Rationale
Women and men are essential components of the global workforce and play a crucial role in economic development and societal progress After centuries of struggle, women's rights have emerged as fundamental human rights, a sentiment famously expressed by Hillary Clinton during the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in China on September 5, 1995.
Women's rights are essential to both international human rights and development disciplines, as neglecting them undermines the fundamental goals of these fields (Cao, 2016).
In Vietnam, the recognition of women's rights significantly advanced following the country's independence from feudalism and colonialism, particularly marked by the Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945 This pivotal moment highlighted the importance of both general and women's rights, despite the absence of a formal feminist movement prior to this event Historically, the influence of Confucianism during the millennium of Chinese occupation contributed to a societal framework that viewed men as superior and women as inferior, establishing a patriarchal order that has left a lasting impact on Vietnamese culture and continues to affect perceptions of women's status today.
Vietnamese folk poems are a valuable cultural heritage that enriches the mental life of the people They serve as a reflection of reality and human experiences, encompassing themes such as relationships, labor, daily activities, and even national conflicts These poems vividly portray human interactions, showcasing both respect and disregard among individuals With their expressive language, folk poems are not merely neutral; they convey deep emotions and societal values.
This thesis, titled "Sexism in Vietnamese Folk Poems on Love and Marriage," aims to reveal the underlying socio-cultural issues within the discourse By examining folk poems through a linguistic lens, the study systematically uncovers hidden gender ideologies and the linguistic mechanisms that support them, utilizing established linguistic theories and frameworks This approach distinguishes the research from traditional literary analysis, which typically relies on personal interpretation and emotional responses to derive meaning.
Aims and research questions
This study conducts a critical discourse analysis of the positive and negative evaluations of men and women in Vietnamese folk poems about love and marriage It aims to uncover the ideologies embedded within this discourse and the linguistic methods used to express these ideologies These objectives are interrelated and will be addressed concurrently during data analysis Additionally, the research seeks to enhance awareness of persistent gender inequality in Vietnamese culture and contribute to achieving gender balance through language The study is guided by specific research questions focused on these themes.
1 What are the sexist ideologies in Vietnamese folk poems on love and marriage?
2 How are these ideologies linguistically reflected in Vietnamese folk poems on love and marriage?
Research methods and scope
This research adopted the approach of Critical Discourse Analysis It analyzed
This article examines 2,000 selected folk poems on love and marriage from two anthologies by Vũ Ngọc Phan and Phúc Hải, focusing on the analysis of gender dominance within these works and their societal implications Employing a qualitative data analysis method, the research utilizes Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework—Description, Interpretation, and Explanation—alongside M A K Halliday's systemic functional grammar as a foundational approach The detailed analysis procedure will be elaborated upon in the methodology chapter.
Significance
In light of significant global development and progress, the relationship between language and gender has become a focal point for linguists This research offers readers a critical perspective on this important issue.
CDA plays a crucial role in advocating for individuals facing gender discrimination, contributing to the growing body of linguistic research that critically examines this social issue.
Vietnamese folk poems, with a rich history spanning thousands of years, are at risk of being forgotten over time This study aims to revive interest in these literary treasures, ensuring their vitality is preserved and appreciated by future generations.
Design
The research consists of three parts:
The introduction of this research outlines its background, presenting a concise overview of the rationale, aims, scope, significance, methodology, and design.
Part B, DEVELOPMENT, includes four chapters:
Chapter 1, LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND, presents literature review and contextual background Importantly, it gives an overview of some previous research on the same subject
Chapter 2, THEORY AND METHODOLOGY, refers to basic concepts, the framework, the data as well as the method to collect and analyze the data to facilitate the research process
Chapter 3, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS, presents and discusses the findings of the data analysis, organized by themes, then supported by linguistic analysis
Part C, CONCLUSION, draws important conclusions and makes suggestions for further research.
LITERARUE REVIEW AND CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND
Literature review
The publication of "Language and Woman's Place" by Lakoff in 1975 established a foundational link between gender and language, sparking debate over the distinct language use of men and women (Nguyen, 2017) Lakoff posited that gendered language stemmed from inherent assumptions about women's language capabilities However, subsequent studies, such as Zimmerman and West's "Sex Roles, Interruptions and Silences in Conversation" and Spender's "Man-Made Language," argued that language differences were rooted in power dynamics Consequently, gender and language research evolved into two main approaches: dominance, associated with Fishman, Zimmerman, and West, and difference, linked to Tannen (1985) While both approaches recognized cultural differences and male dominance as factors in language variation, they maintained that gender differences were naturally determined (Nguyen, 2017).
In the 1980s and 1990s, post-modernism emerged as a significant approach within linguistics, reflecting a broader philosophical movement that spans various fields, including art, architecture, and feminism (Nguyen, 2017).
In the early 1990s, the field of language and gender transitioned towards an ideological understanding of linguistic gender (2004) Ongoing research in feminist linguistics and media studies continues to focus on gender representation, the discursive construction of gender, and gender identities Scholars across various disciplines, including gender bias and socio-linguistics, debate the reasons behind the differences in language use between women and men A notable example of a post-modernist perspective is Cameron's concept of "Performing gender identity" (Coates, 1998), which aligns with other approaches in suggesting that factors beyond gender contribute to the complexities of language use.
