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1 Tài liệu hướng dẫn học tập ******* NGÔN NGỮ HỌC ĐỐI CHIẾU (Lưu hành nội bộ Internal use only) LINGUISTIC CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS Edited, supplemented, corrected contents and vocabulary explained by M A[.]

Edited, supplemented, corrected contents and vocabulary explained

by M.A Trần Mạnh Trung in 2023

********************

(Biên tập, bổ sung, sửa lỗi nội dung và chú giải từ vựng

bởi Th.S Trần Mạnh Trung năm 2023)

PART 01 : BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

(Phần 01 : KIẾN THỨC NỀN)

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A COMMON CONCEPTS

(CÁC KHÁI NIỆM CHUNG)

1 Contrastive Analysis (C.A): Definition and the Aims of the Discipline

(Phân tích đối chiếu : Định nghĩa và mục tiêu môn học)

a Definition: C.A is the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example

the sound system or the grammatical system

C.A was developed and practised in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of Structural Linguistics to language teaching

b Aims: C.A is based on the following assumptions:

a the main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language

b these difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis

c teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of interference

Contrastive Analysis was more successful in Phonology than in other areas of language, and declined in the 1970s as interference was replaced by other explanations of learning difficulties

In recent years Contrastive Analysis has been applied to other areas of language, for example the discourse systems This is called Contrastive Discourse Analysis

Vocabulary:

1 Contrastive Analysis: Phân tích đối chiếu

2 assumption: giả thiết, giả định

3 interference: sự can thiệp

4 Phonology: Âm vị học

5 incline: làm cho suy giảm

6 Discourse: Diễn ngôn

7 the first language (L1): ngôn ngữ thứ nhất / tiếng mẹ đẻ

2 Typology (Phân loại học)

Typology is the classification of languages into types For example, languages may be

classified according to whether or not they are tone languages or according to their most typical syntactic structures, e.g whether they are SVO languages (Subject – Verb- Object languages) like English or SOV languages (Subject – Object – Verb - languages) like Japanese

Vocabulary:

1 classification: sự phân loại

2 tone language: ngôn ngữ thanh điệu (a language in which variations in pitch distinguish different words.)

Notes: A tone language, or tonal language, is a language in which words can differ in tones (like pitches

in music) in addition to consonants and vowels

Many languages, including Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, Lao, Hmong, are tonal.[1] Other languages,

including Indo-European languages such as English and Hindi, are not considered tone languages They can use Intonation (linguistics) in different ways

3 Behaviorism (Chủ nghĩa Hành vi)

A theory of psychology which states that human and animal behavior can and should

be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind It led to theories of

learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behavior

of an individual (a response), based on a history of reinforcement

Behaviorism was used by psychologists like Skinner, Osgood, and Staats to explain first language learning, but these explanations were rejected by adherents of generative grammar and many others

7 adherent: người tuân thủ

8 generative grammar: ngữ pháp tạo sinh

4 Bilingualism (Đa ngôn ngữ)

Bilingualism is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group

of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation The use of two languages

by an individual is known as individual bilingualism, and the knowledge of two languages by members of a whole community or the presence of two languages within a society is called societal bilingualism When two communicative functions in different social domains it is known as diglossia

Vocabulary:

1 inhabitant: cư dân

2 societal: thuộc xã hội

3 domain: lãnh địa, lãnh thổ

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4 diglossia: sự pha trộn ngôn ngữ (a situation in which two languages (or two varieties of the same language) are used under different conditions within a community, often by the same speakers )

5 Variable (Biến thể)

A linguistic item has various forms (variants) The different forms of the variable may

be related to differences in style or to differences in the socio – economic background, education, age, or sex of the speakers

There are variables in the phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon of a language Examples in English include:

1, the ‘ng’ variable as in ‘coming’, ‘working’, in careful formal speech it often occurs

as /iŋ/, e.g /kʌmiŋ/ coming, /wə:kiŋ/ working, but in informal or regional speech it often occurs as /kʌmn/ com’n, /wə:kn/ work’n

2, the marker on verb forms for 3rd-person singular present tense (as in He works here), which is a variable because in some non-standard and some new varieties of English a variant without the ending (as in He work here) may occur

Linguistic rules which try to account for these variables in language are referred to as variable rules

Vocabulary:

1 socio – economic background: bối cảnh kinh tế-xã hội

2 formal speech: lời nói trang trọng

3 informal: không trang trọng

4 regional: theo vùng, miền

5 non-standard: không theo chuẩn mực

7 rule: quy tắc, nguyên tắc

8 account for: giải thích cho

6 Usage (Cách sử dụng)

A distinction made by Widdowson between the function of a linguistic item as an element in a linguistic system (usage) and its function as part of a system of communication (use)

For example, the progressive aspect may be studied as an item of grammar or usage (i

e to consider how it compares with other aspects and tenses in English and the constructions

in which it occurs) and in terms of its use (i.e how it is used in discourse for performing such communicative acts as descriptions, plans, commentaries etc.)

The meaning a linguistic item has as an example of usage is called its signification, and the meaning it has as an example of use is called its value

Vocabulary:

1 usage: (trong hệ thống ngôn ngữ) cách dùng thông thường, tập quán, thói quen

2 use: cách dùng (trong giao tiếp)

3 progressive: tiến triển

4 aspect: thể thức, hiện trạng

5 commentary: chú thích, bình luận

7 Generative Grammar (Ngữ pháp tạo sinh)

Generative Grammar is a type of grammar that attempts to define and describe by a set

of rules or principles all the grammatical sentences of a language and no ungrammatical ones This type of grammar is said to generate, or produce, grammatical sentences

In other words, Generative Grammar is a type of grammar which describes a language

in terms of a set of logical rules formulated so as to be capable of generating the infinite number of possible sentences of that language and providing them with the correct structural description

5 formulated (adj.) theo công thức

8 Transformational-Generative Grammar (Ngữ pháp cải biến tạo sinh)

Transformational-Generative Grammar is an early version of the Generative Theory that emphasized the relationships among sentences that can be seen as transforms or transformations of each other, for example the relationships among simple active declarative sentences (e.g He went to the store), negative sentences (He didn’t go to the store), and questions (Did he go to the store?)

