Middle school science

The Study Companion contains practical information and helpful tools, including: • An overview of the Praxis tests • Specific information on the Praxis test you are taking • A template s

Middle School Science

5442

Welcome to The Praxis®Study Companion

Prepare to Show What You Know

You have been working to acquire the knowledge and skills you need for your teaching career Now you are

ready to demonstrate your abilities by taking a Praxis® test

Using The Praxis® Study Companion is a smart way to prepare for the test so you can do your best on test day

This guide can help keep you on track and make the most efficient use of your study time

The Study Companion contains practical information and helpful tools, including:

• An overview of the Praxis tests

• Specific information on the Praxis test you are taking

• A template study plan

• Study topics

• Practice questions and explanations of correct answers

• Test-taking tips and strategies

• Frequently asked questions

• Links to more detailed information

So where should you start? Begin by reviewing this guide in its entirety and note those sections that you need

to revisit Then you can create your own personalized study plan and schedule based on your individual needs

and how much time you have before test day

Keep in mind that study habits are individual There are many different ways to successfully prepare for your

test Some people study better on their own, while others prefer a group dynamic You may have more energy

early in the day, but another test taker may concentrate better in the evening So use this guide to develop the

approach that works best for you

Your teaching career begins with preparation Good luck!

Know What to Expect

Which tests should I take?

Each state or agency that uses the Praxis tests sets its own requirements for which test or tests you must take for

the teaching area you wish to pursue

How are the Praxis tests given?

Praxis tests are given on computer Other formats are available for test takers approved for accommodations (see

page 41)

What should I expect when taking the test on computer?

When taking the test on computer, you can expect to be asked to provide proper identification at the test

center Once admitted, you will be given the opportunity to learn how the computer interface works (how to

answer questions, how to skip questions, how to go back to questions you skipped, etc.) before the testing time

Where and when are the Praxis tests offered?

You can select the test center that is most convenient for you The Praxis tests are administered through an

international network of test centers, which includes Prometric® Testing Centers, some universities, and other

locations throughout the world

ets.org/praxis/register

Table of Contents

The Praxis® Study Companion guides you through the steps to success

1 Learn About Your Test 5

Learn about the specific test you will be taking

2 Familiarize Yourself with Test Questions 18

Become comfortable with the types of questions you’ll find on the Praxis tests

3 Practice with Sample Test Questions 22

Answer practice questions and find explanations for correct answers

4 Determine Your Strategy for Success 32

Set clear goals and deadlines so your test preparation is focused and efficient

5 Develop Your Study Plan 35

Develop a personalized study plan and schedule

6 Review Smart Tips for Success 39

Follow test-taking tips developed by experts

7 Check on Testing Accommodations 41

See if you qualify for accommodations to take the Praxis test

8 Do Your Best on Test Day 42

Get ready for test day so you will be calm and confident

9 Understand Your Scores 44

Understand how tests are scored and how to interpret your test scores

Appendix: Other Questions You May Have 46

1 Learn About Your Test

Learn about the specific test you will be taking

Middle School Science (5442)

All questions assess content from the above science domains More than 40 percent of questions integrate a Science and Engineering Practice, and approximately

30 percent of questions assess content applied to a Task of Teaching Science.

IV

III

III

About This Test

Praxis Middle School Science is designed to measure knowledge and competencies important for safe and

effective beginning practice as a teacher of middle school science Test takers have typically completed a

bachelor’s degree program with appropriate coursework in science and education

Content topics span the middle school science curriculum, including content related to (I) Nature and Impact of

Science and Engineering, (II) Physical Science, (III) Life Science, and (IV) Earth and Space Science

The assessment is designed and developed through work with practicing middle school science teachers,

teacher educators, and higher education content specialists to reflect the science knowledge teachers need to

teach the middle school science curriculum and to reflect state and national standards, including the National

Science Teaching Association Preparation Standards for middle school science Content and practices measured

reflect the Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCIs) and Science and Engineering Practices (SEPs) established by the

National Research Council in A Framework for K-12 Science Education and included in the Next Generation

Science Standards

The 125 selected-response questions measure concepts, terms, phenomena, methods, applications, data

analysis, and problem solving in science A full list of the science topics covered is provided in Content Topics.