According to Litosseliti (2006), our identity is influenced by our language use, highlighting the significance of language as both a reflection and a creator of reality in post-modernism This perspective has led to extensive research on the linguistic differences between men and women, as well as the language used to discuss gender Litosseliti further emphasizes that language is dynamic, complex, and subject to change, while gender itself is a broader and more intricate concept.
This study aims to explore how language reflects our perceptions of the world, particularly focusing on the linguistic representation of men and women By analyzing the language used to discuss gender, the research seeks to uncover underlying societal attitudes and norms.
Since the 1960s, discussions surrounding sexist language have expanded beyond feminist circles, focusing on how language can discriminate against women and trivialize their contributions Darweesh & Abdullah (2016) define sexism as the practice of emphasizing gender when it is not the most relevant characteristic Similar to racism and other forms of discriminatory language, sexism stems from broader societal forces that oppress less powerful groups Ultimately, sexism represents the ongoing struggle between genders, as highlighted by Mills (2008).
Darweesh et al (2016) argue that sexism stems not from specific words or phrases, but from underlying beliefs that view women as inferior to men (Cameron, 2016) This perspective has fueled significant academic and popular interest in studies on sexism, particularly within Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) both globally and in Vietnam Feminist advocates contend that language does not merely reflect reality; instead, it is wielded as a tool in the struggle against sexism.
In Vietnam, Vu (2016) analyzed gender discrimination reflected in the linguistic signals of Vietnamese folk songs and proverbs, revealing key findings such as the portrayal of men as active and rational, while women are depicted as passive, emotional, and dependent, reinforcing a sexist discourse rooted in Confucianism While the current research shares some conventional ideologies about gender roles from the feudal era, it offers a more comprehensive and systematic perspective on women's roles across different spheres Furthermore, this study utilizes a robust framework established by Fairclough and is grounded in Halliday's theory of systematic functional grammar, aiming for profound and exhaustive findings.
Contextual background
Sexism, while widely discussed in both academic and popular contexts, lacks a universal definition due to its roots in historical and socio-political factors Consequently, gender and language studies emphasize the significance of contextual background in uncovering the underlying ideologies present in language, particularly through the lens of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).
1.2.1 Confucianism and its implications for gender equality in Vietnam
Vietnam endured a millennium of colonization from 111 BC to 938 AD by Northern invaders, leading to significant cultural influences from China This period brought both advantages and disadvantages to Vietnamese society, as Chinese culture permeated various aspects of life Notably, from the fifteenth century onward, Confucianism emerged as the primary ideology, playing a crucial role in fostering national integration and stability (Wilfred, 2014).
Confucianism has played a significant role in shaping social order in Vietnam, as noted by Pham (2005), who described it as one of the many philosophical frameworks aimed at establishing societal structure Over the course of 1,900 years, Vietnamese society developed a rigid social hierarchy where individuals were expected to adhere to their designated status According to Ly (2015), Confucian scholars, aristocrats, and officials were viewed as the elite, while farmers, craftsmen, and businessmen were considered socially inferior The upper classes were seen as the governing body, while the lower classes were tasked with serving them Among these groups, scholars and teachers were held in the highest regard, with the belief that "a teacher's position was higher than parents and only lower than the king" (Sloper & Le, 1995).
Confucius emphasized the importance of education, asserting that true value in a person stemmed from great intellect and extensive erudition He believed that education should be accessible to everyone, regardless of social status, stating that his teachings were meant for all individuals This inclusive approach significantly broadened access to education, allowing students from both the lowest and highest societal levels to benefit from his lessons (Yang, 1999).
Throughout history, Vietnamese women have faced social limitations due to the influence of Confucianism and the constraints of feudalism, resulting in their lower social status and limited educational opportunities This lack of education significantly restricted their chances of improving their circumstances and escaping their subordinate roles.
(2009), Confucianism had such great influence on the society that sexist practices and infamous oppression on women are taken for granted Women‟s inferior position was widely sustained without question
Confucianism emphasized the necessity of a moral code to regulate behavior and maintain societal harmony, focusing on three core principles: behavior, loyalty, and obedience This doctrine dictated that children must honor their parents, wives should submit to their husbands, students must respect their teachers, and citizens were expected to obey their rulers Women, often viewed as a lower social class, were particularly pressured to practice obedience, which was considered their most important virtue Upon marriage, a girl was advised to be respectful and cautious in her new home, with an emphasis on not disobeying her husband Despite this expectation of obedience, polygyny remained a prevalent and legally accepted issue in society (Jiang, 2009).
Confucius emphasized gender bias in domestic worship, stating that "man is the representative of Heaven and is supreme over all things," while women are expected to support men's principles (Robertson, 2014) A key tenet of Confucianism is ancestor veneration, which grants men dual roles as both the head of the household and the religious leader for these rites, typically performed by male descendants Consequently, boys are often viewed as more desirable than girls (US Navy, 1967).