Such relationships can be accounted for by transformational rules The Standard Theory component that produces or generates basic syntactic structures called deep structures; a transformational component that changes or transforms those basic structures into sentences called surface structures; a phonological component, which gives sentences a phonetic representation so that they can be pronounced; and a semantic component, which deals with the meaning of sentences

Vocabulary:

1 transform: biến đổi, biến hóa

2 account for: giải thích cho

3 representation: sự diễn tả, sự đại diện

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9 Case Grammar (Ngữ pháp cấu trúc)

Case Grammar is an approach to grammar developed in the 1970s which stresses the semantic relationships in a sentence Parts of case grammar have been incorporated into more recent versions of Generative Grammar

( Case grammar là một cách tiếp cận và phân tích ngôn ngữ Ở đó, động từ được coi là thành phần chủ đạo của một câu, và động

từ đó được liên kết với các dạng thức khác nhau của danh từ )

Vocabulary:

1 curriculum: chương trình giảng dạy

2 instruction: chỉ dẫn, dạy dỗ

3 institutional setting: bối cảnh theo thể chế

4 deliver: phân phối

A CA specifies those features of L2 which are different forms the corresponding features of the LI, and, by implication, those which are identical Our assumption is that the L1: L2 identities will not have to be learned by the L2 learners, since he knows them already

by virtue of his knowledge

The learner must be allowed, indeed encouraged, to transfer this 'suitable’ L1 knowledge to L2 usage This means that those L2 structures that match L1 structures must constitute part of the materials, since materials do not only teach what is new and unknown,

but provide confirmation of interlingual identities Certainly the learner needs to be given opportunities to discover for himself that transfer from L1 in cases of isomorphism will result

in acceptable L2 utterances

b) Grading (Phân trình độ)

The classical CA statement pertinent to grading is: “The student who comes in contact with a foreign language will find some features of its quite easy and other extremely difficult Those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him and those elements that are different will be difficult” (Lado 1957)

Since it is a universal principle of educalion that learning should proceed from simple to difficult, it seems to follow that isomorphic L2 elements should be taught first There are a number of objections that can immediately be raised, however The first one is concerned with the integrity of linguistic systems: if we postpone just one term of a system in the syllabus, the student's grasp of the terms he has learnt must be not only partial, but distorted

A second objection to grading by contrastivity is that as a criterion it may clash with other equally important criteria: for example, since the English articles are contrastively difficult for Slavic L1 learners, they should be delayed; but they have such hi frequency and utility that they must be taught early

A third objection to following the precept of ‘easiest first’ is a psychological one: extended early experienced of positive transfer (+T) sets up expectations of continuing +T So the learner will inevitably be disappointed when he comes to learn contrasting L2 structures

12 American and British English (Tiếng Anh Mỹ và Anh Anh)

The differences between British and American English can be seen in: spelling, pronunciation, grammar, use of some words and phrases

a Differences in British/ American spelling

Example: analyse / analyze

* -lled / - led (ed- and -ing)

Example: travelled / traveled

* -re / -er

Example: centre / center

* -logue / -log

Example: catalogue / catalog

b Differences in British/ American pronunciation

Differences in pronunciation between American English (A.E) and British English (B.E) can be divided into:

- Differences in accent:

A.E is rhotic while B.E is non-rhotic; that is, the letter ‘r’ is only pronounced in B.E when it is immediately followed by a vowel sound (unless it is silent) Where A.E has /r/ before a consonant, B.E has nothing

- Differences in stress:

Examples:

- B.E (1st stress) / A.E (2nd stress): caffeine, cannot

- B.E (2nd stress) / A.E (1st stress): defense, ice cream

- B.E (2nd stress) / A.E (3rd stress): advertisement

c Differences in British/ American grammar

- In names of American rivers, the word ‘river’ usually comes after the name (for example, Colorado River), whereas for British rivers it comes before (as in River Thames)

- The use of the Present Perfect and the Simple Past: the differences involving the use

of the Present Perfect and the Simple Past include ‘already’, ‘just’ and ‘yet’

*British English:

- I have just had lunch

- I have already seen that film

- Have you finished your homework yet?

* American English:

- I just had lunch / I have just had lunch

- I already saw that film./ I have already seen that film

- Did you finish your homework yet? / Have you finished your homework yet?

d Differences in British/ American vocabulary

Let’s see the following pairs of B.E and A.E as examples:

1 (A.E) truck / lorry (B.E)

2 (A.E) on the weekend / at the weekend (B.E)

3 (A.E) on a team / in a team (B.E)

4 (A.E) football / soccer (B.E)

5 (A.E) dreamed / dreamt (B.E)

Vocabulary:

1 rhotic: phát âm rõ ‘r’

2 spelling: chính tả

13 Standard English (Tiếng Anh chuẩn mực)

Standard English (S.E) is the prestigious variety of English that is understood all over the world where any knowledge of any variety of English exists S.E relates to vocabulary and grammar and independent of pronunciation

S.E is a term generally applied to a form of the English language that is thought to be normative for educated native speakers It encompasses grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and

to some degree pronunciation or possibly accents

S.E is not widely produced in speech, it is only used in writing, only a minority of people within a country actually use it when they talk

Standard words in English are divided into neutral words, colloquial words, bookish words

* Neutral words take the majority of the English vocabulary They are used in all styles and all spheres of human life, neither formal nor informal)

* Colloquial words are used in spoken language rather than in written language They are informal , casual lively, friendly, humorous and a great number of them are short or shortened words such as ‘kid’, ‘dad’, …

* Bookish words are words chiefly used in formal speech, writing, poetry, …

5 neutral word: từ trung tính

6.colloquial word: từ thông tục

7 bookish word: từ sách vở

8 casual lively: sống động giản dị

9 formal: trang trọng

10 informal” không trang trọng

14 Non - Standard English (Tiếng Anh không chuẩn mực)

The term ‘non-standard’ was introduced by linguists and lexicographers to describe usage and language varieties that had been labeled with terms such as vulgar and illiterate

* There are some examples of non – standard words:

- ain’t (am not/ is not/ has not/ have not)

- amn’t (am not)

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- wanna (want to, want)

- oughta (ought to)

- lotta (lot of)

- gonna (going)

- gotcha (I got you)

- gimme (give me)

- dunno (don’t know)

* slang (is used by all people and it changes very quickly):

- dough (money), buck (dollar)

* vulgar (‘dirty’ words used by few people)

- dammed, bloody, hell

* dialect words (belong to definite territory or locality)

B BASIC LINGUISTIC CONCEPTS

(CÁC KHÁI NIỆM NGÔN NGỮ HỌC CĂN BẢN)

1 Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học)