Test takers will not need to use calculators in taking

this test The periodic table of the elements is available

as a Help screen, along with a table of information

that presents various physical constants and a

few conversion factors among SI units Whenever

necessary, additional values of physical constants are

included with the text of a question

Test takers can expect forty percent or more of the

questions on the test to integrate science content

knowledge with one or more of the SEPs, listed under

Science and Engineering Practices

Test takers will also find that approximately thirty

percent of questions call for application of physical

science content and processes within a teaching

scenario or an instructional task Such questions—

designed to measure applications of science

knowledge to the kinds of decisions and evaluations

a teacher must make during work with students,

curriculum, and instruction—situate science content

questions in tasks critical for teaching Below, in Tasks

of Teaching Science, is a list of tasks that are a routine

part of science instruction These tasks, identified

based on research on science instruction, have been

confirmed by a national committee of teachers and

teacher educators as important for effective teaching

of secondary science

Note: This test may contain some questions that do

not count toward your score

Content Topics

This list details the science topics that may be

included on the test All test questions will cover one

more of these topics

Interspersed throughout the study topics are

discussion areas, presented as open-ended

questions or statements These discussion areas are

intended to help test your knowledge of fundamental

concepts and your ability to apply those concepts to

situations in the classroom or the real world Most of

the areas require you to combine several pieces of

knowledge to formulate an integrated understanding

and response If you spend time on these areas, you

will gain increased understanding and facility with the

subject matter covered on the test You may want to

discuss these areas and your answers with a teacher or

mentor

Note that this study companion does NOT provide

answers for the discussion area questions, but

thinking about the answers to them will help improve your understanding of fundamental concepts and will probably help you answer a broad range of questions

on the test

I Nature and Impact of Science and Engineering

A Nature of Science and Engineering

1 Nature of scientific knowledge

a Use of a variety of methods

b Based on empirical evidence

c Models, laws, and theories explain natural phenomena

d Major concepts developed over time / Subject to revision in light of new evidence

e Crosscutting concepts and processes

c Optimize the design solution through a systematic process of modification and testing

3 Safety, Materials, and Standard Equipment in the Laboratory and Field

a Understands safety and emergency procedures in the laboratory and field

• Equipment (e.g., eyewash stations, safety showers)

• Appropriate student apparel and behavior (e.g., goggles, clothing)

• Emergency procedures for minor burns and other injuries

• Emergency procedures for mishaps (e.g., fires, chemical spills)

• Awareness of potential hazards (e.g., allergies, asthma, environmental hazards)

b Is familiar with the procedures for safe and correct preparation, storage, use, and disposal

of materials in the laboratory and field

• Safe storage

• Proper use and safe disposal (e.g., chemicals, biohazards, sharps)

• Proper selection and preparation

• Use of equipment (e.g., fume hoods, safety goggles, waste containers)

c Is familiar with how to use standard equipment in the laboratory and field

• Appropriate use of equipment (e.g., thermometers, microscopes, barometers, graduated cylinders, Bunsen burners, balances, pH meters, rock hammers)

• Basic care, preparation, and maintenance of equipment

Discussion areas: Nature and Impact of Science and Engineering

• What is a scientific hypothesis?

• Who is largely credited with developing the theory of continental drift? Why was the theory initially rejected by many scientists?

• Explain the difference between an engineering design criterion and a constraint

• Describe how to prepare 500 mL of 5 M NaCl

solution What safety precautions should be taken when preparing this solution?

• 1 10 3 gram is equal to how many kilograms?

• What is the area, to the correct number of significant figures, of a rectangle having a width of 2 cm and a length of 6.7 cm?

• What is a graduated cylinder typically used for?

B Science, Technology, Society, and the

h Urban development and land use

3 Major issues associated with energy production and the management of natural resources

a Conservation and recycling

b Renewable and nonrenewable energy resources

c Pros and cons of power generation based on sources

d Distribution, extraction, and use of Earth’s resources

4 Applications of science and technology in daily life

a Chemistry (e.g., properties of household products)

b Physics (e.g., batteries, communications technology)

c Life science (e.g., public health, selective breeding, genetic modification)

d Earth and space science (e.g., agricultural practices, space technology)

Discussion areas: Science, Technology, Society, and the Environment

• Describe how clear-cutting of tropical rain forests negatively impacts humans and the environment

• What is the effect of the presence of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere?

• What are ways to reduce the amount of plastic waste in landfills?

• Compare the availabilities and limitations of the following sources of power: geothermal, nuclear, hydroelectric, solar, and fossil fuel

• Compare the depletion of mineral resources with that of fossil fuels

• What is the connection between genetically modified crops and pesticide use?

• What are the advantages to using DNA analysis over other forms of analysis such as fingerprinting and blood typing to identify individuals during a criminal investigation?

• Explain why antibiotics are not prescribed to treat the common cold

• Compare the applications of and benefits of using an MRI to those of x-rays to diagnose and evaluate medical conditions

II Physical Science

A Matter and Its Interactions

1 Structure and properties of matter

a Atomic structure, including atomic models (protons, neutrons, electrons), atomic number, atomic mass, isotopes/radioactive isotopes (carbon 14), and electron arrangements

b How the periodic table is organized in groups with similar chemical and physical properties (e.g., metals, nonmetals, noble gases)

c States of matter (e.g., solids, liquids, gases)

• Use the particle model to describe solids, liquids and gases

• Describe the effect that changes in temperature/kinetic energy have on particle motion

d Classification of matter: elements, compounds, and mixtures

e Characteristics of mixtures: heterogeneous and homogenous, saturated and unsaturated solutions, dilute and concentrated solutions, acids and bases (pH), and factors that affect the dissolving process (e.g., temperature, particle size)

f Elements and simple compounds: formulas and structures, ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding

g Phase changes and the effect of transfer of thermal energy on matter (e.g., melting, evaporation, freezing, condensation, cooling and heating curves)

c Types of chemical reactions (e.g., combustion, acid-base, synthesis, decomposition)

d Energy in chemical reactions (e.g., exothermic and endothermic)

Discussion areas: Matter and Its Interactions

C ?