The influence of Han culture on the Vietnamese language and writing is profound, as noted by Ly (2015) This acculturation has led to significant grammatical changes in modern Vietnamese, with the incorporation of affixes to create Sino-Vietnamese words and the adoption of numerous Chinese-origin compounds Furthermore, a substantial portion of Vietnamese vocabulary is derived from Chinese, with ancient, medieval, and contemporary Sino-Vietnamese words still in frequent use today, reflecting the ongoing linguistic exchange between Vietnamese and Chinese communities, particularly in South Vietnam.
The diffusion of China‟s calligraphy is given because Vietnamese folk poems in the current study witness its deep penetration
1.2.2 The Vietnamese women’s status in patriarchal society
The rigid Confucian hierarchy established by Chinese rulers has profoundly influenced Vietnamese history and culture, creating a patriarchal society where men are revered while women are often marginalized and viewed as weak and helpless (UNESCO, 1989; Pham, 1999) Confucius asserted that both the populace and women are ignorant and difficult to educate, reinforcing the notion of female inferiority (Eno, 2015) As a result, female children were largely denied access to education, with the mandarinate system reserved exclusively for males.
In traditional marriage practices, women often had no choice but to accept the suitors chosen by their parents, leading to the saying that they would "sit wherever her parents ordered her to." Love was rarely a factor in these unions, as women were viewed as commodities, akin to money and jewels, contributing to family wealth UNESCO materials from 1989 highlight that impoverished families could be compelled to give away young girls, particularly those deemed beautiful, in exchange for financial relief or to settle debts Ultimately, marriage served as an institution that exploited women's labor, subjecting them to the authority of their husband's family post-wedding.
Women have historically been viewed as a vital production force, taking on all household responsibilities, labor-intensive agricultural tasks, and manual work Despite their significant contributions, societal attitudes reflected deep-seated sexism, as illustrated by Confucius's remark that a son signifies a lineage while daughters do not This discrimination extended to inheritance rights, where daughters were denied material possessions and succession rights, despite their essential roles within the family.
Under feudalism, polygyny and child marriage were legally accepted practices, enabling men to marry multiple women (UNESCO, 1989) Wealthy men or their families often selected young girls as brides, relegating them to the roles of domestic servants As these girls grew up, their husbands could take additional wives, while they remained bound to a lifetime of loyalty and servitude, effectively becoming unpaid laborers for their exploitative spouses.
1.2.3 Vietnamese folk poems on love and marriage
The Vietnamese term "ca dao," also known as "phong dao," refers to romantic songs characterized by lyrical content sung to melodies without instrumental accompaniment According to Balaban (1980), "ca dao" is typically performed in the first person, distinguishing it from the narrative style of traditional Western oral epic poetry This genre encompasses a variety of forms, including children's game songs, love songs, lullabies, riddles, work songs, and contemplative pieces on spiritual and social themes, without any plotted stories As Confucius noted, the essence lies in the personal expression of the singer.
"Ca dao," traditional Vietnamese folk songs, lack titles and authors, making them collective creations of the Vietnamese people These songs effectively convey the ideologies and sentiments of Vietnam, serving as a rich cultural expression that reflects the nation's values and beliefs.
Folk poems in Vietnam serve as a rich reflection of the daily lives of ordinary people, capturing both their material and spiritual experiences These poems express the intimate connection Vietnamese farmers have with nature, as they sing to the moon, herons, and ants during breaks from their labor They candidly convey human relationships, encompassing themes from social and kinship ties to romance Vietnamese folk songs set a standard for romantic poetry, illustrating various forms of love, including romantic love, familial bonds, and a deep affection for their villages, fields, work, and nature Additionally, these folk poems reveal the profound understanding of the social and natural environment, showcasing the awareness of production among the people.
Example 1: Anh ơi phải lính thì đi,
Cửa nhà đơn chiếc đã thì có tôi
(Darling, go and perform military service House chores, I manage)
Example 2: Tháng chạp cày đất trồng khoai,
Tháng giêng trồng đậu, tháng hai trồng cà”
(In December, plough to plant sweet potatoes,
In January, plant bean trees, in February, cultivate egg-plants)
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND METHODOLOGY
Theoretical background
Fairclough (1980) defines CDA as: “by critical discourse analysis, I mean
Discourse Analysis (DA) systematically investigates the complex relationships of causality between discursive practices, events, and texts, and the broader social and cultural structures they inhabit It examines how these elements are shaped by power dynamics and ideological struggles, revealing the ways in which they emerge from and contribute to power relations Furthermore, DA explores the opacity of these relationships, highlighting how this obscurity can reinforce existing power structures and hegemony.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), as defined by van Dijk (1986), focuses on the examination of written and spoken texts to uncover the underlying discursive sources of power, dominance, inequality, and bias This field investigates how these discursive elements are sustained and perpetuated within particular social, political, and historical frameworks.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) focuses on examining both clear and hidden power dynamics, discrimination, and control as reflected in language It seeks to critically explore how social inequality is represented, signified, and legitimized through language and discourse.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) focuses on how language constructs and influences power dynamics within society Scholars widely recognize CDA as an approach rather than a singular method, encompassing various levels of analysis (Meyer, 2001).