The study of language as a system of human communication Linguistics includes many

different approaches to the study of language and many different areas of investigation, for

example sound systems (phonetics, phonology), sentence structure (syntax), relationships between language and cognition (cognitive linguistics), meaning systems (semantics, pragmatics, functions of language), as well as language and social factors (sociolinguistics)

Several specialized branches of linguistics have also developed in combination with other disciplines, e.g, applied linguistics, anthropological linguistics, psycholinguistics,

forensic linguistics

Vocabulary:

1 human: thuộc về con người

2 approach: sự tiếp cận

3 investigation: sự nghiên cứu

4 Phonetics (the study and classification of speech sounds): ngữ âm học

5 Phonology (the system of contrastive relationships among the speech sounds that constitute the fundamental components of a language): Âm vị học

6 Syntax (the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language): Cú pháp

7 cognition: sự nhận thức, tri nhận

8 Semantics (the branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning): Ngữ nghĩa học

9 Pragmatics (the branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used): Ngữ dụng học

10 Sociolinguistics (the study of language in relation to social factors, including differences of regional, class, and occupational dialect, gender differences, and bilingualism): Ngôn ngữ học xã hội

11 specialized branch: chuyên ngành

12 discipline: môn học (ở bậc Đại học)

13 forensic: tội phạm học

14 Applied linguistics: Ngôn ngữ học ứng dụng

15 Anthropological linguistics: Ngôn ngữ học nhân chủng

16 Psycholinguistics (the study of the relationships between linguistic behavior and psychological processes, including the process of language acquisition): Ngôn ngữ học Tâm lý

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2 Structural Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học cấu trúc)

Definition: An approach to linguistics which stresses the importance of language as a

system and which investigates the place that linguistic units such as sounds, words, sentences have within this system

Structural linguists, for example, studied the distribution of sounds within the words of

a language: that is, whether certain sounds appear only at the beginning of words or also in the middle or at the end They defined some sounds in a language as distinctive and used in the identification of words and some as variants Similar studies of distribution and classification were carried out in morphology and syntax

In its widest sense, the term has been used for various groups of linguists, including those of the Prague School, but most often it is used to refer to a group of American linguists such as Bloom Field and Fries, who published mainly in the 1930s to 1950s The work of these linguists was based on the theory behaviourism and had a considerable influence on some language teaching methods

6 classification: sự phân loại

7 morphology (the study of the forms of a morpheme.): hình thái học ngôn ngữ, hình vị học

3 Macro-linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học Vĩ mô)

Macro-linguistics is a structural linguistics’ term denoting the branch of linguistics that

deals with language as a whole It is also a field of study concerned with language in its broadest sense and including cultural and behavioral features associated with language

The interactive study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, science of law and artificial intelligence etc Branches

of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics etc

4 Two areas of Macrolinguistics (Hai lĩnh vực của Ngôn ngữ học Vĩ mô)

The two areas of Macrolinguistics are text analysis and discourse analysis

In general, a broadening of scope is aimed at, both “vertically” in terms of larger linguistic units and horizontally, to incorporate socio-cultural settings within linguistics This broadening of scope has so far been achieved in two ways The first is on the formal level and addresses the question of how sentences are organised into larger, suprasentential units or texts The second direction is the functional one, and looks at the ways in which people put language to use: this is the field of discourse analysis

The two terms text analysis and discourse analysis have sometimes been confused Some have suggested that the former refers to the European traditions and the latter to Anglo-American traditions for doing the same thing Another approach is to see them as complementary, discourse analysis starting with the outer frame of situations and working inwards to find the formal linguistic correlates to the situational variables, while text analysis starts with linguistic forms and asks in which contexts they are appropriate

The distinction being made is parallel to that drawn by Widdowson (1978) between usage and use The former, he says, has to do with the grammaticality of sentence, and an important part of foreign language learning "involves acquiring the ability to compose correct sentences" Such ability, though necessary, is not sufficient to equip the learner for communication in the FL, however: he also needs to know which sentences are appropriate to

a particular context Rules of use need to be acquired, as well as rules of usage Now, a well - formed sentence can be appropriate to its context in two ways: it can be formally appropriate,

in not violating the rules of textual organisation, and it can be functionally appropriate, in that

it communicates what its speaker intends Or a sentence can be formally as well as functionally inappropriate Formal inappropriacy to linguistic context results in incohesive text, while functional inappropriacy will lead to a breakdown in communication, that is, to incoherence

Vocabulary:

1 vertically: theo chiều dọc

2 horizontally: theo chiều ngang

3 suprasentential:siêu năng lực

4 complementary: bổ sung

5 inwards: hướng nội

6 correlates to: tương quan, tương liên với

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5 Micro-linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học Vi mô)

Microlinguistics directly analyses linguistic phenomena, such as phonology, grammar,

and lexicology

Micro-linguistics is a branch of linguistics that concerns itself with the study language

in the abstract, without regard to the meaning or notional content of linguistic expressions In

micro-linguistics, language is reduced to the abstract mental elements of syntax and phonology

These are broad terms which refer to two major types of linguistics Microlinguistics refers to phonetics, phonology, grammar and semantics, whereas macrolinguistics covers sociolinguistics, discourse analysis and other related disciplines

Vocabulary:

1 phenomena: hiện tượng

2 abstract: trừu tượng

3 mental element: yếu tố tinh thần

4 discourse analysis: phân tích diễn ngôn

5 sociolinguistics: Ngôn ngữ học Xã hội (the study of language in relation to social factors, including differences of regional, class, and occupational dialect, gender differences, and bilingualism.)