• If a sample that initially contains 100 g of a radioactive isotope that has a half-life of 2 days, how much of the isotope remains after

6 days?

• What is the most common isotope of carbon?

• What is the relationship between the position

of an element on the periodic table and the number of valence electrons in the atoms of the element?

• Locate the following elements on the periodic table: Na, S, and Ar Classify each element as a metal, a nonmetal, or a noble gas Which element will react most readily with chlorine?

• How are solids different from liquids?

• What entropy changes occur when a substance changes from a liquid to a gas?

• A solute is completely dissolved in a solvent

Is the solution saturated or unsaturated? Can adding more solute help determine if the solution is saturated or unsaturated?

• What is the pH of a base?

• What will happen to the pH of an aqueous solution of HCl when a base such as NaOH is added?

• What factors affect the rate of dissolving?

• Will increasing temperature always increase solubility?

• When CaCl2 is dissolved in water, what ions are formed?

• What types of bonding are exhibited by MgO,

• What phase changes require the input of energy?

• How much energy is needed to heat 100 g of water at 20 C° to a temperature of 30 C° ?

• How are physical changes in a substance different from chemical changes?

• How many oxygen atoms are in 3 moles of

CO2?

• Balance the following equation:

Na + MgSO4→ Mg + Na SO2 4 What type of chemical reaction is it?

• When a reaction in solution produces energy, what happens to the temperature of the solution?

B Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

1 Forces and motion

a Descriptions of motion

• Distance and displacement

• Speed and velocity

Discussion areas: Motion and Stability:

Forces and Interactions

• Draw a velocity-versus-time graph for an object moving with constant acceleration

• Does mass affect the acceleration of a falling object?

• If the distance between two masses is doubled, what happens to the gravitational force between the two masses?

• In the absence of air resistance, what is the only force acting on a projectile?

• What affects the buoyant force acting on an object?

• If the distance between two charges is halved, what happens to the electrostatic force between the two charges?

resistor that is connected in series to a 50 V

source?

• Which circuit has the larger equivalent resistance: a circuit with two 10 W resistors connected in parallel or a circuit with two

C Energy and Waves

2 Waves and Their Applications

a Properties of waves (e.g., frequency, wavelength, amplitude, period, speed)

b Basic characteristics and types of waves

• Longitudinal, transverse

• Electromagnetic waves (e.g., visible light, microwave, infrared, ultraviolet)

• Mechanical (e.g., sound, water, seismic)

c Wave phenomena (e.g., absorption, transmission, reflection, refraction, the Doppler effect)

d Information technology and instrumentation (e.g., advantages and disadvantages of digital and analog signals)

Discussion areas: Energy and Waves

• If the speed of an object is doubled, by what factor does its kinetic energy change?

• What energy change occurs to a mass that starts from rest and slides from the top to the bottom of an inclined plane in the absence of friction?

• What additional energy changes occur when there is friction between the mass and the inclined plane?

• What variables affect the period of a pendulum?

• When a moving object collides with an object at rest, is it possible for both objects to

be at rest after the collision?

• Compare and contrast light waves and sound waves

• How are the energy and frequency of red light different from that of blue light?

• Describe the size and location of an image formed in a plane mirror

III Life Science

A From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and

• Specialized cells and tissues

• Organs and organ systems (circulatory, excretory, digestive, respiratory, muscular, and nervous systems)

• Focus on system and subsystem interactions

b Effect of environmental and genetic factors

on plant and animal growth

c Reproduction

• Plant structures and adaptations

• Animal behaviors and adaptations

3 Matter and energy flow in organisms

a Important biomolecules (e.g., ATP, sugars)

b Photosynthesis in plants

c Cellular respiration in plants and animals

d Fermentation (e.g., by yeast)

e Differentiation between matter and energy

4 Sensory information processing in animals

a Stimuli (e.g., light, sound, chemical) and sensory receptors (e.g., eyes, ears)

b Transmission and processing (e.g., nerve, brain) and responses (e.g., behavior or memory)

Discussion areas: From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

• Name a structure that is found in a plant cell, but not in an animal cell, and describe its function

• List the levels of organization for the human nervous system in order from the simplest to the most complex

• What are the major components of the human digestive system and their functions?

• What are the subunits that compose carbohydrates and proteins?

• What structures are involved in the uptake and transport of nutrients and water in vascular plants?

• Compare how a mammal and reptile maintain body temperature

• Explain mitosis and meiosis in terms of the number of chromosomes in the parent and daughter cells

• Why is cellular respiration important?

B Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

1 Interdependent relationships in ecosystems

a Impact of resources on population growth

b Relationships and behavior (e.g., competition, mutualism, parasitism, predator-prey)

2 Cycling of matter and energy transfer in ecosystems

a Energy flow

• Energy transfer between producers, consumers, and decomposers

• Food webs as models

b Cycling of atoms (e.g., carbon, nitrogen) between living and nonliving components

3 Ecosystem dynamics, functioning, and resilience

a Biotic and abiotic factors

b Distinguish between biomes and ecosystems

c Relationships between biodiversity and human resources

d Stability and change within ecosystems

Discussion areas: Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

• What factors in an environment limit the population size of a species?