The key notions of CDA are important to understand with a view to have an insight about this linguistics approach a Critical
Fairclough (2001) assumed that the concept of “critical” was employed in a special way to unearth hidden connections between language and power and ideology
Wodak (2001) defines "critical" as maintaining a distance from the data, situating it within a social context, explicitly adopting a political stance, and emphasizing self-reflection among researchers This perspective highlights the importance of ideology in understanding data and its implications.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) views ideology as a key factor in creating and sustaining unequal power dynamics According to Wodak (2001), Critical Linguistics (CL) focuses on how language influences ideology across various social institutions.
According to Van Dijk (2001), ideologies are defined by Destutt de Tracy as systems of ideas that encompass social, political, or religious beliefs shared by a group or movement This definition emphasizes how ideologies reflect societal beliefs that motivate individuals to uphold and influence their community.
Power is an abstract concept defined as the ability of its holder to ensure compliance from others (Muqit, 2012) In Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), language functions as a crucial tool for exerting power, facilitating the dynamic between those in dominant positions and those in subordinate roles As Wodak (2001) notes, language itself is not inherently powerful; it derives its strength from the ways in which influential individuals wield it This allows certain groups to use language to create and reinforce social hierarchies within a community.
CDA appeared in the 1970s, adding a stroke to the interest of linguistic research
The focus has shifted from the formal and structural properties of text to the functional aspects of language in relation to society This perspective emphasizes the intricate links between language, power, domination, and ideology.
Fairclough and Wodak (1997) encapsulate the main eight tenets in CDA as follows:
3 Discourse constitutes society and culture
6 The link between text and society is mediated
7 Discourse analysis is interpretative and explanatory
8 Discourse is a form of social action While van Dijk distinguishes his approach from others in CDA by the mediation between society and discourse, i.e, between social cognition and personal cognition, Wodak differs his perspective from others by focusing on the historical contexts of discourse, Fairclough‟s CDA “brings social science and linguistics together within a single theoretical and analytical framework, setting up a dialogue between them” (Chuliaraki & Fairclough, 1999) His approach not only provides a critical view to the social problems, disclosing underlying power, ideology, etc but also has issue-addressed orientations Importantly, regarding language as a social practice, Fairclough can establish dialectical relationships between language and society in which historical and contextual elements are not excluded
Fairclough is recognized as a key figure in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), having significantly contributed to the development of its analytical framework His three-part scheme—comprising text (description of formal properties), discourse practice (interpretation of the relationship between text and interaction), and sociocultural practice (explanation of social influences on production and interpretation)—serves as a vital tool for CDA implementation In his 2001 work, Fairclough introduced ten questions to aid discourse analysis, but this research focuses on seven of those that are particularly relevant to the current investigation.
1 What experiential values do words have?
- What classification schemes are drawn upon?
- Are there words which are ideologically contested?
- Is there rewording or overwording?
- What ideologically significant meaning relations (synonym, hyponym, antonym) are there between words?
2 What relational values do words have?
- Are there markedly formal or informal words?
3 What expressive values do words have?
5 What experiential values do grammatical features have?
- What types of process and participant predominate?
- Are processes what they seem?
- Are nominalizations, active/ passive sentences, and positive/ negative sentences used?
6 What relational values do grammatical features have?
- What modes (declarative, grammatical question, imperative) are used?
- Are there important features of relational modality?
- Are the pronouns „we‟ and „you‟ used? And if so, how?
7 What expressive values do grammatical features have?
- Are there important features of expressive modality?
In the initial stage of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Fairclough suggests that vocabulary and grammar should embody three key values—experiential, relational, and expressive—to enhance data analysis.
Experiential value, as defined by Fairclough (2001), serves as a representation of the text producer's experiences within the natural or social world, encompassing their contents, knowledge, and beliefs This value is closely linked to word choice, the repetition of ideologically charged terms, and the use of words with varying meanings, all of which aim to accurately reflect social reality.
Relational values are influenced by the formality of language used, as the choice between formal and informal words illustrates the nature of the relationship between the text's creator and the audience.
Third, in expressive value‟s turn, it is placed in the dialectical relationships with the above two values, shedding light on subjects‟ evaluation of social identities (Fairclough, 2001)
Metaphor is a figurative language technique that conveys meanings beyond the literal interpretation of words or phrases Traditionally regarded as a key element of figurative language, metaphors often achieve their most refined expressions in literature and poetry (John, 2009).
Methodology
Step 1: The critical discourse analysis in the current research was carried out in about 2000 selected folk poems on love and marriage Among them were approximately 1300 poems on love and 700 of them on marriage Vu Ngoc Phan and Phuc Hai‟s anthopologies were chosen for the study among various ones of Vietnamese folk poems because the two authors divided thousands of poems that they collected according to the content of the poems, specially love and marriage, which was believed to be appropriate with the purpose of the research
Step 2: The focal point of this research is sexism in more than 2000 Vietnamese folk poems on love and marriage Therefore, the researcher filtrated the poems in together to form separate themes This step aimed to eliminate the poems in which did not discover the relationship between males and females In many poems, feelings and emotions on love and marriage were the topic Another case was simply borrowing landcape depiction to refer to affection and sentiment Or in exceptional cases, males or females were controversial All collected poems were the ones with sexist language either implicitly or explicitly
The current study employs Fairclough‟s three-dimensional framework for CDA
To achieve the study's objectives, the researcher adhered strictly to the proposed framework throughout all three stages, resulting in a systematic data analysis process.