6 Diachronic Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học Lịch đại)

Diachronic linguistics is an approach to linguistics which studies how languages

change over time, for example the change in the sound systems of the Romance languages

from their roots in Latin (and other languages) to modern times or the study of changes between Early English to Modern British English They need for diachronic and synchronic descriptions to be kept apart was emphasized by the Swiss linguist Saussure Not all approaches to linguistic analysis make this distinction

Vocabulary:

1 Romance language (a group of related languages all derived from Vulgar Latin within historical times and forming a subgroup of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family The major languages of the family include French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian, all national languages): Ngôn ngữ gốc

La tinh

2 synchronic: đồng đại

3 root: nguồn gốc

7 Synchronic Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học Đồng đại)

The study of a language at a given point in time The time studied may be either the present or a particular poin in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics (or

historical linguistics), the study of a language over a period of time

In the 20th century, synchronic description has come to be regarded as prior to diachronic description; the latter presupposes that synchronic descriptions at various stages of the development of a language have already been carried out Previously, linguists had placed emphasis on diachronic linguistics The terminological distinction between synchronic and diachronic linguistics was first made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)

Vocabulary:

1 terminological: về thuật ngữ

2 distinction: sự phân biệt

3 dead language (a language which is no longer in everyday spoken use, such as Latin): tử ngữ

4 presuppose: giả định trước

5 dead language; Tử ngữ (a language which is no longer in everyday spoken use, such as Latin)

6 prior to: trước

7 the latter: cái sau (dùng khi liệt kê - the former: cái trước)

8 Applied Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học ứng dụng)

Applied linguistic has two definitions:

1, The study of second and foreign language learning and teaching

2, The study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as lexicography, translation, speech pathology, etc

Applied linguistics uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology, and information theory as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models

of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such

as syllabus design, speech therapy, language planning, stylistics, etc

6 theoretical model: mô hình lý thuyết

7 syllabus design: thiết kế giáo trình

8 speech therapy: trị liệu ngôn ngữ

9 stylistics (the study of the distinctive styles found in particular literary genres and in the works of individual writers): Phong cách học / Văn phong học, Phong cách học

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9 Corpus Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học khối liệu)

An approach to investigating language structure and use through the analysis of large databases of real language examples stored on computer

Issues amenable to corpus linguistics include the meanings of words across registers, the distribution and function of grammatical forms and categories, the investigation

of lexico-grammatical associations (associations of specific words with particular grammatical constructions), the study of discourse characteristics, register variation, and (when learner corpora are available) issues in language acquisition and development

Vocabulary:

1 database: cơ sở dữ liệu

2 amendable: có thể sửa đổi

3 register (là một bộ nhớ dung lượng nhỏ và rất nhanh được sử dụng để tăng tốc độ xử lý của các chương trình máy tính bằng cách cung cấp các truy cập trực tiếp đến các giá trị cần dùng): thanh ghi / bộ nhớ trong máy tính

4 distribution: sự phân bố

5 association: sự kết hợp

6 language acquisition; sự tiếp thu, lĩnh hội ngôn ngữ

7 grammatical categories: các phạm trù ngữ pháp

8 variation: sự biến đổi

10 Interlanguage (Liên ngôn ngữ)

Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second- and foreign-language learners who are in the process of learning a language

In other words, Interlanguage is a language or form of language having features of two

others, typically a pidgin or a version produced by a foreign learner

In language learning, learner language is influenced by several different processes These

include:

- borrowing patterns from the mother tongue

- extending patterns from the target language, e.g by analogy

- expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known

Since the language which the learner produces using these processes differs from both the mother tongue and the target language, it is sometimes called an interlanguage, or is said

to result from the learner’s interlanguage system or approximative system

11 Meta-language (Siêu ngôn ngữ)

Meta-language is the language used to analyze or describe a language For example,

the sentence: ‘In English, the phoneme /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop is in meta-language It explains that the b-sound in English is made with vibration of the vocal cords and with the two lips stopping the airstream from the lungs’

5 vocal cord: dây thanh

6 airstream: luồng không khí

7 lung: phổi

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C PHÂN TÍCH NGÔN NGỮ HỌC

(LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS)

1 Error Analysis (Phân tích lỗi)

a Definition: Error Analysis is the study and analysis of the errors made by second language learners

Error analysis may be carried out in order to:

- identify strategies which learners use in language learning

- try to identify the causes of learner errors

- obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid to teaching

or in the preparation of teaching materials

Error analysis developed as a branch of applied linguistics in the 1960s, and set out to demonstrate that many learner errors were not due to the learners’ mother tongue but reflected universal learning strategies Error analysis was therefore offered as an alternative to contrastive analysis Attempts were made to develop classifications for different types of errors on the basis of the different processes that were assumed to account for them

b Kinds: There are two kinds of errors: intralingual and interlingual errors A basic

distinction was drawn between intralingual and interlingual errors Intralingual errors were classified as overgeneralizations (errors caused by extension of target language rules to inappropriate contexts), simplifications (errors resulting from learner’s producing simpler linguistic rules than those found in the target language), developmental errors (those reflecting natural stages of development), communication-based errors (errors resulting from strategies

of communication), induced errors (those resulting from transfer of training errors of

avoidance (resulting from failure to use certain target language structures because they were

thought to be too difficult), or errors of overproduction (structures being used too frequently)

Attempts to apply such categories have been problematic however, due to the difficulty

of determining the cause of errors By the late 1970s, error analysis had largely been seeded by studies of interlanguage and second language acquisition

super-c Mistake and error (Sơ xuất và lỗi)

A mistake made by a learner when writing or speaking and which is caused by lack of

attention, fatigue, carelessness or some other aspects of performance

Errors are sometimes classified according to vocabulary (lexical error), pronunciation (phonological error), and grammar (syntactic error), misunderstanding of a speaker's intention

or meaning (interpretive error), production of the wrong communication effects

Vocabulary:

1 identify: nhận dạng, xác định

2 strategy: chiến lược

3 cause: nguyên nhân

4 obtain: thu được

5 teaching material: tài liệu giảng dạy

6 assume: cho rằng

7 intralingual: nội tại ngôn ngữ

8 interlangual: liên ngôn ngữ

9 overgeneralization; khái quát hóa quá mức

10 extension; sự mở rộng

11 inappropriate: không thích hợp

12 simplification: sự đơn giản hóa

13 developmental: thuộc quá trình phát triển

14 induce: theo cảm tính

2 Phatic Communication / Communion (Giao tiếp xã giao)

Phatic communication is verbal or non-verbal communication that has a social function, such as to start a conversation, greet someone,

The term used by the British-Polish anthropologist Malinowski to refer to communication between people which is not intended to seek or convey information but has the social function of establishing or maintaining social contact Examples of phatic communion in English include such expressions as “How are you?” and "Nice day, isn't it?”

3 Indexical information (Thông tin chỉ mục)

Information which is communicated, usually indirectly, about the speaker or writer's social class, age, sex, nationality, ethnic group, etc., or his or her emotional state (e.g, whether excited, angry, surprised, bored, etc.)