• Identify the trophic level for each of the following organisms: coyote, grass, grasshopper, hawk, meadowlark, rabbit, snake, and wildflower Based on the trophic levels, create a food web Describe how a drought would affect the ecosystem

• What are the types of climate, animals, and plants that are characteristic of the major biomes?

• What is the effect of invasive species?

C Heredity and Biological Evolution

1 Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

• Mutations (harmful, beneficial, neutral)

2 Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity

a Evidence of common ancestry and diversity

• Patterns in fossil record found within sedimentary layers (e.g., major extinction events and emergence of new organisms)

• Anatomical similarities and differences among modern organisms and between modern and fossil organisms

• Similarities in embryological development

• Classification of organisms according to shared characteristics

b Natural selection and adaptation

• Mechanisms of evolution (e.g., mutation, natural selection)

• Distribution of traits in a population can change over time in response to environment

Discussion areas: Heredity and Biological Evolution

• Describe Watson and Crick’s model for DNA structure

• In pea plants, purple flower color is dominant

to white flower color Using a Punnett square, demonstrate how a cross between two plants with purple flowers leads to some offspring with white flower color

• Compare and contrast the causes of cystic fibrosis and Down syndrome

• Discuss the significance of Darwin’s finches

IV Earth and Space Science

A Earth’s Place in the Universe

1 The universe and its stars

a Basic characteristics and life cycles of stars (e.g for example, composition, apparent brightness and distance from Earth)

b Basic types, characteristics, and motion of galaxies

c Observed motions of stars from Earth

d Formation and evidence (e.g., big bang theory)

2 Earth and the solar system

a Formation of the solar system and the role of gravity

b Properties of objects in the solar system (e.g., models, scales, structure, composition, surface features)

c Patterns of movement in the Sun-Earth-Moon system (e.g., Moon phases, eclipses, tides)

d Effect of Earth’s tilt on seasons and climate

3 The history of planet Earth

a Basic principles of historical geology and the geological timescale

• Stratigraphy (e.g., superposition, intrusive relationships, crosscutting relationships, fossil succession)

• Major events (e.g., extinction events, volcanic eruptions, glaciation, asteroid impacts)

b Relative and absolute dating (e.g., fossil record, radiometric dating)

Discussion areas: Earth’s Place in the Universe

• How do the Sun and other stars generate their energy?

• What information about stars and their life cycle can be obtained from a Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram?

• What type of galaxy is the Milky Way?

• What limitation of Earth-based telescopes has been solved by the Hubble Space Telescope?

• What is the origin of the astronomical unit?

• What are the characteristics that distinguish the inner planets from the outer planets?

• What are the relative positions of Earth, the Moon, and the Sun during a solar eclipse?

• What is the relationship between Earth’s rotation, longitude, and time zone?

• How do the Sun and Moon influence tides?

• Is radioactive dating used to determine relative or absolute age?

• How can fossils be useful to a geologist in correlating the north and south walls of the Grand Canyon?

B Earth’s Systems

1 Earth materials and systems

a Rock types and their formation processes (e.g., energy flow, the rock cycle)

b Minerals and their properties (e.g., color, streak, hardness, acid test)

c Weathering, erosion, and deposition

• Chemical, biological, and physical weathering

• Agents of erosion (e.g., water, ice, wind)

• Effect on surface features and the origin of major landforms (e.g., valleys, canyons, coastline topography)

• Prediction of natural hazards (e.g., landslides) and mitigation of their impact on humans (e.g., retaining walls)

2 Plate tectonics and large-scale system interactions

a Earth’s structure (e.g., layers, composition, properties, and processes, such as convection

b Plate tectonics theory and supporting evidence

• Types of plate boundaries (e.g., convergent, divergent, transform)

• Folding and faulting (e.g., normal, reverse, strike-slip)

• Supporting evidence (e.g., ages of crustal rocks, hot-spot volcanoes, distribution of rocks and fossils, continental shapes)

c Landforms (e.g., mountain ranges, rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges)

d Prediction of natural hazards (e.g., earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis) and mitigation of their impact on humans (e.g., earthquake-resistant structures)

3 Roles of water in Earth’s surface processes

• Evaporation, sublimation, transpiration

• Condensation and crystallization

• Precipitation

• Runoff and infiltration

c Oceanography

• Tides, waves, currents

• Global ocean circulation (e.g., driven by seawater density, transfer of heat)

• Ocean floor topography (e.g., continental shelf, continental slope, abyssal plain, islands, reefs)

d Surface features and underground formations (e.g., watersheds, deltas, groundwater features)

e Prediction of natural hazards (e.g., floods, storm surge) and mitigation of their impact

on humans (e.g for example, dams, levees)

4 Weather and climate

a Meteorology

• Elements of weather and their measurement (e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity, precipitation, wind)

• Interpretation of basic weather data (e.g., maps, radar, probability, predictions)

• Effects of thermal energy transfer on the atmosphere

• Properties, motions, and interactions of air masses, including the Coriolis effect

• Prediction of severe weather events (e.g., hurricanes, tornadoes) and mitigation of their impact on humans (e.g., basements in tornado-prone regions)

• Effect of landforms (e.g., rain shadow effect)

• Proximity to water (e.g., heat capacity of land and water, sea and land breezes, lake effect, ocean currents)

• Climate change (e.g., natural and human causes, effects and management)

Discussion areas: Earth’s Systems

• Describe how each type of rock can be changed into the other types of rock

• What is the relationship between minerals and rocks?