Stage 1 - Discourse description: In the stage of description, every single folk poem was thoroughly scrutinized to figure out the hidden and apparent sexist ideologies behind language The sexist phenomena were highlighted and classified into themes At the same time, the linguistic means to show such phenomena were noted down The researcher tried to answer the questions Fairclough posed as a suggestion for CDA Asnswers for those questions revealed discourse‟s properties in terms of vocabulary, grammar and textual structures which facilitated the second stage of interpretation
Stage 2 - Interpretation: This stage was concerned with the interaction between the text, the writer and the audience In the very first step, for the interpretation of the relationship between the text and the writer, it refers to as the surface and literal meaning of the discourse In the second step, for the interpretation of context, i.e., the interaction between the text and the audience, it refers to as the contextualization of the discourse As a CDA, the current study exposed the underlying ideologies in the filtrated data
Stage 3 - Explanation: For comprehensive view, the analysis tried to explain the ideologies under the context of the community in which people inhabited Macro factors such as history, culture, politics, background ideologies and so forth deserve careful consideration.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Women in the family setting
3.1.1 Women as caretakers for children
Images often portray women as primary caregivers, typically depicting a mother with her child rather than a father These visuals frequently evoke themes of pain and suffering, highlighting the struggles mothers endure during pregnancy and childbirth.
The experiential values of words in poetry often depict the act of childbirth through phrases like “vượt cạn” (giving birth) and “mang nặng đẻ đau” (carrying a child) These expressions illustrate the challenges faced by women in labor, likening the experience to crossing a tumultuous sea filled with difficulties and dangers.
Example 5 (No 1575): Con mẹ có thương mẹ đâu,
Chín tháng mười ngày mang nặng đẻ đau
(The child feels no love for mother, Nine months, carry the child in the womb)
The phrase "chín tháng mười ngày" in the context of "mang nặng đẻ đau" reflects artistic intentions and highlights the experiential values of grammar This theme serves as a marked subject, revealing underlying sexist discrimination within the poems The clause not only narrates an event but also conveys a deeper message about the suffering women endure during childbirth By introducing the lengthy period of gestation as old information, the poem emphasizes the pain and misery women face, ultimately illustrating that the child often does not reciprocate the mother's love, reinforcing the theme of mistreatment.
Example 6 (No 1526): Mẹ sinh ta vượt cạn một mình
(Mother gave birth to a child alone)
In the context of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), experiential values play a significant role in conveying meaning The phrase involving the woman and the act of giving birth becomes contentious when paired with the circumstance of being "alone." This raises a critical debate about whether women can assert their rights regarding motherhood, especially in a society that often glorifies the role of mothers The emphasis on "alone" highlights the neglect and mistreatment women face from men, who are typically expected to support their partners during challenging times.
These following verses show that as a mother, women display their presence in children‟s development day by day:
Example 7 (No 1583): Gió mùa thu mẹ ru con ngủ
Năm canh chầy, thức đủ năm canh
(Wind puffing in fall, mother sing you child to sleep Five times watch-announcing, stay awake the whole time)
Example 8 (No 1625): Vợ nghèo ẵm trẻ hài nhi
Lên tầng để búi, rồi đi đẩy gòong
(Poor wife carry an infant in her arms, Twist hair into a bun, then go and push a freight car)
Example 9 (No 1530): Dành riêng quà bánh nhường cho
Sắm riêng quần áo mới đồ chiều con Trông con nằm ngủ ăn ngon
Sợ con thất ý lại còn hờn lâu Hai ba tuổi độ hầu học nói Tập dạy cho thưa nói dần dần Nuôi thầy dạy học tập văn tập bài
(Reserve a child candies Buy clothes for the child Take care of his sleeping and eating
Be afraid the child is dissatisfied and resent
At two - three, the child learn to talk Teach to occasionally speak
Invite teachers to teach the child)
The experiential values of words significantly enhance the portrayal of a mother as a caretaker in these poems Various terms related to maternal care, such as "tay bồng," "tay mang," "ẵm," "ru," "ủ," "ôm" (carrying a child in a mother's arms) and "dạy" (teaching), illustrate the nurturing role of mothers Additionally, words that convey maternal sacrifice, including "dành riêng," "nhường cho," "sắm riêng," and "chiều," further emphasize the depth of a mother's love and dedication.
In terms of experiential values of grammatical features, the participants – recciepient or goal are “con” (children) Not father or anyone else, mothers are the
In the serene atmosphere of autumn, characterized by a gentle breeze, the maternal instinct is vividly expressed through actions such as singing a child to sleep and carrying them in loving arms These material processes, highlighted by verbs like "ru," "bồng," and "ẵm," encapsulate the deep emotional connection between a mother and her child.
Mothers are often perceived as nurturing figures, providing care and comfort to their children However, beneath this calm exterior, they frequently experience anxiety and worry This emotional burden can be classified through a scheme that highlights the various dimensions of women's anxiety Additionally, in the relational process of language, mothers are depicted as the carriers of emotions associated with worry and grief, illustrated by verbs such as "lo" (to worry) and "khổ tâm" (to grieve).
Example 10 (1529): Năm canh con khóc cả năm Ôm con mẹ chịu khổ tâm lo phiền Khi con ốm sốt chẳng yên
Con phiền có một mẹ phiền bằng hai
(Five times watch-announcing, the child weeps and moans all the time Carrying the child in the arms, mother is crushed by grief
When the child gets ill, The child is uncomfortable one time, mother grieves twice)
Example 11 (1530): Con rày đã yên lành mát mẻ
Mẹ mới lòng vui vẻ không lo
(The child is all right Mother is relieved)
In folk poems that explore the deep bond between mothers and their children, parallel structures frequently highlight the mother's emotional responses; for instance, when children cry, the mother feels sadness, and when they are ill, she experiences tension This repetition of behavioral and relational processes emphasizes the mother's attentive care Children are central to the mother's thoughts, as she not only fulfills her expected role as a caretaker but also embraces the responsibilities of nurturing and educating them.
To conclude, despite pain and misery, women‟s sacrifice for children was not attached much importance They were even treated with neglect
3.1.2 Women as caretakers for in-law family’s members
Additionally, the portrait of a woman is also depicted in the caring role for husband or husband‟s family members as follows:
Example 12 (No 1593): Áo ướt em mang hong
Mồ hôi em giặt, quần hồng em mang
(Wet coats I give an aring to Sweaty shirts I wash trousers I clothe)
Example 13 (No 1594): Nào khi anh ốm anh đau
Tay bưng chén thuốc vã đầu cho anh
(When you are ailing, Medicine on the hands, I release for your headache)
Example 14 (No 1569): Anh đi em ở lại nhà
Hai vai gánh vác mẹ già con thơ
(You leave, I stay at home Take responsibility for an eldly mother and young babies.)
In the context of experiential meta-function and grammar, the material process is prominently featured in the three verses, illustrating the woman's role as the active participant in her daily tasks, such as airing and washing clothes for her husband When her husband falls ill, she provides relief by alleviating his headache Her in-laws serve as the recipient participants in this dynamic The use of declarative moods underscores the notion that serving her husband and in-laws is an unquestionable responsibility of the wife.
In any drawing of women, they occupied the role of a servant for the other family members of all times
3.1.3 Women as caretakers for house chores
In the following poem, the female is the narrator of the story about her ordinary life The story has 4 lines
Example 15 (No 1519): Canh một dọn cửa dọn nhà
Canh hai dệt cửi, canh ba đi nằm Canh tư bước sang canh năm Chiềng anh dậy học còn nằm làm chi
(First watch-announcing tidy up house Second weave silk, third lie down From the fourth until the fifth Wake you up to study, you lie still)
Here, once again, that is experiential values of words and phrases which all show that managing domestic work and cleaning-up chores is females‟ taken-for- granted duties
In the exploration of experiential values in grammar, each line begins with a temporal circumstance, effectively highlighting sequential points in time while serving as a marked theme This marked theme presents established information, setting the stage for new insights that revolve around the various daily chores undertaken by the woman.
The transitivity of experential meta-function and the theme-rheme relations in textual meta-function are placed emphasis the most to show that women offered no resistance
In one word, women‟s responsibilities were supposed to do mediocre jobs like daily chores Sexism was shown clearly in the representation of men performing a greater task – studying
3.1.4 Women as helpers for men
A wife plays a crucial role in the family as a primary contributor to the household economy, showcasing her importance through various responsibilities This vital contribution is reflected in numerous verses that highlight her efforts and dedication.
Example 16 (No 1745): Sáng trăng, trải chiếu hai hàng,
Cho anh đọc sách, cho nàng quay tơ
(In the moonlight, unroll sedge mat, Husband read books, wife weave silk)
Example 17 (No 1972): Thiếp thời tần tảo cửi canh
Chàng thời nấu sử sôi kinh kịp thì
(I contrive to warp and weave You manage to cram for examintaions)
Example 18 (No 1940): Em ngồi dệt cửi trên khung
Anh đến ngồi học cùng chung một đèn
(I am weaving silk by the warp frame, You take a seat and study with the same lamp)
In traditional depictions, a diligent wife engaged in weaving or sales is frequently portrayed alongside her husband, who is absorbed in reading, studying for exams, or reciting poetry This imagery highlights the contrasting roles of men and women in society, as reflected in various folk poems that celebrate their respective jobs and contributions.
The rewording of job-related terms highlights the traditional belief that specific roles are inherently suited for men or women, as seen in activities like reading, studying, and cramming for exams for women, and weaving, silk production, and business for men This phenomenon reinforces the notion that individuals are destined for predefined roles based on gender, thereby establishing a framework for the division of labor between men and women.
Concerning modes, most of the clauses are declarative Those lead to no confusion that wives are supposed to be helpers for husbands and take that role for granted
The terms "cho" and "để" highlight the role of women as supporters for men, emphasizing their responsibilities In this context, women are portrayed as the active participants in the first material process of "doing business," while men are depicted as the recipients in the phrase "để anh," also taking on the role of actors in the second material process of "studying."