Vocabulary:

1 indexical: thuộc mục lục, chỉ mục

2 ethnic group: nhóm dân tộc

3 social class: giai cấp

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4 national: quốc tịch

5 emotional: thuộc cảm xúc, thuộc tình cảm

6 state: trạng thái

4 Deictic information (Thông tin biểu lộ)

A term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance to a time, place, or person(s) Examples of deictic expressions in English are:

a) ‘here’ and ‘there’, which refer to a place in relation to the speaker:

- The letter is here (near the speaker)

- The letter is over there (further away from the speaker)

b, which refers to the speaker or writer

‘You’ which refers to the person or person addressed ‘He/she/they’ which refer to some other person or persons

Vocabulary:

1 deictic: chỉ, biểu lộ

2 person: ngôi thứ (xưng hô)

3 refer to: đề cập tới

PART 02 :

SO SÁNH VÀ ĐỐI CHIẾU CÁC HỆ THỐNG NGÔN NGỮ

(COMPARING AND CONTRASTING LANGUAGE SYSTEMS)

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1 The two general principles of executing a CA (Hai nguyên tắc chung để tiến hành so sánh, đối chiếu ngôn ngữ)

Before suggesting how CAs are executed on various levels of language, it will be useful

to outline the general principles of the procedures: since repetition will be avoided by so doing,

a measure of economy will be gained

Executing a CA involves two steps: description and comparison; and the steps are taken

in that order These two steps: description of L1 and L2, and comparison of the two

Furthermore, the two descriptions need to parallel The minimum requirement of ‘parallel description’ is that the two languages be described through the same model of description

First, different models can describe certain features of language more successfully than other models Second, if the “same” data from L1 and L2 are described by two different models, the descriptions are likely to highlight different facets of the data When this happens, the subsequent comparison will be unnecessarily difficult, and, what is more serious still, the analyst will be uncertain of the status of the contrasts he identifies

Linguistic typology tells us that human languages fall into several types according to which grammatical, phonological or lexical features they show preferences for If some models are better at describing certain features, it must follow that some models will describe certain languages better than others

We seem to be faced by a dilemma, then: on the one hand, there are good theoretical reasons for using the same model for yielding the descriptions of L1 and L2; on the other hand there are equally cogent practical reasons why this is undesirable

1, Describe L1 and L2 data independently, using the models which yield the fullest descriptions of either language, and then translate these two descriptions into a form which is model-neutral

2, A second solution would be to abandon the requirement that the two descriptions need to

be equally exhaustive A number of contrastivists have suggested that a CA should indeed show a descriptive imbalance, in favor of L2

Vocabulary:

1 execute: tiến hành, thực hiện

2 a measure of economy: biện pháp tiết kiệm

3 parallel: song song

4 model: mẫu, mô hình

5 facet: khía cạnh

6 highlight: nhấn mạnh

7 subsequent: tiếp theo

8 identify: nhận dạng

9 dilemma: sự tiến thoái lưỡng nan, tình trạng khó xử

10 yield: sản ra, sản sinh

11 cogent: chắc chắn, vững chắc

12 independently: độc lập

a) Prediction (Dự báo)

There seems to be three things that a CA can predict: it can predict - in the sense of identify - what aspects will cause problems; or it can predict difficulty; or it can predict errors, and a fourth possibility of predicting tenacity of certain errors, that is, their strong resistance

pre-to extinction through time and teaching There are, of course, purely quantitative limitations

on the numbers of learners errors that CAs can predict, limitations stemming from the fact that not all errors are the results of LI interference, i e interlingual errors Other major sources of errors have been recognized which are of a ‘non-contrastive’ origin These include: the effects

of target-language asymmetric (intralingual errors); transfer of training; strategy of L2 learning ; and L2 communication strategies

b) Scales of Difficulty (Độ khó)

The most well-known hierarchy of Fl learning difficulty is proposed by Stockwell and Bowen (1965) for phonology The Stockwell et al, scales are based on the notions of positive and negative transfer potential, and the conditions for such transfers are assumed to be statable

in terms of relations holding between matched rules of Ll and L2 There are three possible

interlingual rule relationships: i) L1 has a rule and L2 has equivalent one ii) L1 has a rule but L2 has no equivalent iii) L2 has a rule but LI has no equivalent

The second step is to ident the types of choices that either language makes available, and relating these choices There are three types of choice: optional, obligatory and zero These different availabilities of choice in L1 and L2 allow eight kinds of relationship between the two languages: the result is an eight-point hierachy of difficulty by coalescing

c) Diagnosis of Error (Chẩn đoán lỗi)

An important ingredient of the teacher’s role as monitor and assessor of learner's performance is to know why certain errors are committed It is on the basis of such diagnostic knowledge that the teacher organizes feedback to learners and remedial work Even the learners should know why he has committed errors if he is to self-monitor and avoid these

same errors in the future

d) Testing (Kiểm tra)

One of the requirements of a good language test is that should have validity: it should

be a true measure of the student's command of the language he has been taught The most valid

7 quantitative limitation: giới hạn về định lượng

8 stem from: bắt nguồn từ

14 transfer: chuyển sang

15 strategy: chiến lược

16 scale: quy mô

17 hierarchy: thứ bậc

18 propose: đề xuất

19 positive and negative: tích cực và tiêu cực

20 assume: giả sử, cho rằng

29 commit: mắc phải, cam kết

30 remedial work: khắc phục hậu quả

31 validity: hiệu lực

32 command: lệnh

33 comprehensive: toàn diện

3 The Three Dimensions of Linguistic Classification (Ba lĩnh vực phân loại ngôn ngữ học):

1 Sampson (1975) has pointed out that there are two broad approaches to linguistics, the generalistic and particularistic “On the one hand, linguistic treat individual languages: English, French, Chinese, and so on On the other hand, they consider the general phenomenon

of human language, of which particular languages are examples” Sampson proceeds to warm against seeing either of these approaches as inherently superior to the other, claiming that it is largely a matter of personal taste which approach one favors He also states that particularizes will tend to be anthropologists or philologers, while the generalists are likely to have more

philosophical interests

2 Along a second dimension linguists are divisible into those who choose to study one

or each language in isolation, and those whose ambition and methods are comparative The former are concerned to discover and specify the immanent “genius” of the particular language which makes it unlike any other language and endows its speakers with a psychic and cognitive uniqueness The comparatives Ellis (1966) proceeds from the assumption that, while every language may have need its individuality, all languages have enough in common for them to be compared and classified into types

3 The third dimension is that used by De Assure (1959) to distinguish “two sciences of language”: diachronic as opposed to synchronic De Assure explain the distinctions as follows:

”Everything that relates to the static side of our science is synchronic; everything that has to

do with evolution is diachronic Similarly, synchrony and diachrony designate respectively a language-state and an evolutionary phase”