• What are the major agents of erosion?

• What is the difference between weathering and erosion?

• What are the characteristics of each of Earth’s layers?

• Describe the processes that occur at plate boundaries and the landforms that result

• What is a hot spot?

• What are the roles of gravity and the Sun in the water cycle?

• What are the relative amounts of fresh and salt water on Earth?

• What cloud types are generally associated with precipitation?

• Why do weather systems generally move across the United States from west to east?

• How do ocean currents, landforms, and global wind belts affect the climate of a region?

• How can a volcanic eruption affect both regional and worldwide climate conditions?

Science and Engineering Practices

The SEPs represent eight practices that scientists

and engineers—and students and teachers—use to

investigate the world and to design and build systems

Many test questions will integrate one or more of

• Ask questions to identify and/or clarify evidence and/or the premise(s) of an argument

• Ask questions to determine relationships between independent and dependent variables and relationships in models

• Ask questions to clarify and/or refine a model, an explanation, or an engineering problem

• Ask questions that require sufficient and appropriate empirical evidence to answer

• Ask questions that can be investigated within the scope of the classroom, outdoor environment, and museums and other public facilities with available resources and, when appropriate, frame a hypothesis based

on observations and scientific principles

• Ask questions that challenge the premise(s)

of an argument or the interpretation of a data set

• Define a design problem that can be solved through the development of an object, tool, process or system and includes multiple criteria and constraints, including scientific knowledge that may limit possible solutions

2 Developing and using models

• Evaluate limitations of a model for a proposed object or tool

• Develop or modify a model—based on evidence—to match what happens if a variable or component of a system is changed

• Use and/or develop a model of simple systems with uncertain and less predictable factors

• Develop and/or revise a model to show the relationships among variables, including those that are not observable but predict observable phenomena

• Develop and/or use a model to predict and/

at unobservable scales

3 Planning and carrying out investigations

• Plan an investigation individually and collaboratively, and in the design: identify independent and dependent variables and controls, what tools are needed to do the gathering, how measurements will be recorded, and how many data are needed to support a claim

• Conduct an investigation and/or evaluate and/or revise the experimental design to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence that meet the goals of the investigation

• Evaluate the accuracy of various methods for collecting data

• Collect data to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence to answer scientific questions or test design solutions under a range of conditions

• Collect data about the performance of a proposed object, tool, process or system under a range of conditions

4 Analyzing and interpreting data

• Construct, analyze, and/or interpret graphical displays of data and/or large data sets to identify linear and nonlinear relationships

• Use graphical displays (e.g., maps, charts, graphs, and/or tables) of large data sets to identify temporal and spatial relationships

• Distinguish between causal and correlational relationships in data

• Analyze and interpret data to provide evidence for phenomena

• Apply concepts of statistics and probability (including mean, median, mode, and variability) to analyze and characterize data, using digital tools when feasible

• Consider limitations of data analysis (e.g., measurement error), and/or seek to improve precision and accuracy of data with better technological tools and methods (e.g., multiple trials)

• Analyze and interpret data to determine similarities and differences in findings

• Analyze data to define an optimal operational range for a proposed object, tool, process or system that best meets criteria for success.

5 Using mathematics and computational thinking

• Use digital tools (e.g., computers) to analyze very large data sets for patterns and trends

• Use mathematical representations to describe and/or support scientific conclusions and design solutions

• Create algorithms (a series of ordered steps)

to solve a problem

• Apply mathematical concepts and/or processes (e.g., ratio, rate, percent, basic operations, simple algebra) to scientific and engineering questions and problems

• Use digital tools and/or mathematical concepts and arguments to test and compare proposed solutions to an engineering design problem

6 Constructing explanations (for science) and designing solutions (for engineering)

• Construct an explanation that includes qualitative or quantitative relationships between variables that predict(s) and/or describe(s) phenomena

• Construct an explanation using models or representations

• Construct a scientific explanation based on valid and reliable evidence obtained from sources (including the students’ own experiments) and the assumption that theories and laws that describe the natural world operate today as they did in the past and will continue to do so in the future

• Apply scientific ideas, principles, and/or evidence to construct, revise and/or use an explanation for real-world phenomena, examples, or events

• Apply scientific reasoning to show why the data or evidence is adequate for the explanation or conclusion

• Apply scientific ideas or principles to design, construct, and/or test a design of an object, tool, process or system

• Undertake a design project, engaging in the design cycle, to construct and/or implement

a solution that meets specific design criteria and constraints

• Optimize performance of a design by prioritizing criteria, making tradeoffs, testing, revising, and re-testing

