplify the operation of control

systems and allow more features to be deployed

within automobile For example, information and

direction displays will be embedded directly into

windshields Another example is that instead of

self-parking being a service that is offered only

on luxury cars, it will soon become a standard

feature on every car With the advances in

networking technologies, “self-driving cars” will

become possible in the future (Uldrich, 2008)

Neurotechnology that studies drivers’ brain

patterns and brain computers that read drivers’

intentions from their brainwaves through

electro-encephalogram (EEG) will help keep them alert

and monitor sleepy driver syndrome

Vehicular networks still plays a vital role in

enhancing the automotive industry for safety,

security and entertainment In the future, as

more and more information is streamed onto

the Internet, vehicular networks will allow

driv-ers and passengdriv-ers to enjoy their journey more

than ever before with entertainment and area

information

CONCLUSION

This introduction chapter presents the emerging

area of vehicular networks in the forms of

Intra-Vehicle (InV), Intra-Vehicle-to-Intra-Vehicle (V2V), and

Ve-hicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communications It briefly surveys the car communications, potential applications, potential wireless technologies, and specially designed technologies DSRC standards and communication stack for data exchange As the emerging area of vehicular networks has at-tracted a number of R&D groups in the world, this chapter then introduces the consortiums and initiatives working on advanced automotive tech-nologies in Europe, the U.S., Japan and Singapore

In the future, vehicular networks certainly play

a vital role in enhancing the automotive industry for safety, security and entertainment

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Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Chapter II Drive by Wire Systems:

Impact on Vehicle Safety

and Performance

Sohel Anwar

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, USA

INTRODUCTION

Drive by wire (DBW) systems are relatively new

technology that are increasingly finding their

place in modern automobiles A drive by wire

system is an automotive system that interprets

driver’s inputs and executes the commands to

produce desired vehicle behavior, typically via a

microprocessor-based control system A typical

drive-by-wire system comprises of redundant

sensors, actuators, microprocessors, and

com-munication channels for fault tolerance There

are no mechanical or hydraulic connections tween driver’s input interface (e.g throttle, brake, steering) and vehicle system (e.g engine/traction motor, brake/steering actuators) in a drive by wire equipped vehicle

be-A broadened definition of drive by wire tems will include other microprocessor based automotive control systems such as anti-lock braking system (ABS), traction control system (TCS), yaw stability control (YSC), etc These systems are designed to enhance the safety of the vehicle by continuously monitoring various

sys-ABSTRACT

An overview of the drive by wire technology is presented along with in-depth coverage of salient drive by systems such as throttle-by-wire, brake-by-wire, and steer-by-wire systems, and hybrid-electric propul- sion A review of drive by wire system benefits in performance enhancements and vehicle active safety is then discussed This is followed by in-depth coverage of technological challenges that must be overcome before drive-by-wire systems can be production ready Current state of the art of possible solutions to these technological hurdles is then discussed Future trends in the drive-by-wire systems and economic and commercialization aspects of these system are presented at the conclusion of the chapter.



Drive by Wire Systems

vehicle states and taking corrective action and /

or warning the driver upon detection of an

im-pending unsafe vehicle condition The first such

system came into commercialization is ABS in

early 1970’s It was followed by traction control

system and electronic stability control in the 1980’s

and 1990’s (Margolin, 1997; Stanton & Marsden,

1997; Wagstaff, 1999; Davis, 2001; Higgins &

Koucky, 2002; Anon, 2003; Fowler, 2003; Ross,

2003; Lee, 2003; Daniels, 2005; Kendall, 2005)

The first true drive by wire system to come to

the market was Throttle By Wire (TBW) which

was incorporated in high end vehicles such as Audi

A6, Mercedes Benz, Lexus, and BMW models

in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s The TBW

systems were advantageous in stability control

applications where the throttle deactivation may

be needed in order to improve the traction so that

sufficient brake torque can be generated

Electro-hydraulic brake (EHB) system, a form

of brake by wire (BBW), was first introduced in

Mercedes Benz SL series in 2001-02 (Higgins &

Koucky, 2002) Although hydraulically actuated,

these brakes operate on commands from sensors

at the brake pedal and generate the necessary

brake pressure at the wheel cylinders via a set

of electronically controlled valves and a pump

However, the brake by wire system was

decom-missioned and removed from the vehicle due to a

number of field problems a few years later Work

on the electro-mechanical brakes (EMB), another

form of brake by wire system that does not use

hydraulic fluid, was done in the late 1990’s by

number of automotive companies such as Bosch,

Continental, and TRW However, issues related

to their reliability and fault tolerance still remain

which must be addressed before these system can

be used in an automobile

Steer by wire (SBW) system is by far the most

complex drive by wire system which is also the

most safety critical by-wire system in an

automo-bile In a pure steer by wire system, the steering

column is eliminated Sensors mounted on the

steering wheel are interpreted by the controller

to generate the correct amount of road wheel angle using electric motors based on the vehicle velocity If a sensor stops functioning properly, the controller will not be able to actuate the motors to generate the correct road wheel angle, potentially causing hazardous situation