Example 19 (No 1581): Em thời buôn bán cho lanh Để anh chăm chỉ học hành cho thông
(You try to do business vivaciously, Let me study assiduously and well)
Example 20 (No 1965): Mùa hè cho chí mùa đông
Mùa nào áo ấy cho chồng đi thi
(From spring down to winter This season that coat I prepare for husband taking examinations)
More remarkably, the following poem resorts to the semantic strategy to present the author‟s innuendo:
Example 21(No 1516): Con cò lặn lội bờ sông
Gánh gạo nuôi chồng nước mắt nỉ non
(A stork tramps the riverside Carry rice to supply the husband, shed tears and moan)
The metaphor of a stork, or "con cò," symbolizes hard work, diligence, and vulnerability, particularly in representing women's experiences This metaphor highlights the appreciation of women's personalities, especially in the absence of material processes In this context, the stork embodies the labor involved in the material process, illustrated by the verbs "lặn lội" and "gánh gạo," which refer to the burdens of carrying heavy loads This signifies that despite being perceived as weak, women undertake significant responsibilities, as seen in the phrase "gánh gạo nuôi chồng," which literally translates to feeding and supporting their partners.
Women in the social setting
3.2.1 Women in low social hierarchy
The analysis of over 2,000 folk poems on love and marriage reveals distinct experiential values attributed to males and females Males are commonly referred to as "quân tử," "anh hùng," "tài tử," "trượng phu," and "người văn nhân," while females are addressed as "hồng nhan," "má hồng," "thục nữ," and "thuyền quyên." This classification highlights the social realities and gender roles reflected in these poetic expressions.
Example 35 (No 293): Lộc còn ẩn bóng cây tùng
Thuyền quyên đợi khách anh hùng vãng lai
(Bud is shrouded on the pine tree,
A beautiful girl waits for a man of honor)
The portrayal of males emphasizes qualities such as honor, strength, and good appearance, while females are often judged primarily on their looks rather than their intelligence or character This distinction highlights the idealized images of men and women rooted in feudal society, revealing the underlying sexism in how these roles are represented.
Despite society's high regard for men's intelligence and morality, women's capabilities in these areas have historically been undervalued Deeply ingrained male-dominated ideologies have made it challenging to shift these perceptions As a result, women have been unjustly excluded from opportunities to achieve greatness and gain social recognition, with the archetype of the "anh hùng trí cao" (a man of high mind) dominating the narrative The experiential values embedded in numerous folk poems further illustrate the implicit biases surrounding gender roles.
The use of specific Vietnamese terms such as “ông đồ,” “anh đồ,” and “thầy” highlights gender inequality by exclusively representing male scholars and teachers In this context, only men are acknowledged as “học trò,” or students, reinforcing a gender bias in the perception of educational roles.
Example 36 (1989): Anh là con trai học trò
Em thách cưới thế anh lo thế nào?
(You are a student, How can you cover wedding-presents?)
Example 37 (1619): Quả cau nho nhỏ, cái vỏ vân vân
Nay anh học gần, mai anh học xa
(Tiny areca, tough skin, You attend schooling far and near.)
The analysis of 2,000 selected folk poems reveals a significant absence of terms like “cô giáo” (female teacher) or any references to female scholars, highlighting that only men were acknowledged in formal education This absence reflects the prevailing societal ideology of the time, where women were largely excluded from academic and examination settings, and rarely found in positions of authority, such as in the mandarinate Instead, women were often relegated to low-status occupations like sales, trade, and weaving, underscoring their marginalized role in society Consequently, this dynamic contributed to men's dominance in prestigious fields like politics, where societal recognition was predominantly reserved for them.
Bảng vàng choi chói bia đề tên anh
(One day the lord organize an examination The dazzling rolling of honor, your name is respected)
Example 39 (No 1609): Anh đi ra mười chín nước chư hầu
Có ai chịu phận thảm sầu như em
(You leave for vassals Nobody is grieved like me)
Example 40 (No 1604): Chàng đi vực thẳm non cao
Em mong tìm vào đến núi Tản Viên
(You go up hill and down dale,
I contrive to arrive Tan Vien mountain)
The authors of the article highlight a tendency to trivialize women by emphasizing men's achievements through various material processes, such as "serving in the army," "joining mandarin places," and "performing incredible jobs," positioning men as the primary actors This results in an exaggerated perception of men's activities, while women's contributions are significantly downplayed and undervalued, creating a stark contrast in the representation of gender roles.
Adding to negative evaluations for women, many of folk poems presented degradation of women by using simile phenomena Two of them are given as following examples:
Example 41 (280): Thân em như đóa hoa rơi,
Phải chăng chàng thật là người yêu hoa
(My fate is like falling flowers You are a lover for flowers?)
Example 42 (646): Anh như con một nhà giàu
Em như tờ giấy bên Tàu mới sang Anh như con một nhà quan
Em như con én lạc đàn ngẩn ngơ Anh như chỉ gấm thêu cờ
Em như rau má nở bờ giếng khơi Cho nên chả dám ngỏ lời
Người chê rằng bạc, kẻ cười rằng khinh
(You are the only child in rich family
I am like Chinese paper You are the only child in mandarinate
I am a stray swallow from the herd You are like silk to saw the flag
I am like penny wort by the will
I dare not to say One sneers with ingratitude, one laughs with despise.)