7 Engaging in argument from evidence

• Compare and critique two arguments on the same topic and analyze whether they emphasize similar or different evidence and/

or interpretations of facts

• Respectfully provide and receive critiques about one’s explanations, procedures, models, and questions by citing relevant evidence and posing and responding to questions that elicit pertinent elaboration and detail

• Construct, use, and/or present an oral and written argument supported by empirical evidence and scientific reasoning to support

or refute an explanation or a model for a phenomenon or a solution to a problem

• Make an oral or written argument that supports or refutes the advertised performance of a device, process, or system based on empirical evidence concerning whether or not the technology meets relevant criteria and constraints

• Evaluate competing design solutions based

on jointly developed and agreed-upon design criteria

8 Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information

• Critically read scientific texts adapted for classroom use to determine the central ideas and/or obtain scientific and/or technical information to describe patterns in and/or evidence about the natural and designed world(s)

• Integrate qualitative and/or quantitative scientific and/or technical information in written text with that contained in media and visual displays to clarify claims and findings

• Gather, read, and synthesize information from multiple appropriate sources and assess the credibility, accuracy, and possible bias of each publication and methods used, and describe how they are supported or not supported by evidence

• Evaluate data, hypotheses, and/or conclusions in scientific and technical texts

in light of competing information or accounts

• Communicate scientific and/or technical information (e.g., about a proposed object, tool, process, system) in writing and/or through oral presentations

Tasks of Teaching Science

This list includes instructional tasks that teachers

engage in that are essential for effective science

teaching Many test questions will measure content

through application to one or more of these tasks

Scientific Instructional Goals, Big Ideas, and Topics

1 Selecting or sequencing appropriate instructional goals or big ideas for a topic

2 Identifying the big idea or instructional goal of

an instructional activity

3 Choosing which science ideas or instructional activities are most closely related to a

particular instructional goal

4 Linking science ideas to one another and to particular activities, models, and

representations within and across units

Scientific Investigations and Demonstrations

5 Selecting investigations or demonstrations, including virtual, that facilitate understanding

of disciplinary core ideas, scientific practices, or crosscutting concepts

6 Evaluating investigation questions for quality (e.g., testable, empirical)

7 Determining the variables, techniques, or tools that are appropriate for use by students to address a specific investigation question

8 Critiquing scientific procedures, data, observations, or results for their quality, accuracy, or appropriateness

9 Supporting students in generating questions for investigation or identifying patterns in data and observations

Scientific Resources (texts, curriculum materials,

journals, and other print and media-based resources)

10 Evaluating instructional materials and other resources for their ability to address scientific concepts; engage students with relevant phenomena; develop and use scientific ideas;

promote students’ thinking about phenomena, experiences, and knowledge; take account of students’ ideas and background; and assess student progress

11 Choosing resources that support the selection

of accurate, valid, and appropriate goals for science learning

Student Ideas (including common misconceptions, alternate conceptions, and partial conceptions)

12 Analyzing student ideas for common misconceptions regarding intended scientific learning

13 Selecting diagnostic items and eliciting student thinking about scientific ideas and practices to identify common student misconceptions and the basis for those misconceptions

14 Developing or selecting instructional moves, approaches, or representations that provide evidence about common student

misconceptions and help students move toward a better understanding of the idea, concept, or practice

Scientific Language, Discourse, Vocabulary, and Definitions

15 Selecting scientific language that is precise, accurate, grade-appropriate, and illustrates key scientific concepts

16 Anticipating scientific language and vocabulary that may be difficult for students

17 Modeling the use of appropriate verbal and written scientific language in critiquing arguments or explanations, in describing observations, or in using evidence to support a claim, etc

18 Supporting and critiquing students’

participation in and use of verbal and written scientific discourse and argumentation

Scientific Explanations (includes claim, evidence, and reasoning)

19 Critiquing student-generated explanations or descriptions for their generalizability, accuracy, precision, or consistency with scientific evidence

20 Selecting explanations of natural phenomena that are accurate and accessible to students

Scientific Models and Representations (analogies, metaphors, simulations, illustrations, diagrams, data tables, performances, videos, animations, graphs, and examples)

21 Evaluating or selecting scientific models and representations that predict or explain scientific phenomena or address instructional goals

22 Engaging students in using, modifying, creating, and critiquing scientific models and representations that are matched to an instructional goal

23 Evaluating student models or representations for evidence of scientific understanding

24 Generating or selecting diagnostic questions

to evaluate student understanding of specific models or representations

25 Evaluating student ideas about what makes for good scientific models and representations

2 Familiarize Yourself with Test Questions

Become comfortable with the types of questions you’ll find on the Praxis tests

The Praxis assessments include a variety of question types: constructed response (for which you write a

response of your own); selected response, for which you select one or more answers from a list of choices or

make another kind of selection (e.g., by clicking on a sentence in a text or by clicking on part of a graphic); and

numeric entry, for which you enter a numeric value in an answer field You may be familiar with these question

formats from taking other standardized tests If not, familiarize yourself with them so you don’t spend time

during the test figuring out how to answer them

Understanding Computer-Delivered Questions

Questions on computer-delivered tests are interactive in the sense that you answer by selecting an option

or entering text on the screen If you see a format you are not familiar with, read the directions carefully The

directions always give clear instructions on how you are expected to respond

For most questions, you respond by clicking an oval to select a single answer from a list of answer choices

However, interactive question types may also ask you to respond by:

• Clicking more than one oval to select answers from a list of answer choices.