Note: Ferdinand de Saussure (26 November 1857 – 22 February 1913) was a Swiss linguist, semiotician and philosopher His ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments in both linguistics and semiotics (Ký hiệu học) in the 20th century

Vocabulary:

1 dimension: phạm vi, lĩnh vực, chiều hướng

2 classification: phân loại

3 point out: chỉ ra

4 broad: rộng

5 generalistic: tổng quan, tổng quát

6 particularistic: cụ thể, riêng biệt, chi tiết

7 phenomenon: hiện tượng

13 superior: thượng đẳng, cao cấp hơn

14 personal taste: sở thích cá nhân

15 favor: ủng hộ

16 philologer: nhà triết học

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17 interest: sự quan tâm

18 divisible: phân chia

19 ambition: tham vọng, mong muốn

20 in isolation: tách rời, riêng rẽ

21 comparative: so sánh

22 specify: chỉ rõ, định rõ

23 immanent: nội tại

24 genius: điểm đặc biệt/ thiên tư

25 endow: ưu đãi, phú cho, ban cho

26 psychic: tâm linh

27 cognitive: tri nhận, nhận thức

28 uniqueness: sự độc đáo

29 assumption: giả thiết, giả định

30 distinction: sự phân biệt

31 static side: mặt tĩnh tại

32 evolution: sự tiến hoá

De Assure He was thinking of language evolution in the historical or phylogenic sense, which pertain to change which spans generations and centuries The term ‘diachronic’ is also in the sense of ontogeny, or change within the human individual

The study of second-language of foreign-language learning is concerned with a monolingual becoming a bilingual: two languages are involved, the L1 and the L2, so we have here a true case of interlanguage diachronic study Another branch of linguistic that is concerned with the transition from one language to another is translation theory, or the study

of how texts from one language are transformed into comparable texts in another language

There are thus three branches of two-valued (2 languages are involves) interlingual linguistics: translation theory-which is concerned with process of text conversion: error analysis, and contrastive analysis – the last two having as the object of enquiry the mean whereby a monolingual learns to be bilingual

Vocabulary:

1 emergence: sự xuất hiện

2 orientation: sự định hướng

3 to be viewed: được xem như là

4 phylogenic: lịch sử tiến hoá, phả hệ

5 pertain: liên quan

6 span: trải qua thời gian

7 ontogeny: sự phát sinh cá thể

8 transition: sự chuyển tiếp

9 interlingual: liên ngôn ngữ

10 thus: do đó, do vậy

11 object of enquiry: đối tượng nghiên cứu, điều tra

12 whereby: theo đó

13 conversion: chuyển đổi

5 The Constrastive Macro-linguistics (Đối chiếu Ngôn ngữ học Vĩ mô)

Definition: A field of study concerned with language in its broadest sense and including

cultural and behavioral features associated with language Macro linguistics is what Yngve (1975) call “broad” or “human” linguistics, the goal of which he defines as “to achieve a scientific understandings of how people communicate”

Hymes (1974) identifies six variables which he suggests that ethnographer of speaking must refer to in characterising any particular speech event: Setting Participants, Purpose, Key, Content and Channel

a, Setting (Bối cảnh):

The time and place of speech determine its form: thus questions put to a lecturer in a bar after the plenary session will be formulated differently from those put in the conference hall

b, Participants (Người tham gia)

Hymes identifies four participant roles: addressor, speaker, addressee and audience Speech to one’ boss is difierent from speech to one's inferiors

c, Purpose (Mục đích)

Every speech act has a purpose Much attention is currently focused on the purposes or

‘communication functions’ of language, as applied linguists try to produce notional syllables Some obvious purposes of speech acts are: persuation, command, advice, greeting etc Note that a speech act such as persuation may embrace several sentences: it is still one act however

e, Content (Nội dung)

What one is talking about - the topic – codetermines the language forms selected One speaks for example of the register of science In some communities certain topics are not spoken about in polite society, they are ‘taboo’: excrement, sexual matters, personal finance are such categories in British society

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f, Channel (Kênh)

The two primary channels for verbal communication are speech and writing Even with the other five variables kept constant written message is likely to have a different form an equivalent spoken one

There is a simpler formula to express these six Hymesian variables that determines a

speaker’s communicative competence: who says what to whom, where and when, how and

why

Vocabulary:

1 broadest sense: nghĩa rộng nhất

2 tone: giọng điệu

3 manner: cách thức

4 spirit: tinh thần

5 human: thuộc con người

6 ethnographer: nhà dân tộc học

7 characterise: biểu thị đặc điểm, mô tả đặc điểm

8 plenary session: phiên họp toàn thể

25 communicative competence: năng lực giao tiếp

6 The Levels of Language (Các cấp độ ngôn ngữ)

There are four levels of language:

- The level of phonology

- The level of lexis

- The level of morphology

- The level of syntax

There has been a traditional “procedural orientation” which has dictated that, in the course of producing a total description of a language, the phonology has been description before morphology and the morphology before the syntax This “direction” of description seem to have been dictated by two things: the linguist’s perception of feasibility, and a

conviction that the phonology of a language is somehow ‘basic’ and merits priority in description The idea of feasibility derives from the fact that the sound-system (phonology) of

a language is more finite, more of a ‘close system’ than grammatical or lexical systems and therefore more amendable to exhaustive description

It is an undeniable fact than the procedural direction of describing the phonology first has been observed by structural or descriptivist linguists, frequently to the relative or total neglect of the other description levels

It was a regulation within structural linguistics that the level of phonology should be carried out without reference to the other linguistic that the level To invoke grammatical factors to facilitate the description of the phonology of a language or vice versa, was viewed

as illegitimate and this “mixing levels” was ruled out of court Nowadays mixing is allowed, and sometimes found to be necessary to account for some fact of language

Now, any CA involves two steps: first, there is the stage of description when each of two languages is descripted on the appropriate level; the second stage is the stage of juxtaposition for comparison In the first stage the observance of levels can be adhered to, but

it will frequently be necessary, at comparison stage, to cross levels Indeed, the degree to which it is necessary to cross levels at this stage is a useful measure of the degree to which it

is necessary to cross levels at this stage is useful measure of the degree of interlingual correspondence (contrast) between L1 and L2

5 in the course of : trong quá trình

6 procedural orientation: định hướng về quy trình

12 priority: sự ưu tiên

13 amendable: có thể sửa đổi

14 exhaustive: đầy đủ, triệt để

15 observe (v.): tuân thủ

16 neglect: sự sao nhãng

17 relative: tương đối

18 regulation: quy định, quy tắc

19 invoke: viện dẫn

20 illegitimate: không hợp pháp, không hợp lý

21 juxtaposition: đặt ngang bằng

22 adhered to: tuân thủ

23 cross: đi qua

24 non-correspondence: không cân xứng, không đối xứng

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7 The three ways in which data is idealised in linguistics (Ba cách lý tưởng hoá/ tối ưu hoá dữ liệu trong ngôn ngữ học)

a Regularisation (Thường quy hoá)

Spontaneous speech, even that produced by rational native speaker of a language is full

of false starts, hesitations, backtracking, mixed constructions and the like Chomsky (1965) attributes these to “such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attentions and interest” These should be regularised out of the data for linguistic analysis

b Standardisation (Tiêu chuẩn hoá)

There are two senses in which linguists may be said to standardize their data The first and literal sense means the selection of the Standard dialect for description This practice has

a long history into pre-structuralist times and associated with such factors as: linguistics conversativism, classically determined and logic-determined views of correctness, and the selection of a pedagogic norm of the language for foreign learners The sense of standardisation has to do with the homogeneity of the data: since the task of linguistic description would be complicated by having to cope with data taken from speakers with a mixture of regional or social backgrounds, informants are selected who speak the same standard, variety Most recently, the Transformational- Generativist, in response to Chomsky's claim that "Linguistic theory in concerned with an ideal speaker listener" have achieved Standardisation by limiting their attention to the data from one single individual - usually the linguisl himself, who serves as his own informant

c Decontextualisation (Phi ngữ cảnh hóa)

Examples of language use (e.g in a textbook lesson) that are presented without information concerning how they were used in a real context and which consequently fail to represent fully the meaning of a sentence or utterance Many language teaching approaches (e.g whole language, communicative language teaching), argue that languages should always

it is used (its context of situation)

Many language teaching approaches (e.g whole language, communicative language teaching), argue that language should always be presented in context

9 backtracking: quay lui

10 mixed construction: cấu trúc hỗn hợp

11 distraction: sự sao nhãng

12 shifts of attentions and interest: thay đổi sự chú ý và sở thích

13 regularise: chính quy hóa

14 standardisation: tiêu chuẩn hóa

15 sense: giác quan

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PART 03:

PRACTICE

(THỰC HÀNH)

A COMPARING AND CONTRASTING GRAMMAR

(SO SÁNH VÀ ĐỐI CHIẾU NGỮ PHÁP)

1 Grammar (Ngữ pháp)

Grammar is the study of rules governing the use of language The set of rules governing

a particular language is the grammar of that language Thus, each language can be said to have its own distinct grammar Grammar is part of the general study of language called linguistics The subfields of grammar are phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics Traditionally, however, grammar includes only morphology and syntax

“Tense can be defined as the linguistic expression of time relations Time is

independent of language and is common to all human beings It is conceptualized by many peoples, though not necessarily by all, as being divided into past time, present time and

future time Tense systems are language specific and vary from one language to another, both in the number of tenses they distinguish and in the ways in which these tenses reflects temporal reference The Past tense refers exclusively to events in past time, The Present tense refers exclusively to events in present time, and The Future tense refers exclusively to events in future time.”

(A Downing, A University course in English Grammar, p.353)

Time relations are realized by the verbs forms Besides, other linguistic forms,

particular adverbs of time can also make reference to time

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Tense is a way of expressing events as occurring at points situated along the linear flow of time Within the linear flow, a point of reference must be established, with respect to which past events precede and future events follow

b Tenses in English

The grammatical present tense has no grammatical meaning beyond that of “verb”, it can cover a wide range of temporal references and is realized as a tense that only rarely has a direct relation to speech time

The past tense is the morphologically and semantically marked form

Consequently, we call Present tense the unmarked tense, and marked tense which is the Past tense

Strictly speaking, English has no future tense: “will” and “shall” belong to a set of auxiliaries and can express meanings other than reference to future time

Vocabulary:

1 reflect: phản ánh

2 temporal:tạm thời

3 reference: sự đề cập đến

4 unmarked: không biến đổi dạng thức

(In linguistics, marked refers to the way words are changed or added to give a special meaning The unmarked choice is just the normal meaning For example, the present tense is unmarked for English verbs That is, 'walk' to refer to present tense is unmarked, but 'walked' is marked.)

5 exclusively: dành riêng

6 linear flow: dòng chảy tuyến tính (thời gain)

7 with respect to: đối với

3 The Categories of Grammar (Các thuộc tính của ngữ pháp)

There are four fundamental categories of grammar: unit, structure, class and system Moreover, these four categories are universal: they are necessary and sufficient as a basis for the description of any language – which adds to their attractiveness for the contrastive analyst Only these four are required, no more and no fewer

a Unit (Đơn vị): The units of grammar which enter into the description of English and any

“related” language are: sentence – clause –phrase – word – morpheme Here they are arranged

on the scale from ‘largest’ to ‘smallest’, which implies that any unit consists of one or more instances of the next lower unit, and vice-versa, that any unit is a direct constituent of the next higher unit: sentences consist directly of clauses, clauses directly of phrases, and so on This

order of direct inclusion in turn implies a scale, which is called the rank scale,

In traditional CA, as in traditional linguistics, one does not analyse, nor, in the case of CA, juxtapose, units larger than sentences A single sentence in L1 will always correspond on a one-to-one basis with a single sentence in L2: the main difference is that some languages have

to be more explicit than others

b Structure (Cấu trúc): This category is the one most familiar to language teachers who have

adopted a “structural” approach The “elements” making up the structure of the unit clause in

English are the Subject, Predicator, Complement and Adjunct

CAs have traditionally focused on the category structure, in this sense of the possible linear arrangement of units into clauses, phrases, and words

c Class (Loại): There are restrictions on which units can operate at given places in structure

There is one class of the unit phrases which can fill the Predicator slot in the clause: this we can call the ‘verb phrase’ ‘Thursday next’ exemplifies a unit phrase which typically occurs

as Adjunct: this we may call an instance of the class ‘adverbial phrase’

d System (Hệ thống): Each language allows its speakers choices from sets of elements which

are not-unlike the class – choices exemplified above – determined by the place which the element is to occupy ‘Choice’ here means ‘the selection of one particular term at one particular place on the chain in preference to another term or other terms which are also possible at that place (Muir)”

Systems operates over the domains of units: there are systems of sentences, of clauses,

of groups, of words and of morpheme Typical systems at clause rank are mood, transitive, theme, and information The mood system offers a choice between indicative and imperatives;

if the speaker of select indicative, a second choice is open to him, between declarative and interrogative, and so on It is likely that all languages operate the system of mood: but they are liable to differ in the formal characteristics of the exponents’ as they called, of any option

chosen

Language may differ, not in demanding differences structural exponents of identical system

or system-combination choices, but in offering ranges of options

9 inclusion; sự bao hàm, bao gồm

10 rank scale: thang bậc

11 correspond on: đối xứng

12 explicit: rõ ràng

13 subject: chủ ngữ (The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is performing the action)

14 object: tân ngữ (a thing, person, or matter to which thought or action is directed)

15 predicator: vị ngữ ( the part of a sentence or clause containing the verbal group; one of the four

or five major components into which clauses can be divided, the others being subject, object, adjunct, and (in some versions of the grammar) complement)

16 complement: bổ ngữ (In grammar, a complement is a word, phrase, or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a given expression)

17 adjunct: định ngữ (a word or phrase used to amplify or modify the meaning of another word or words in

27 exponent: giải thích, giải nghĩa, sự giảng giải

28 liable: chịu trách nhiệm

4 Grammatical Devices in Text Analysis

a) Reference (Quy chiếu)

Language can refer - or to make reference - in two ways When someone says “my son”

or “your son” He or she refers to some entity in the real world: real world reference is called exophoric reference, and plays a secondary role in textual organization But it is also possible

to refer, by language, to another bit language: this, reference – in – text, is called endophoric reference

b, Ellipsis (Tỉnh lược)

It will be clear to the reader that when pro-forms are used when they represent fuller occurring elsewhere in the cotext A degree of reduction is achieved by their use Ellipsis takes this process one step further and brings about the total elimination of a segment of text Its effect is “to create cohesion by leaving out… what can be taken over from preceding discourse” (Halliday and Hasan) As these authors suggest, ellipsis is usually anaphoric in English, but many also be cataphoric, where ellipsis segments appear in brackets

c) Comparison (So sánh)

Comparison is not invariably located in one sentence, although this is probably the most economical and most explicit way of stating comparison, as in: John is more intelligent than his sister

Comparison can equally be achieved across sentence-boundaries, as in:

1) My father is over 70 My mother is only 60

2) There are ten boys in his class John is the most intelligent

These two sentence-pairs are not related in the same way In l) there is no statement of comparison, no use of a comparative morpheme: the comparison is implied, and the reader must "work' to relate the two sentences in his mind In 2) there is a marker of comparison –

‘most', yet here also the reader must work to recover ellipsed segments, that is, to understand the second sentence of 2) as the most intelligent in the class”

d) Parallel structure (Cấu trúc song song)

Sentences in sequence normally exhibit a variety of different structures: indeed, in training the young to write compositions, teachers stress the need to vary the successive sentence-patterns Yet the experienced writer sometimes reverses the maxim of variety and strings together two or three sentences with parallel structure: the effect of this is to tie the sentences logether conceptually, so that they are read as one cohesive entity of text Some mediaeval poets cultivated this practice into a poetic convention

5 secondary role: vai trò thứ yếu

6 pro-form : mẫu đơn

12 invariably: luôn luôn

13 composition: bài luận

14 in sequence: theo thứ tự, the chuỗi

15 successive: liên tiếp, kế tiếp

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16 reverse: đảo ngược

17 maxim: châm ngôn

18 strings together: xâu chuỗi

19 conceptually: về khái niệm

20 convention: quy ước

21 cohesive entity: thực thể gắn kết

22 cultivate: trau dồi

18 Structural or ‘Taxonomic' Model for C.A on the Grammatical Level (Mô hình cấu trúc hay mẫu 'Phân loại' cho C.A ở cấp độ ngữ pháp)

Two linguists, in total accord about the level and categories of language description can still produce different analyses of the same language data When this happens, it is probably the case that each linguist is using a different model of language Harris, in an article entitled

"Language Transfer" (1954) claimed that the model could be used for comparative purposes:

"The method outlined here enables us to measure the difference in grammatical structure and

to establish what is the maximum difference (or the maximum similarity) between any two language systems.”

The analytic technique developed by the structuralists is known as Immediate Constituent (IC) analysis The claim is that any grammatical construction which is not ‘simple’ (which is does not consist of only one element) can be reduced to pairs of constituents In other words, given a construction made up of the parts ABC, it will be analysable as either AB+C or A+BC

This type of analysis presupposes that language is structured on two axes, a horizontal axis delineating construction-types, and a vertical axis defining sets of possible filters for each position: the syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes respectively

The structural model obviously make full use of the four categories of language: unit, structure, system and class Thus the noun phrase (a class of a unit) the clever boy has the structure Determiner + Adjective + Noun Given the incomplete Det + ADJ - we know that it will be complemented by the insertion into the slot of a class of word called Noun And, as we also saw above, these categories lend themselves well to interlingual eomparison, to CA There are, however, certain weaknesses in the model

Vocabulary:

1 taxonomic: phân loại

2 accord about: thỏa thuận về

B COMPARING AND CONTRASTING SOUND SYSTEMS

(SO SÁNH ĐỐI CHIẾU CÁC HỆ THỐNG ÂM THANH)

1 Phonemics (Âm vị học)

l, the study or description of the distinctive sound units of a language and their relationship to one another

2, procedures for finding the phonemes of a language The term ‘phonemics’ has been used

by American linguists, particularly in structural linguistic Lately, the term ‘phonology’ has been preferred

3, the phonemic system of a been language, as in a phrase like "the phonemics of English”

Vocabulary:

1 procedure: thủ tục, bước thực hiện

2 linguist: nhà ngôn ngữ học

2 Phonetics (Ngữ âm học)

The study of speech sounds There are three main areas of phonetic:

l Articulatory phoneties deals with the way in which speech sounds are produced Sounds are usually classified according to the position of the lips and the tongue, how far open the mouth

is, whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating etc

2 Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves) Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves

3 Auditory phonetics deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener For example, a listener may perceive: a differences in aspiration, e.g between the aspirated /p/ of [phit] ‘pit’ and the unaspirated /p/ of [tip] ‘tip’

b, other differences in sound quality e.g between the "clear" /i/ of [lait] ‘light’ and the "dark" /i/ of [hill] ‘hill’