Folk poems often utilize similes, employing the particles “như” (like) and “là” (as), to draw comparisons between women and their destinies, revealing ideologically contested experiential values The devaluation of women is evident through comparisons to “hoa rơi” (falling flowers), “cơm nguội” (cold rice), and other inanimate or low-quality objects, which collectively convey a troubling ideological message that portrays women as dispensable and insignificant While the pronouns “anh” and “em” in these Vietnamese folk poems may lack clarity regarding the first-person perspective, they nonetheless underscore the belittlement of women within this cultural narrative.
Metaphors are a favored literary device among Vietnamese authors, effectively conveying the tragic fates of women in their poetry.
Example 43 (No 286): Có đào đông chàng đừng phụ liễu tây
Bơ vơ phận gái biết rày làm sao
(With peach tree, you badly behave willow tree Lonely fate, what to do?)
Example 44 (No 401): Phận bèo nhiều nỗi linh đinh,
Kể sao cho hết phận mình khúc nôi
(The fate of water-fern is floating on water Hardly to tell about such floating destiny.)
The willow tree, often symbolizing weakness in women, alongside the water-fern, which represents the unpredictable nature of women's destinies, illustrates the metaphorical portrayal of women as inanimate objects These figures, including the peach tree, embody personal qualities and exhibit a tumultuous relationship, reflecting the emotional neglect they endure The water-fern's fate of drifting on water signifies the lack of agency women face, ultimately conveying the ideology that women are relegated to a powerless existence, characterized by fragility and resignation.
Folk poems often portray women as dependent figures, dominated by societal bonds and virtues These poems frequently emphasize the influence of destiny on women's lives, highlighting terms such as "duyên," "phận," "số," and "thì" within their thematic structure This classification reveals a pervasive narrative about women's roles and limitations in traditional contexts.
The metaphorical images are engaged to partly represent women as dependent beings
Example 45 (No 95): Huệ tàn bướm chẳng vãng lai,
Tình thương đã phụ, trúc mai kể gì!
Ví dù hoa hỡi là hoa!
Mùa xuân không nở, nở vào mùa đông
(Faded flower, butterflies are indifferent Affection is badly treated, so are bamboo and plumtree
Spring, you do not blossom, you blossom in winter)
It is not difficult the least to determine mataphorical phenomena of a woman for
In these poems, the imagery of faded flowers and late blossoms symbolizes the notion that women, much like flowers, have their own unique timing for flourishing This metaphor highlights their dependency and the challenges they face in making autonomous decisions about their lives.
Sexist bias in these poems is the fact that women are considered as weak and dependant beings and there is no opposition by any means
Conclusion
This research explores the connection between language and society through Critical Discourse Analysis, focusing on 2000 Vietnamese folk poems about love and marriage It aims to answer two key questions: the "what" and the "how." The study utilizes Fairclough's framework, grounded in Halliday's Systemic Functional Grammar, to analyze the data.
Research question 1: What are the sexist ideologies in Vietnamese folk poems on love and marriage?
Concerning the sexist ideologies in Vietnamese folk poems on love and marriage, the investigation unveiled the allegedly subordinate roles of women in family and society
In traditional family and social settings, women were relegated to roles as caretakers and helpers, yet they were viewed as inferior and dependent on men Despite fulfilling numerous responsibilities, women faced mistreatment and were often belittled, with their contributions trivialized This systemic injustice confined women within societal limitations, preventing them from escaping their subordinate status.
Research question 2: How are these ideologies reflected in Vietnamese folk poems on love and marriage?
Sexism in Vietnamese folk poems about love and marriage is evident through verbal expressions and an exaggerated portrayal of male figures Utilizing a three-dimensional framework and Hallidayian analysis, the study reveals underlying ideologies by addressing specific questions and exploring three meta-functions The interplay of experiential, relational, and expressive values in language highlights the societal reality, with classification schemes and a notable emphasis on certain wording reflecting male dominance Furthermore, elements such as transitivity, moods, and theme-rheme relations contribute to the marginalization of women's roles and contributions The discourse also employs semantic features like metaphor and simile to reinforce traditional biases regarding gender, illustrating the entrenched assumptions about men and women within this literary context.
Limitations
The Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) aims to uncover hidden ideologies within discourse, encouraging readers to recognize these underlying themes This research focuses on sexism in Vietnamese folk poems about love and marriage, contextualized within the feudal and patriarchal structures of Vietnamese society, where gender bias against women remains prevalent Although rooted in CDA, this investigation emphasizes linguistic signals rather than widely recognized social issues It specifically highlights linguistic evidence of gender inequalities reflected in contemporary society through folk poetry, a topic that is increasingly familiar to audiences.
Suggestions for further research
Historical and social contexts have significantly shaped attitudes toward Vietnamese women, yet pinpointing the exact time a specific folk poem was created remains elusive This uncertainty raises questions not only for linguists but also for researchers in various fields Analyzing language construction to trace the evolution of sexism in society presents challenges, suggesting a need for further investigation Such studies could offer valuable insights in linguistics and other social science disciplines.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) often focuses on the perspectives of individuals experiencing gender discrimination, while highlighting the language used by those in positions of power who perpetuate gender inequalities Future research could explore CDA from an alternative viewpoint, specifically examining gender bias that favors men This approach could provide valuable insights into the dynamics of gender prejudice and contribute to a more balanced understanding of the issue.
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