• Typing in an entry box When the answer is a number, you may be asked to enter a numerical answer

Some questions may have more than one place to enter a response

• Clicking check boxes You may be asked to click check boxes instead of an oval when more than one

choice within a set of answers can be selected

• Clicking parts of a graphic In some questions, you will select your answers by clicking on a location (or

locations) on a graphic such as a map or chart, as opposed to choosing your answer from a list

• Clicking on sentences In questions with reading passages, you may be asked to choose your answers by

clicking on a sentence (or sentences) within the reading passage

• Dragging and dropping answer choices into targets on the screen You may be asked to select answers

from a list of choices and drag your answers to the appropriate location in a table, paragraph of text or graphic

• Selecting answers from a drop-down menu You may be asked to choose answers by selecting choices

from a drop-down menu (e.g., to complete a sentence)

Remember that with every question you will get clear instructions

Demonstration on the Praxis web site to learn how a computer-delivered test works and see examples of

some types of questions you may encounter

Understanding Selected-Response Questions

Many selected-response questions begin with the phrase “which of the following.” Take a look at this example:

Which of the following is a flavor made from beans?

(A) Strawberry (B) Cherry (C) Vanilla (D) MintHow would you answer this question?

All of the answer choices are flavors Your job is to decide which of the flavors is the one made from beans

Try following these steps to select the correct answer

from beans, but they are not listed Rather than thinking of other possible answers, focus only on the choices given (“which of the following”)

that mint flavor is made from a plant That leaves vanilla as the only possible answer

question into this statement: “Vanilla is a flavor made from beans.” This will help you be sure that your answer

is correct If you’re still uncertain, try substituting the other choices to see if they make sense You may want

to use this technique as you answer selected-response questions on the practice tests

Try a more challenging example

The vanilla bean question is pretty straightforward, but you’ll find that more challenging questions have a

similar structure For example:

Entries in outlines are generally arranged according

to which of the following relationships of ideas?

(A) Literal and inferential (B) Concrete and abstract (C) Linear and recursive (D) Main and subordinate

You’ll notice that this example also contains the phrase “which of the following.” This phrase helps you

determine that your answer will be a “relationship of ideas” from the choices provided You are supposed to find

the choice that describes how entries, or ideas, in outlines are related

Sometimes it helps to put the question in your own words Here, you could paraphrase the question in this way:

“How are outlines usually organized?” Since the ideas in outlines usually appear as main ideas and subordinate

ideas, the answer is (D)

QUICK TIP: Don’t be intimidated by words you may not understand It might be easy to be thrown by words

like “recursive” or “inferential.” Read carefully to understand the question and look for an answer that fits An

outline is something you are probably familiar with and expect to teach to your students So slow down, and

use what you know

Watch out for selected-response questions containing “NOT,” “LEAST,” and “EXCEPT”

This type of question asks you to select the choice that does not fit You must be very careful because it is easy

to forget that you are selecting the negative This question type is used in situations in which there are several

good solutions or ways to approach something, but also a clearly wrong way

How to approach questions about graphs, tables, or reading passages

When answering questions about graphs, tables, or reading passages, provide only the information that the

questions ask for In the case of a map or graph, you might want to read the questions first, and then look at the

map or graph In the case of a long reading passage, you might want to go ahead and read the passage first,

noting places you think are important, and then answer the questions Again, the important thing is to be sure

you answer the questions as they refer to the material presented So read the questions carefully

How to approach unfamiliar formats

New question formats are developed from time to time to find new ways of assessing knowledge Tests may

include audio and video components, such as a movie clip or animation, instead of a map or reading passage

Other tests may allow you to zoom in on details in a graphic or picture

Tests may also include interactive questions These questions take advantage of technology to assess

knowledge and skills in ways that standard selected-response questions cannot If you see a format you are

not familiar with, read the directions carefully The directions always give clear instructions on how you are

expected to respond

QUICK TIP: Don’t make the questions more difficult than they are Don’t read for hidden meanings or tricks

There are no trick questions on Praxis tests They are intended to be serious, straightforward tests of

your knowledge

Understanding Constructed-Response Questions

Constructed-response questions require you to demonstrate your knowledge in a subject area by creating

your own response to particular topics Essays and short-answer questions are types of constructed-response

questions

For example, an essay question might present you with a topic and ask you to discuss the extent to which you

agree or disagree with the opinion stated You must support your position with specific reasons and examples

from your own experience, observations, or reading

Take a look at a few sample essay topics:

• “Celebrities have a tremendous influence on the young, and for that reason, they have a responsibility to act as role models.”

• “We are constantly bombarded by advertisements—on television and radio, in newspapers and magazines, on highway signs, and the sides of buses They have become too pervasive It’s time to put limits on advertising.”

• “Advances in computer technology have made the classroom unnecessary, since students and teachers are able to communicate with one another from computer terminals at home or at work.”

Keep these things in mind when you respond to a constructed-response question

question asks you to describe or discuss, you should provide more than just a list

you should cover all three things for the best score Otherwise, no matter how well you write, you will not be awarded full credit

3) Answer the question that is asked. Do not change the question or challenge the basis of the question You will receive no credit or a low score if you answer another question or if you state, for example, that there is no possible answer

4) Give a thorough and detailed response. You must demonstrate that you have a thorough understanding of the subject matter However, your response should be straightforward and not filled with unnecessary information

5) Reread your response. Check that you have written what you thought you wrote Be sure not to leave sentences unfinished or omit clarifying information

QUICK TIP: You may find that it helps to take notes on scratch paper so that you don’t miss any details Then

you’ll be sure to have all the information you need to answer the question

3 Practice with Sample Test Questions

Answer practice questions and find explanations for correct answers

Computer Delivery

This test is available via computer delivery To illustrate what the computer-delivered test looks like, the

following sample question shows an actual screen used in a computer-delivered test For the purposes of this

guide, sample questions are provided as they would appear in a paper-delivered test

Sample Test Questions

The sample questions that follow illustrate the

types of questions in the test They are not,

however, representative of the entire scope of the

test in either content or difficulty Answers with

explanations follow the questions.

Directions: Each of the questions or incomplete

statements below is followed by four suggested

answers or completions Select the one that is

best in each case

1 The American badger, Taxidea taxus, is a

mammal with 16 chromosomes in its sex cells The badger’s body cells must have a total of

(A) 8 chromosomes(B) 16 chromosomes(C) 32 chromosomes(D) 64 chromosomes

2 A teacher asks students to identify the

19

F, the only stable isotope of fluorine Which of the following best represents the misconception held by a student who claims that there are 9

19

F? (A) Number of neutrons = atomic number + mass number

(B) Number of neutrons = atomic number

(C) Number of neutrons = mass number − atomic number

(D) Number of neutrons = 2 × atomic number

3 Fossil A is several layers above fossil B in a

series of undisturbed sedimentary layers

Paleontologists use which of the following principles to determine that fossil A is younger than fossil B?

(A) Superposition(B) Uniformitarianism(C) Natural selection(D) Uncertainty principle

4 During a lesson on electrostatics, a teacher demonstrates two balloons repelling each

possibly true about the charges on each balloon?

(A) One balloon is positively charged, and the other is negatively charged

(B) Both balloons are positively charged

(C) Both balloons are negatively charged

(D) Both balloons are neutral

5 The structure of a DNA molecule is most similar to which of the following?

(A) A twisted ladder(B) An apple sliced in half(C) A leafy tree

(D) A rectangular box without a lid

6 Which of the following instructional goals would an investigation in which students collect data on the color, hardness, luster, and streak of different minerals best address?

(A) Describing the processes of the rock cycle

(B) Identifying minerals based on their different properties

(C) Outlining the mineral composition of Earth’s crust

(D) Identifying rocks as either sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic

7 Newton’s second law of motion is concerned with which of the following quantities?

(A) Velocity and mass(B) Acceleration and time(C) Force, velocity, and time(D) Force, acceleration, and mass

8 Which of the following correctly pairs the

specialized cell with its primary function in the body?

Specialized Cell Primary Function in

information to the brain

9 Aluminum reacts with oxygen to form a white

solid Which of the following best describes the solid?

(A) It is an alloy

(B) It is a compound

(C) It is an element

(D) It is a heterogeneous mixture of elements

10 Petroleum, natural gas, and coal are

examples of(A) biomass(B) fossil fuels(C) carbohydrates(D) renewable resources

11 Which of the following documentary topics

will best facilitate a discussion on artificial selection?

(A) The history of the five most-popular domestic dog breeds in the country(B) The mapping of the genomes of the birds

on the Galápagos Islands(C) The advances in current gene therapies for human diseases

(D) The global effect of climate change on marine organisms

12 Which of the following properties of light determines the color of an opaque object?

(A) Refraction(B) Polarization(C) Transmission(D) Reflection

13 An oceanic plate is subducted beneath a continental plate because oceanic plates are(A) denser than continental plates are(B) smaller than continental plates are(C) older than continental plates are(D) thinner than continental plates are

14 Students use a pan, water, and dark-colored vegetable oil to model an oceanic oil spill

They have different tools to remove as much oil from their pans of water as possible The tools represent three common methods that environmental engineers typically use for cleaning up an oil spill: skimming, absorbing,

learning goals are met by this activity?

(A) Students can provide solutions to prevent

a future oil spill

(B) Students can describe how each method

is used to clean up an oil spill

(C) Students can discuss the effectiveness of each method

(D) Students can organize and analyze data collected from the activity

15 Which of the following equations represents a combustion reaction?

(B) H SO2 4+2 NaOH→Na SO2 4+2H O2

(C) 2 HCl Fe FeCl+ → 2+H2

(D) C H3 8+5 O2→3CO2+4H O2