Figure 1 shows a brief chronology of the drive

by wire system introduction into the modern automobile with the broadened definition (Iser-mann et al, 2002) As shown, the steer by wire system will likely be the last of the drive by wire system to be introduced in the automobile due to its complexity and safety criticality

In an even broader definition, hybrid electric vehicles, electric vehicles, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles can also be classified as drive by wire equipped automobiles due to the electronic control of various subsystems in these vehicles Electric vehicles (EV) by their very nature are drive by wire that is propelled by electronic control

of the electric traction motor based on the sensor information from the throttle pedal However, the steering and brakes of an EV may still be hydro-mechanically operated In case of hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), a sophisticated microprocessor based control system channels the power flow between the internal combustion (IC) engine, the battery, the electric motor / generator, and the vehicle wheels (Lu & Hedrick, 2005) All of these functions are done via a central controller for optimal performance Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are very similar to hybrid electric vehicle, except that a more powerful battery extends the vehicle range in pure electric mode

This chapter is organized as follows: A more detailed coverage on drive by wire system is covered in the next section The performance and safety benefits of the drive by wire systems are il-lustrated in the following section This is followed

by the section on technological challenges and possible solutions associated with DBW system Future trends for the DBW system is presented in the next section Lastly, some final thought will

be presented in the conclusion section

Drive by Wire Systems

DRIVE BY WIRE SYSTEMS:

CURRENT STATE OF THE ART

Figure 2 shows a pictorial view of a number of

drive by wire systems in a concept automobile In

addition to standard drive by wire systems, this

concept vehicle also includes a 42V converter

which is used to power the by-wire systems With

all the drive by wire systems in the vehicle which

use electrical power for actuation, the electric

power demand must be met using higher voltage

systems 42V power source is thought to be a

compromise between high voltage requirement

and safety However, the power demand for

hy-brid electric vehicles is significantly higher due

to propulsion need and hence uses a 240-300V

DC power bus An extra layer of safety in the

design of such systems must be incorporated

to eliminate the possibility of electrocution In

addition, for fault tolerant architecture, at least

two or more such power sources are required for

a DBW equipped vehicle

Figure 1 Hazard severity of failures in advanced automotive control and drive by wire systems

Figure 3 illustrates the first commercialized brake by wire system by Daimler Benz (Higgins

& Koucky, 2002) This is an electro-hydraulic brake (EHB) system with mechanical backup that was installed in SL 500 model The brake pedal displacement sensor output is used to determine the desired wheel cylinder pressure which is generated via a closed loop control system that includes a set of electro-hydraulic valves and an electric motor driven pump This system was later recalled due to reliability issues Since then

no automakers have incorporated brake by wire systems in any of their vehicles

Figure 4 shows another concept vehicle that incorporates drive by wire systems on a hybrid electric vehicle This concept is based on the synergy of combining a DBW system with HEV The DBW systems can easily be powered by the HEV battery pack or the high voltage power bus The IC engine along with the motor generator will ensure that power is always available for the DBW systems



Drive by Wire Systems

Figure 2 Concept drive by wire equipped vehicle

Figure 3 Brake by wire equipped Mercedes Benz model SL 500 (source: Daimler Benz)

 6

Drive by Wire Systems

Figure 4 A drive by wire equipped hybrid electric concept vehicle

Figure 5 General Motors’ HyWire concept vehicle (source: GM)



Drive by Wire Systems

Another concept vehicle that incorporates drive

by wire system in a Fuel Cell HEV (FCHEV) is

illustrated in Figure 5 The concept vehicle was

designed by General Motors and was codenamed

“HyWire” (“Hy” for hydrogen fuel cell and “Wire”

for drive by wire) GM later renamed this vehicle

“FX-3” and built a prototype of this vehicle in

2006 This vehicle has fuel cell propulsion system

with four wheel electric traction motors Vehicle

steering, braking, and suspension are all controlled

electronically (drive by wire)

Drive-By-Wire systems offer a number of

benefits when incorporated on a vehicle Some

of the benefits are as follows:

(via software updates) for added or tunable

features such as brake pedal feel / enhanced

safety via stability control

perfor-mance by prepositioning brake calipers for

fast brake actuation or allowing for

over-steering to enhance maneuverability

better engine / motor / powertrain control

and via regenerative braking

such as adjustable feel at driver’s interface

(steering wheel, brake / accelerator

ped-als)

and warning to the driver which enhances

the safety, reliability, and maintenance of

the vehicle

multi-functionality in a single system thereby

mak-ing today’s advanced features (e.g stability

control systems via active steering) more

cost effective in these automobiles

additional features, but also can free up

premium packaging space by eliminating

the steering column thereby enabling easy

assembly of the instrument panel

ratio at different vehicle speeds for additional safety

equipped vehicle on the automated highways

of the future This feature will further hance safety and comfort of the driver

operator safety & performance is possible with SBW vehicles

production cost for steering systems via standardized modules and software

vibration, and harshness (NVH) since there

is no direct mechanical or hydraulic link from the pedal to the wheels ABS pulsation

in normal hydraulic brake will disappear in

However, there are a number of challenges that

a DBW system must address before full cialization These challenges are discussed in the

commer-“Technological Challenges” section

In this section, the following drive by wire systems are presented in more detail: