Marine navigation and safety of sea transportation  maritime transport and shipping

Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation Maritime Transport & Shipping Editors Adam Weintrit & Tomasz Neumann Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland... Maritime Transport &

an informa business

MARINE NAVIGATION AND SAFETY OF SEA TRANSPORTATION

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Marine Navigation and Safety

of Sea Transportation

Maritime Transport & Shipping

Editors

Adam Weintrit & Tomasz Neumann

Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland

CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

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Published by: CRC Press/Balkema

P.O Box 11320, 2301 EH Leiden, The Netherlands

www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.comISBN: 978-1-138-00105-3 (Hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-88312-0 (eBook)

List of reviewers

Prof Roland Akselsson, Lund University, Sweden

Prof Anatoli Alop, Estonian Maritime Academy, Tallin, Estonia

Prof Yasuo Arai, Independent Administrative Institution Marine Technical Education Agency,

Prof Terje Aven, University of Stavanger (UiS), Stavanger, Norway

Prof Michael Baldauf, Word Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden

Prof Michael Barnett, Southampton Solent University, United Kingdom

Prof Eugen Barsan, Constanta Maritime University, Romania

Prof Angelica Baylon, Maritime Academy of Asia & the Pacific, Philippines

Prof Knud Benedict, University of Wismar, University of Technology, Business and Design, Germany

Prof Christophe Berenguer, Grenoble Institute of Technology, Saint Martin d'Heres, France

Prof Tor Einar Berg, Norwegian Marine Technology Research Institute, Trondheim, Norway

Prof Carmine Giuseppe Biancardi, The University of Naples „Parthenope”, Naples, Italy

Prof Alfred Brandowski, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Sr Jesus Carbajosa Menendez, President of Spanish Institute of Navigation, Spain

Prof Pierre Cariou, Word Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden

Prof A Güldem Cerit, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Turkey

Prof Adam Charchalis, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Prof Andrzej Chudzikiewicz, Warsaw University of Technology, Poland

Prof Kevin Cullinane, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

Prof Krzysztof Czaplewski, Polish Naval Academy, Gdynia, Poland

Prof German de Melo Rodriguez, Polytechnical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain

Prof Decio Crisol Donha, Escola Politécnica Universidade de Sao Paulo, Brazil

Prof Eamonn Doyle, National Maritime College of Ireland, Cork Institute of Technology, Cork, Ireland

Prof Daniel Duda, Naval University of Gdynia, Polish Nautological Society, Poland

Prof Andrzej Fellner, Silesian University of Technology, Katowice, Poland

Prof Börje Forssell, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

Prof Alberto Francescutto, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy

Prof Jens Froese, Jacobs University Bremen, Germany

Prof Wiesáaw Galor, Maritime University of Szczecin, Poland

Prof Avtandil Gegenava, Georgian Maritime Transport Agency, Head of Maritime Rescue Coordination Center, Georgia

Prof Jerzy Girtler, GdaĔsk University of Technology, Poland

Prof Stanislaw Górski, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Prof Marek Grzegorzewski, Polish Air Force Academy, Deblin, Poland

Prof Andrzej Grzelakowski, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Prof Lucjan Gucma, Maritime University of Szczecin, Poland

Prof Stanisáaw Gucma, Maritime University of Szczecin, Poland

Prof Vladimir Hahanov, Kharkov National University of Radio Electronics, Kharkov, Ukraine

Prof Jerzy Hajduk, Maritime University of Szczecin, Poland

Prof Michaá Holec, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Prof Qinyou Hu, Shanghai Maritime University, China

Prof Marek Idzior, Poznan University of Technology, Poland

Prof Jung Sik Jeong, Mokpo National Maritime University, South Korea

Prof Mirosáaw JurdziĔski, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Prof John Kemp, Royal Institute of Navigation, London, UK

Prof Lech KobyliĔski, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gdansk University of Technology, Poland

Prof Serdjo Kos, University of Rijeka, Croatia

Prof Eugeniusz Kozaczka, Polish Acoustical Society, Gdansk University of Technology, Poland

Prof Pentti Kujala, Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki, Finland

Prof Jan Kulczyk, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland

Prof Andrzej LewiĔski, University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, Poland

Prof Vladimir Loginovsky, Admiral Makarov State Maritime Academy, St Petersburg, Russia

Prof Mirosáaw Luft, University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, Poland

Prof Bogumiá àączyĔski, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Prof Zbigniew àukasik, University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, Poland

Prof Marek Malarski, Warsaw University of Technology, Poland

Prof Francesc Xavier Martinez de Oses, Polytechnical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain

Prof Jerzy Matusiak, Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki, Finland

Prof Bolesáaw Mazurkiewicz, Maritime University of Szczecin, Poland

Prof Boyan Mednikarov, Nikola Y Vaptsarov Naval Academy,Varna, Bulgaria

Prof Jerzy Merkisz, PoznaĔ University of Technology, PoznaĔ, Poland

Prof Daniel Seong-Hyeok Moon, World Maritime University, Malmoe, Sweden

Prof Wacáaw MorgaĞ, Polish Naval Academy, Gdynia, Poland

Prof Takeshi Nakazawa, World Maritime University, Malmoe, Sweden

Prof Rudy R Negenborn, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Prof Nikitas Nikitakos, University of the Aegean, Chios, Greece

Prof Tomasz Nowakowski, Wrocáaw University of Technology, Wrocáaw, Poland

Prof Vytautas Paulauskas, Maritime Institute College, Klaipeda University, Lithuania

Prof Jan Pawelski, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Prof Thomas Pawlik, Bremen University of Applied Sciences, Germany

Prof Francisco Piniella, University of Cadiz, Spain

Prof Boris Pritchard, University of Rijeka, Croatia

Prof Jonas Ringsberg, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

Prof Michael Roe, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom

Prof Hermann Rohling, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany

Prof Wáadysáaw Rymarz, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Prof Aydin Salci, Istanbul Technical University, Maritime Faculty, ITUMF, Istanbul, Turkey

Prof Viktoras Sencila, Lithuanian Maritime Academy, Klaipeda, Lithuania

Prof Shigeaki Shiotani, Kobe University, Japan

Prof Jacek Skorupski, Warsaw University of Technology, Poland

Prof Leszek Smolarek, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Cmdr Bengt Stahl, Nordic Institute of Navigation, Sweden

Prof Janusz Szpytko, AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland

Prof Leszek Szychta, University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, Poland

Prof Wojciech ĝlączka, Maritime University of Szczecin, Poland

Prof Roman ĝmierzchalski, GdaĔsk University of Technology, Poland

Prof Henryk ĝniegocki, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland

Prof Vladimir Torskiy, Odessa National Maritime Academy, Ukraine

Prof Elen Twrdy, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

Capt Rein van Gooswilligen, Netherlands Institute of Navigation

Prof Nguyen Van Thu, Ho Chi Minh City University of Transport, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Prof George Yesu Vedha Victor, International Seaport Dredging Limited, Chennai, India

Prof Peter Voersmann, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ortung und Navigation, Germany

Prof Vladimir A Volkogon, Baltic Fishing Fleet State Academy, Kaliningrad, Russian Federation

Prof Bernard WiĞniewski, Maritime University of Szczecin, Poland

Prof Krystyna Wojewódzka-Król, University of GdaĔsk, Poland

Prof Adam Wolski, Maritime University of Szczecin, Poland

Prof Jia-Jang Wu, National Kaohsiung Marine University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan (ROC)

Prof Hideo Yabuki, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Prof Homayoun Yousefi, Chabahar Maritime University, Iran

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Maritime Transport & Shipping Introduction 11

A Weintrit & T Neumann

1.1 Overview of Maritime Accidents Involving Chemicals Worldwide and in the Baltic Sea 15

J.M Häkkinen & A.I Posti 

1.2 Factors Affecting Operational Efficiency of Chemical Cargo Terminals: A Qualitative Approach 27

T.A Gülcan, S Esmer, Y Zorba & G ùengönül 

1.3 The Parameters Determining the Safety of Sea Transport of Mineral Concentrates 33

M Popek 

1.4 Determination of the Fire Safety of Some Mineral Fertilizers (3) 39

K Kwiatkowska-Sienkiewicz, P Kutta & E Kotulska 

1.5 The Ecological Hovercraft – Dream or Reality! 45

Z.T Pagowski & K Szafran 

1.6 Response to Global Environment Education for Disaster Risk Management: Disaster Preparedness

of JBLFMU-Molo, Philippines 49

R.A Alimen, R.L Pador & C.D Ortizo 

1.7 Marine Environment Protection through CleanSeaNet within Black Sea 59

S Berescu 

1.8 Phytoplankton Diversity in Offshore, Port and Ballast Water of a Foreign Vessel in Negros Occidental, Philippines 65

B.G.S Sarinas, M.L.L Arcelo & L.D Gellada 

1.9 Study of Trawling Impacts on Diversity and Distribution of Gastropods Communities in North

of Persian Gulf Fishing Area 73

M Shirmohammadi, B Doustshenas, A Savari, N Sakhaei & S Dehghan Mediseh 

2 Chapter 2. Gas and Oil Transportation 77

2.1 Future Development of Oil Transportation in the Gulf of Finland 79

O-.P Brunila & J Storgard 

2.2 Possibilities for the Use of LNG as a Fuel on the Baltic Sea 87

S Jankowski 

2.3 Identification of Hazards that Affect the Safety of LNG Carrier During Port Entry 91

P Gackowski & A Gackowska 

2.4 The Mooring Pattern Study for Q-Flex Type LNG Carriers Scheduled for Berthing at Ege Gaz Aliaga LNG Terminal 97

S Nas, Y Zorba & E Ucan 

2.5 Natural Gas as Alternative Fuel for Vessels Sailing in European Waters 103

J Pawelski 

3.1 The Future of Santos Harbour (Brazil) Outer Access Channel 111

P Alfredini, E Arasaki, A.S Moreira, C.P Fournier, P.S.M Barbosa & W.C Sousa Jr. 

3.2 Port Safety; Requirements & Economic Outcomes 117

M.A Hassanzadeh 

3.3 Method of Assessment of Insurance Expediency of Quay Structures’ Damage Risks in Sea Ports 123

M.Ya Postan & M.B Poizner 

3.4 Solid Waste Management: Compliance, Practices, Destination and Impact among Merchant Vessels Docking

in Iloilo Ports 129

B.G.S Sarinas, L.D Gellada, M.M Magramo & D.O Docto 

3.5 Keeping a Vigilant Eye: ISPS Compliance of Major Ports in the Philippines 133

R.R Somosa, D.O Docto, M.R Terunez, J.R.P Flores, V Lamasan & M.M Magramo 

3.6 The Using of Extruded Fenders in Yachts Ports 139

W Galor 

3.7 The Positive Implications for the Application of the International Ship & Port Facility Security

and its Reflects on Saudi’s Ports 143

A Elentably 

4 Chapter 4 Dynamic Positioning and Offshore Technology 157

4.1 Verifications of Thrusters Number and Orientation in Ship’s Dynamic Positioning Systems 159

J Herdzik 

4.2 Underwater Vehicles’ Applications in Offshore Industry 165

K.A Wróbel 

4.3 Coordinated Team Training for Heavy Lift and Offshore Crane Loading Teams 171

A Oesterle & C Bornhorst 

4.4 A Proposal of International Regulations for Preventing Collision between an Offshore Platform and a Ship 175

P Zhang 

4.5 Other than Navigation Technical Uses of the Sea Space 179

Z Otremba 

5 Chapter 5 Container Transport 185

5.1 Development of Container Transit from the Iranian South Ports with a Focus on the International

North South Transport Corridor 187

M Haghighi, T Hassangholi Pour, H Khodadad Hossani & H Yousefi 

5.2 Green Waterborne Container Logistics for Ports 195

U Malchow 

5.3 The Concept of Modernization Works Related to the Capability of Handling E Class Container Vessels

in the Port Gdynia 201

K Formela & A Kaizer 

5.4 Container Transport Capacity at the Port of Koper, Including a Brief Description of Studies Necessary

Prior to Expansion 207

M Perkovic, E Twrdy, M Batista & L Gucma 

6 Chapter 6 Intermodal Transport 215

6.1 Overview of Intermodal Liner Passenger Connections within Croatian Seaports 217

V Stupalo, N Joliü & M Bukljaš Skoþibušiü 

6.2 Concept of Cargo Security Assurance in an Intermodal Transportation 223

T Eglynas, S Jakovlev, M Bogdeviþius, R Didžiokas A Andziulis & T Lenkauskas 

7.1 Diagnostic and Measurement System for Marine Engines’ 229

A Charchalis 

7.2 Develop a Condition Based Maintenance Model for a Vessel’s Main Propulsion System and Related Subsystems 235

M Anantharaman & N Lawrence 

7.3 Experimental Analysis of Podded Propulsor on Naval Vessel 239

M.P Abdul Ghani, O Yaakob, N Ismail, A.S.A Kader, A.F Ahmad Sabki & P Singaraveloo 

7.4 Modern Methods of the Selection of Diesel Engines Injector Nozzles Parameters 243

M Idzior 

7.5 The Assessment of the Application of the CFD Package OpenFOAM to Simulating Flow Around the Propeller 247

T Gornicz & J Kulczyk 

7.6 On the Characteristics of the Propulsion Performance in the Actual Sea 253

J Kayano, H Yabuki, N Sasaki & R Hiwatashi 

7.7 Engine Room Simulator (ERS) Training Course: Practicability and Essentiality Onboard Ship 259

R.A Alimen 

7.8 Contribution to Treatment System Deformed Highlighted a Network Connection Point of Medium and High Voltage 263

V Ciucur 

8.1 Prognostic Estimation of Ship Stability in Extreme Navigation Conditions 271

S Moiseenko, L Meyler & O Faustova 

8.2 The Values and Locations of the Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic Forces at Hull of the Ship in Transitional Mode 277

O.O Kanifolskyi 

8.3 Contrary Hydrodynamical Interactions Between the Model and Prototype of Boats 281

A ùalci 

8.4 New Methods of Measuring the Motion (6DOF) and Deformation of Container Vessels in the Sea 289

D Kowalewski, F Heinen & R Galas 

Propulsion and Mechanical Engineering

8.5 Hybrid Bayesian Wave Estimation for Actual Merchant Vessels 293

T Iseki, M Baba & K Hirayama 

8.6 Modelling Studies of the Roll and the Pitch Training Ship 299

W Mironiuk & A PawlĊdzio 

8.7 The Dynamic Heeling Moment Due to Liquid Sloshing in Partly Filled Wing Tanks for Varying Rolling Period

of Seagoing Vessels 303

P Krata, J Jachowski, W WawrzyĔski & W WiĊckiewicz 

8.8 Safety Studies for Laker Bulker Trans-pacific Delivery Voyage 311

G Mazerski 

Author index 319

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The monograph is addressed to scientists and

professionals in order to share their expert

knowledge, experience and research results

concerning all aspects of navigation, safety at sea

and marine transportation

The contents of the book are partitioned into

eight separate chapters: Pollution at Sea, Cargo

Safety, Environment Protection and Ecology

(covering the subchapters 1.1 through 1.9), Gas and

Oil Transportation (covering the chapters 2.1

through 2.5), Sea Port and Harbours Development

(covering the chapters 3.1 through 3.7), Dynamic

Positioning and Offshore Technology (covering the

chapters 4.1 through 4.5), Container Transport

(covering the chapters 5.1 through 5.4), Intermodal

Transport (covering the chapters 6.1 through 6.2),

Ship’s propulsion and Mechanical Engineering

(covering the chapters 7.1 through 7.8) and

Hydrodynamics and Ship Stability (covering the

chapters 8.1 through 8.8)

Each chapter contains interesting information on

specific aspects of Maritime Transport & Shipping

The Editors would like to thanks all authors of

chapters It was hard work but worth every minute

This book is the result of years of research,

conducted by many people Each chapter was

reviewed at least by three independent reviewers

The Editors would like to express his gratitude to

distinguished authors and reviewers of chapters for

their great contribution for expected success of the

publication He congratulates the authors for their

excellent work

First chapter is about Pollution at Sea, Cargo

Safety, Environment Protection and Ecology The

readers can find some information about overview of

the past tanker accidents in the Baltic Sea and

chemical related accidents in seas worldwide The

aim of other study is to perform a qualitative

research to determine the factors affecting the

operational efficiency of ship, berth and

warehousing operations in chemical cargo terminals

Chapter also contains information about safe

transportation solid bulk cargoes and notice about fire safety assessment concerning nitrates fertilizers

in sea transport The European Union is very active

on global market of emission to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from maritime transport In chapter readers can find information about hovercrafts

There is also notice about disaster preparedness of a maritime university The new equipment and advantages of the CleanSeaNet System is described and presented as a new method used to protect the marine environment Authors highlighted problem invasive species travel from one ocean to the other through ballast water from the international shipping industry and survey the changes of diversity and distribution of the gastropods in an important fishing area

In the second chapter there are described problems related to gas and oil transportation The readers can find some information about increase in maritime oil transportation in the Gulf of Finland, about possibilities for the use of LNG as a fuel on the Baltic Sea and the general division of ports for the identification of hazards that affect the safety of LNG carrier for port and LNG terminal in ĝwinoujĞcie located on Pomeranian Bay In this chapter also presented using natural gas as alternative fuel for vessels sailing in European waters

The third chapter deals sea port and harbours development There is a notice about the future of Santos Harbour outer access channel and information about safety management system in sea ports Presented is method of assessment of insurance expediency of quay structures’ damage risks in sea ports Described are problems in solid waste management, control and compliance measures In this section also presented are the problems of safety maneuvering of floating unit in yachts ports and application of extruded fenders

Highlighted on the requirements of the application code security and safety of ships and ports and the

Maritime Transport & Shipping

Introduction

A Weintrit & T Neumann

Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland

technical aspects necessary for the application by the

Saudi marine Ports

The fourth chapter is about dynamic positioning

and offshore technology In this chapter readers can

found information about a probe of correctness

selection of the number and orientation of thrusters

in ship’s dynamic positioning systems, underwater

vehicles’ applications in offshore industry, about

training for heavy lift and offshore crane loading

teams There is also presented a proposal of

international regulations for preventing collision

between an offshore platform and a ship, and other

than navigation technical uses of the sea space

The fifth chapter deals container transport There

is described development of container transit from

the Iranian south ports and some interesting

information about Port Feeder Barge concept

Presented is the concept of modernization works

related to the capability of handling E Class

container vessels in the Port Gdynia and container

transport capacity at the Port of Koper, including a

brief description of studies necessary prior to

expansion

In the sixth chapter there are described problems

related to intermodal transport The readers can find

some information about intermodal liner passenger

connections within Croatian seaports and concept of

cargo security assurance in an intermodal

transportation

The seventh chapter deals propullsion and

mechanical engineering There is described

diagnostic and measurement system for marine

engines’, develop a condition based maintenance

model for a vessel’s main propulsion system There

is also experimental analysis of podded propulsor on

naval vessel and presented are the problems of the

selection of diesel engines injector nozzles

parameters and limitations of the pressure of the fuel injection There are presented the results of a CFD simulation of marine propeller created with OpenFOAM software The obtained results were compared with the of the commercial CFD codes simulations and the experimental research There are described the results of the analysis on the Power Curves and Self Propulsion Factors under various weather and sea conditions The readers can find some information about engine room simulator training course, information about practicability and essentiality onboard ship

The eight chapter is about hydrodynamics and ship stability Presented are information about an approach for preliminary estimating ship’s stability when there is a forecast of extreme hydrometeorogical conditions at the area where navigation is supposed Presented are study about values and locations of the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces at hull of the ship in transitional mode and interactions between the model and prototype of boats The readers can find some information about new methods of measuring the motion and deformation of container vessels in the sea and hybrid Bayesian wave estimation for actual merchant vessels There is also some information about results of tests of school-ship model’s free rolling, the dynamic heeling moment due to liquid sloshing in partly filled wing tanks for varying rolling period of seagoing vessels and about safety for Laker bulker trans-pacific delivery voyage Each subchapter was reviewed at least by three independent reviewers The Editors would like to express his gratitude to distinguished authors and reviewers of chapters for their great contribution for expected success of the publication He congratulates the authors for their excellent work

Chapter 1 Pollution at Sea, Cargo Safety, Environment Protection and Ecology

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Maritime Transport & Shipping – Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation – Weintrit & Neumann (Eds)

1 INTRODUCTION

Transport and handling of hazardous chemicals and

chemical products has considerably increased over

the last 20 years, thus increasing the risk of major

pollution accidents Worldwide, about 2000

chemicals are transported by sea either in bulk or

packaged form Only few hundred chemicals are

transported in bulk but these make up most of the

volume of the chemical sea-borne trade (Purnell

2009) Chemical releases are thought to be

potentially more hazardous than oil As to marine

spills, chemicals may have both acute and long-term

environmental effects, and may not be as easily

recoverable as oil spills In addition, public safety

risks are more severe in chemical releases (EMSA

2007)

The Baltic Sea is one of the busiest sea routes in

the world – 15 % of the world’s cargo moves in it In

2010, the international liquid bulk transports in the

Baltic Sea ports contained around 290 million

tonnes of oil and oil products, at least 11 million

tonnes of liquid chemicals, and 4 million tonnes of

other liquid bulk (Holma et al 2011; Posti &

Häkkinen 2012) In addition, chemicals are

transported in packaged form, but tonnes are not

studied Navigation in the Baltic Sea is challenging

due to the relative shallowness, narrow navigation

routes, and ice cover of the sea Oil and chemicals

are a serious threat to the highly sensitive Baltic Sea

ecosystems Recently, both the number and the

volume of the transported cargo have increased

significantly in the Baltic Sea (HELCOM 2009), concomitantly raising the spill/ship collision risk in the Baltic Sea areas (Hänninen et al 2012) The results of previous studies (EMSA 2010, Hänninen

& Rytkönen 2006, Bogalecka & Popek 2008, Mullai

et al 2009, Suominen & Suhonen 2007) indicate that both the spill risks and chemical incidents are not as well-defined than those concerning oils

Nevertheless, among the wide range of chemicals transported, the potency to cause environmental damage cannot be overlooked

The study and analysis of past accidents with consequences to the environment and humans can be

a source of valuable information and teach us significant lessons in order for us to prevent future shipping accidents and chemical incidents The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of the past tanker accidents in the Baltic Sea, and chemical-related accidents in seas worldwide, thus aiming at finding out what can be learned from these past accidents, including e.g occurrence, causes, general rules and particular patterns for the accidents The study focuses mainly on chemicals transported in liquefied form, but chemical accidents involving substances in packaged form are also studied Conventional oil and oil products are observed only on a general level The special scope

in the study is put on environmental impact assessment

Overview of Maritime Accidents Involving Chemicals Worldwide and in

the Baltic Sea

J.M Häkkinen & A.I Posti

University of Turku Centre for Maritime Studies, Kotka, Finland

ABSTRACT: Transport and handling of hazardous chemicals and chemical products around the world’s

waters and ports have considerably increased over the last 20 years Thus, the risk of major pollution

accidents has also increased Past incidents/accidents are, when reported in detail, first hand sources of

information on what may happen again This paper provides an overview of the past tanker accidents in the

Baltic Sea and chemical related accidents in seas worldwide The aim is to find out what can be learned from

past accidents, especially from the environmental point of view The study is carried out as a literature review

and as a statistical review

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was carried out in two stages First, a

literature review on maritime accidents involving

hazardous substances and especially chemicals was

made to find out what kind of studies have

previously been conducted on the topic, and what

are the main results of these studies Both scientific

articles and research reports were taken into account

The studies were mainly searched by using

numerous electronic article databases and a web

search engine

Second, a statistical review on maritime

tanker-related accidents in the Baltic Sea was carried out to

find out the amount and types of tanker accidents

that have occurred in the Baltic Sea in recent years,

and to examine what kind of pollution these

accidents caused and have caused since All types of

tankers (e.g oil tankers, oil product tankers,

chemical tankers, chemical product tankers and gas

tankers) were included in the review An overview

of the tanker accidents in the Baltic Sea was made

by using maritime accident reports provided by the

Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) and by the

European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) More

detailed information about maritime accidents

involving a tanker was searched using maritime

accident databases and reports provided by the

authorities and/or other actors responsible for

collecting maritime accident data in each Baltic Sea

country More detailed maritime accident

investigation reports on accidents were found from

Denmark, Finland, Germany, Latvia and Sweden;

basic information about accidents was found from

Estonia and Lithuania; and no maritime accident

data was found from Poland and Russia

3 LITERATURE REVIEW ON MARITIME

ACCIDENTS INVOLVING CHEMICALS

There are few impact assessment studies for

chemical spills in the scientific literature in

comparison to those for oil spills Recently, there

have been some good papers and accident analyses

concerning chemicals and other hazardous materials

(conventional oil omitted), such as Cedre and

Transport Canada 2012, EMSA 2007, HASREP

2005, Mamaca et al 2009, Marchand 2002 and

Wern 2002 In addition, the Centre of

Documentation, Research and Experimentation on

Accidental Water Pollution (Cedre) collect

information about shipping accidents involving HNS

for an electric database by using various data

sources (Cedre 2012) None of those aforementioned

sources are, or even try to be, exhaustive listings of

all accidents involving chemicals and other

hazardous materials, but they have gathered

examples of well-known accidents with some

quality information By compiling accident data from aforementioned sources, 67 famous tanker/bulk carrier accidents involving chemicals and/or other hazardous materials were detected These accidents frequently involved chemicals or chemical groups like acids, gases, vegetable oils, phenol, ammonia, caustic soda and acrylonitrile Using the same information sources, 46 accidents involving packaged chemicals or other hazardous materials were listed In comparison to bulk chemicals, it can

be seen that the variety of chemicals involved in accidents is much higher in the case of packaged chemicals In this section, key findings and lessons

to be learned from in relation to vessel chemical accidents are discussed in more detail, the analysis being based on original key studies

3.1 Overview of maritime chemical accidents

worldwide

Marchand (2002) presented an analysis of chemical incidents and accidents in the EU waters and elsewhere, and stated that 23 incidents had information written down on related facts, such as accident places and causes, chemical products involved, response actions and environmental impacts The study categorized the accidents into five groups according to how the substance involved behaved after being spilled at sea: products as packaged form; dissolvers in bulk; floaters in bulk;

sinkers in bulk; and gases and evaporators in bulk

Based on Marchand’s (2002) analysis, most of the accidents happened in the transit phase at sea, that

is, while the vessel was moving Only four accidents happened in ports or in nearby zones Most of the accidents happened with bulk carriers (62 per cent of all the incidents), and less often with vessels transporting chemicals in packaged form (38 %)

Bad weather conditions and the resulting consequences were the main cause of the accidents (in 62 per cent of all the cases) Marchand (2002) highlighted several issues concerning human health risks in the case of maritime chemical accidents He also pointed out that in most accident cases the risks affecting human health come usually from reactive substances (reactivity with air, water or other products) and toxic substances The evaluation of the chemical risks can be very difficult if a ship is carrying diverse chemicals and some of those are unknown during the first hours after the accident A more recent study, Manaca et al (2009) weighted the same chemical risks as Marchand (2002) Certain substances such as chlorine, epichlorohydrine, acrylonitrile, styrene, acids and vinyl acetate are transported in large quantities and may pose a very serious threat to human health being highly reactive, flammable and toxic Both Marchand (2002) and Mamaca et al (2009) pointed out that consequences and hazards to the

environment have varied a lot, considering chemical

tanker accidents Both studies stated that, in light of

accidents, pesticide products are one of the biggest

threats for the marine environment If pesticides

enter the marine environment, consequences for the

near-shore biota, and simultaneously for the people

dependent on these resources could be severe On

the other hand, even substances considered as

non-pollutants, such as vegetable oils (in accidents like

Lindenbank, Hawaii 1975; Kimya, UK 1991;

Allegra, France 1997), can also have serious effects

for marine species like birds, mussels and mammals

(Cedre 2012, Marchand 2002)

By surveying 47 of the best-documented

maritime transport accidents involving chemicals in

the world from as early as 1947 to 2008, Mamaca et

al (2009) gathered a clear overview of lessons to be

learned Even though the data was too narrow for it

to be used in making any statistical findings, the

study presented some good examples of maritime

chemical accidents 32 of those accidents occurred

in Europe The list of chemicals that were involved

in the accidents more than one time included

sulphuric acid (3), acrylonitrile (3), ammonium

nitrate (2), and styrene (2) Only 10 of the 47

accidents occurred in ports or in nearby zones

Moreover, 66 per cent of the accidents involved

chemicals transported in bulk, whereas 34 per cent

involved hazardous materials in packaged form

Primary causes for the reviewed accidents were also

studied Improper maneuver was most frequently the

reason for the accident (in 22 per cent of all the

cases), shipwreck came second (20 %), and collision

was third (13 %), closely followed by grounding and

fire (11 % each)

Based on past accident analysis considering

packaged chemicals, Mamaca et al (2009) pointed

out that, in light of packaged goods, as a

consequence of high chemical diversity present on

the vessel, responders must know environmental

fates for different chemicals individually as well as

the possible synergistic reactions between them

Even though smaller volumes are transported,

packaged chemicals can also be extremely

dangerous to humans This could be seen when

fumes of epichlorohydrine leaking from the

damaged drums on the Oostzee (Germany 1989)

seriously affected the ship´s crew and caused several

cancer cases that were diagnosed years after

(Mamaca et al 2009) However, these types of

accidents involving packaged chemicals have only a

localized short-term impact on marine life As to

accidents caused by fire, there are difficulties in

responding to the situation if the vessel is

transporting a wide variety of toxic products It is

important yet difficult to have a fully detailed list of

the transported products for the use of assessing

possible dangers for rescue personnel and public

Based on the analyses of the reviewed accidents,

Mamaca et al (2009) showed that the highest risk for human health comes mainly from reactive substances (reactivity with air, water or other products) They also noted that many chemicals are not only carcinogenic and marine pollutants, but can form a moderately toxic gas cloud which is often capable of producing a flammable and/or explosive mix in the air Acrylonitrile is a toxic, flammable and explosive chemical, and if it is exposed to heat,

a highly toxic gas for humans (phosgene) is formed

Vinyl acetate, in turn, is a flammable and polymerizable product that in the case of Multi Tank Ascania incident (in United Kingdom, in 1999) caused a huge explosion Little is known about the actual marine pollution effects of most of these substances If hazardous chemicals and oil are compared, it can be said that the danger of coastline pollution is a far greater concern for oil spills than it

is for chemical spills On the other hand, the toxic clouds are a much bigger concern in the case of chemical accidents (Mamaca et al 2009)

In their HNS Action Plan, EMSA (2007) reviewed past incidents involving a HNS or a chemical About 100 HNS incidents were identified from 1986 to 2006 These incidents included both those that resulted in spill and those that did not

EMSA (2007) stated that caution should be applied

to the data concerning the total sum of the incidents

as well as the amount of spills, because there is variability in the reports from different countries

Statistics showed that the principle cause for both release and non-release incidents were foundering and weather (in 22 per cent of all the incidents), followed by fire and explosion in cargo areas (20

%), collision (16 %) and grounding (15%) Majority

of the accidents involved single cargoes (73 %), in which most of the material was carried in bulk form (63 %) Moreover, 50 % of all studied incidents resulted in an HSN release As to these release accidents/incidents, most of them happened in the Mediterranean Sea (40 %); some in the North Sea (22 %) and Channel Areas (20 %), whereas only 8 per cent occurred in the Baltic Sea The foundering and weather was again the principle cause of these release incidents in 34 per cent of the cases, followed by fire and explosion in cargo areas (18

%), collision (14 %), and grounding (10 %) The majority of the incidents resulting in HNS release involved single cargoes (78 %) of which 61 per cent was in bulk form (EMSA 2007)

HASREP project listed major maritime chemical spills (above 70 tonnes) in the EU waters from 1994-

2004 (HASREP 2005) The project found 18 major accidents altogether, and most of them happened in France or Netherlands Interestingly, 8 accidents listed in HASREP (2005) were not mentioned in the study of Mamaca et al (2009) The average occurrence of a major maritime chemical accident in the European Union was nearly 2 incidents per year

(HASREP 2005) By comparison, the statistical

study made by the U.S Coast Guard (USCG) in the

United States over 5 year-span (1992–1995) listed

423 spills of hazardous substances from ships or port

installations, giving an average of 85 spills each

year The 9 most frequently spilled products were

sulfuric acid (86 spill cases), toluene (42), caustic

soda (35), benzene (23), styrene (20), acrylonitrile

(18), xylenes (18), vinyl acetate (17) and phosphoric

acid (12) Over half of the spills were from ships

(mainly carrier barges), and the rest from facilities

(where the spill comes from the facility itself or

from a ship in dock) A complementary study made

over a period of 13 years (1981–1994) on the 10

most important port zones reported 288 spills of

hazardous substances, representing on average, 22

incidents each year (US Coast Guard 1999) Small

spillages in Europe were not recorded with a similar

care because they were not detected and/or there was

a lack of communication between environmental

organizations and competent authorities (HASREP

2005)

Cedre and Transport Canada (2012) analyzed a

total of 196 accidents that occurred across the

world´s seas between 1917 and 2010 The

substances that were most frequently spilled and that

had the greatest quantities were sulphuric acid,

vegetable oils, sodium hydroxide solutions and

naphtha Quite surprisingly, the study showed that

structural damage (18 %) was the main cause of

accidents involving hazardous materials, followed

by severe weather conditions (16 %), collision (13

%), and grounding (11 %) Loading/unloading was

the cause for only 7 per cent of the accidents (Cedre

and Transport Canada 2012)

3.2 Animal and vegetable oils

Even though vegetable oil transport volume remains

200 times smaller than the volume of mineral oil

transport, it has increased dramatically (Bucas &

Saliot 2002) Thus, the threat of a vegetable oil spill

due to a ship accident or accidental spill is presently

increasing Even though vegetable oils are regarded

as non-toxic consumable products, they may be

hazardous to marine life when spilled in large

quantities into the marine environment Bucas &

Saliot (2002) observed that there are 15 significant

cases of pollution by vegetable or animal oils that

have been reported during the past 40 years

worldwide Rapeseed oil was involved in five cases,

soybean oil and palm oil in three cases each, coconut

oil, fish oil and anchovy oil in one case each, and in

two cases the product was unknown The largest

amount of vegetable oil was spilled in Hawaii in

1975 when M.V Lindenbank released 9500 tonnes

of vegetable oils to coral reef killing crustaceans,

mollusks and fishes It also impacted green algae to

grow excessively as well as caused tens of birds to

die Similarly, the fish oil accident had also a serious effect on marine environment, killing lobsters, sea urchins, fishes and birds (Bucas & Saliot 2002)

Based on past cases, Bucas & Saliot (2002) described the environmental fate of vegetable oil spills The specific gravity of vegetable oils is comprised between 0.9 and 0.97 at 20º Celsius After spilled into the sea, these oils remain at the surface of the sea and spread forming slicks The further fate of these oils depends on the nature of the oil, the amount spilled, the air and sea temperatures etc In open seas or in ports, the consequences are often severe because of local and tidal current movements The slick can easily spread over several square kilometers Few hours or days after a spill, the slick is usually no longer regular A part of the oil may be mingled with sand, some of it may have polymerized and sunk, and in the open sea, mechanical dispersion of the oil slick makes it more available to bacterial degradation Overall biological degradation can be achieved within 14 days, whereas it takes 25 days for a petroleum product to degrade If the accident happens in a shallow bay, this bacterial degradation may result in lack of oxygen in the water column (Bucas & Saliot 2002)

Bird loss is usually a major consequence of vegetable oil spills Slicks are often colorless with a slight odor, and thus they are not easily detected by birds Several mechanisms lead birds to death after oiling: For example, the loss of insulating capacity

of wetted feathers makes birds die from cold; the loss of mobility makes them as easy catch; the loss

of buoyancy due to coated feathers results in drowning; the laxative properties of the oil ingested during self-cleaning cause lesions; and the clog of nostrils and throat can result to suffocation As to crustaceans, the invertebrates have died, for instance, from asphyxiation of clogging of the digestive track Anoxia of the whole water column may also be the cause of these deaths, and there is also evidence that e.g sunflower oil can be assimilated on tissues of mussels, as it has happened

in the case of the Kimya accident (Bucas & Saliot

2002, Cedre 2012) Bucas & Saliot (2002) stated that it is necessary to quickly collect the oil after spillage by using usual methods like booms and pumps

3.3 Risk assessment of different chemicals

Risk posed by maritime chemical spill depends also

on accident scenario and environmental conditions besides inner properties of the spilled chemical Basically, accidents involving chemical tankers can

be classified into four groups Offshore, in the open sea area, chemical spill has space to have a larger effect or to dissolve and be vaporized This mitigates the negative effects of the spill On the other hand, response actions can take a longer time and

environmental conditions can be challenging, as

well The incident occurring closer to shoreline can

be easier or faster to reach, even if the impact to the

environment can potentially be more disastrous The

third scenario portrays a casualty that happens in a

closed sea area, like in a port or in a terminal area In

these cases, the spill is usually localized and

effectively restricted However, even smaller spill

may elevate toxicity levels in a restricted area Ports

are also situated near city centers, and there is an

elevated risk for the health of the public and workers

in the area The fourth possibility is an accident

during winter in the presence of ice and snow

(Hänninen & Rytkönen 2006) The properties of the

chemicals may change in cold water Some

chemicals may be more viscous or even become

solids, and thus, easier to recover On the other

hand, hazardous impacts of some chemicals may

multiply in the cold environment because the

decomposition of the chemicals becomes slower

Thus, chemicals may drift to larger areas They may

also accumulate to the adipose tissues in animals

which decreases the probability of an animal to

survive beyond winter (Riihimäki et al 2005)

The marine pollution hazards caused by

thousands of chemicals have been evaluated by, for

example, the Evaluation of Hazardous Substances

Working Group which has given GESAMP Hazard

Profile as a result It indexes the substances

according to their accumulation;

bio-degradation; acute toxicity; chronic toxicity;

long-term health effects; and effects on marine wildlife

and on benthic habitats Based on the GESAMP

evaluation, the IMO has formed 4 different hazard

categories: X (major hazard), Y (hazard) and Z

(minor hazard) and OS i.e other substances (no

hazard) (IMO 2007) Over 80 per cent of all

chemicals transported in maritime are classified as

belonging to the Y category (GESAMP 2002; IMO

2007) This GESAMP categorization is very

comprehensive, but different chemicals having very

different toxicity mechanisms, environmental fate

and other physico-chemical properties may end up to

same MARPOL category The GESAMP hazard

profile, although being an excellent first-hand guide

in a case of a marine accident, will not answer the

question of which chemicals belonging to the same

Y category are the most dangerous ones from an

environmental perspective

Many risk assessment and potential worst case

studies exist to help find out what impacts different

chemicals might have if instantaneous spill were to

happen (Kirby & Law 2010) For example, Law &

Campell (1998) made a worst case scenario of circa

10 tonnes insecticide spill (pirimiphos-ethyl), and

concluded that it might seriously damage crustacean

fisheries in an area of 10,000 km2 with a recovery

time of 5 years In the case of marine accidents, the

greatest risk to the environment is posed by

chemicals which have high solubility, stay in the water column, and are bioavailable, persistent and toxic to organisms Based on the analysis of chemicals transported in the Baltic Sea, Häkkinen et

al (2012) stated that nonylphenol is the most toxic

of the studied chemicals and it is also the most hazardous in light of maritime spills The chemical

is persistent, accumulative and has a relatively high solubility to water Nonylphenol is actually transported in the form of nonylphenol ethoxylates but it is present as nonylphenol when spilled to the environment, and in the aforementioned study the worst case scenario was evaluated Other very hazardous substances were sulphuric acid and ammonia (Häkkinen et al 2012) Similarly, the HASREP (2005) project identified top 100 chemicals which are transported between major European ports and involved in trade through the English Channel to the rest of the World The assessment was based both on transport volumes and the GESAMP hazard profile The project highlighted chemicals such as benzene, styrene, vegetable oil, xylene, methanol, sulphuric acid, phenol, vinyl acetate, and acrylonitrile It was concluded that these chemicals were the ones that have high spillage probability but may not result in significant environmental impact Similarly, French McKay et al (2006) applied a predictive modeling approach for a selected range of chemicals that are transported by sea in bulk and concluded that phenol and formaldehyde present the greatest risks to aquatic biota Harold et al (2011) evaluated human health risks of transported chemicals, based on the GESAMP ratings for toxicity and irritancy This gives more weight to chemicals that are floaters;

form gas clouds; or are irritable and toxic like chlorine (Harold et al 2011) It is clear that different weightings have a certain impact on the difference in results in these studies However, the chemicals of real concern vary depending on the sea area for which the risk assessment is conducted since the amounts and types of chemicals differ in different sea areas as do marine environment and biota (Kirby

& Law 2010)

The impacts of a release or a spill depend on the behavior of the chemical or chemicals in question It can be concluded that the most harmful chemicals for human health have quite opposite properties to those that are most hazardous for water biota For human health, the most hazardous chemicals are those that are very reactive, form either very toxic or irritating (or explosive) gas clouds, and also have possible long-term effects, such as carcinogenic effects From the environmental point of view, the most hazardous chemicals are those that sink, have a high solubility, possibly stay at the water column, are persistent, bioavailable and very toxic and can have possible long-term effects (French McKay et

al 2006, Häkkinen et al 2012, Harold et al 2011)

3.4 Response actions in case of maritime chemical

spills

There are many excellent reviews (e.g Marchand

2002, EMSA 2007, Purnell 2009), based on lessons

learned from past accidents, which also contain data

about response actions in case of chemical spills

Even if response actions taken differ in every

accident case according to special conditions and

chemicals involved, it is nevertheless possible to

demonstrate certain significant or specific elements

valid in all chemical incidents at sea (Marchand

2002)

Firstly, like the information concerning the ship

cargo, an evaluation of chemical risks is of primary

importance before any operational decisions are to

be made, especially if the ship is carrying a wide

variety of chemicals (Marchand 2002) Following

the chemical spill at sea, the response authorities

must immediately take measures in order to

minimize the chemical exposure to the public as

well as contamination of the marine environment

The primary factors which determine the severity

and extent of the impact of the accident are related

to the chemical and physical properties of the

chemicals in question It should be noted that in the

case of oil spills, the hazard to human health is

generally considered to be low, and the more toxic

and lighter fractions often evaporate before response

actions are able to be started However, in case of

chemical accidents, an initial assessment and

monitoring of potential hazards should be

undertaken first in order to ensure a safe working

environment In that stage, the primary hazards and

fate of the chemical in that marine environment are

evaluated The monitoring techniques need to be

designed to measure the key parameters that could

give rise to a hazard It should also be noted that in

some cases doing nothing might be the best option,

as long it happens under observation (Marchand

2002, Purnell 2009) Le Floch et al (2010) stated

that in case of an instantaneous chemical spill,

response usually follows three accepted scenarios: 1)

response is not possible, because the spill occurred

in a geographical environment that is incompatible

with reasonable response times, 2) response is not

possible due to reactivity of the substances (major,

imminent danger), and 3) response is possible Gases

and evaporators, very reactive substances, and

explosives are the biggest concern for human health

and safety Several monitoring devices and

dispersion models exist which may aid decision

making and help protect responders and the public

The floaters can be monitored by using the same

techniques that are used for oil spills Chemicals that

prove to be the most difficult to be monitored are

sinkers and dissolvers (such as acrylonitrile in the

case of Alessandro Primo in Italy in 1991), even if

some techniques e.g electrochemical methods and

acoustic techniques exist (EMSA 2007, Purnell 2009)

Several international, regional and national authorities have published operational guides to describe the possible response options in case of a chemical spill For example Cedre and IMO have made manuals providing information about different response techniques that can be used in case of chemical spills (Cedre 2012, HELCOM 2002, IMO 2007) Usually response techniques depend on the behavior of a chemical in the environment, and on whether it is released or still contained in packaged form In practice, the response action varies substantially Techniques that are applicable in case

of oil accidents may be suitable for only some floating chemicals However, it should not be forgotten that some floating chemicals can also potentially create toxic and maybe explosive vapor clouds (e.g diesel, xylene and styrene) If this happens, the spark/static-free equipment should be used Moreover, foams or sorbent materials can also

be used near the spill source Risks associated with evaporators or gases, such as ammonia and vinyl chloride, could be diminished by diluting or using release methods (Purnell 2009) In shallow water areas, neutralizers, activated carbon, oxidizing or reducing agents, complexing agents, and ion-exchangers can be used Chemicals that are heavier than seawater, in turn, may contaminate large areas

of the seabed Recovery methods that are used include mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic dredges, but the recovery work is time-consuming and expensive and results in large quantities of contaminated material Other option is capping the contaminated sediment in-situ (Purnell 2009)

As Marchand (2002) listed, the time involved in response operations can vary from 2–3 months (Anna Broere, Holland; Cason, Spain; Alessandro Primo, Italy); to 8 months (Fenes, France); to 10 months (Bahamas, Brazil); or to even several years

as in the case of the research carried out on a sunken cargo (Sinbad, Holland) Cold weather and ice cover may create further problems to response actions in the Baltic Sea in the winter The viscosity of chemicals may change in cold, and they can be more persistent Collecting techniques based on fluid-like masses are no longer effective, if fluids change and act more like solid masses Moreover, it is difficult for a recovery fleet to operate, if it is surrounded by ice and snow If chemicals have spread under the ice cover, detecting the spill is more difficult, and the use of dispersing agents is ineffective However, ice breakers may be used to break the ice cover and to improve mixing chemicals with larger water masses (Hänninen & Rytkönen 2006)

4 STATISTICAL REVIEW ON TANKER

ACCIDENTS IN THE BALTIC SEA

4.1 Accident statistics by HELCOM and EMSA

The Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) has reported

that during the years 1989–2010 approximately 1400

ship accidents happened in the Baltic Sea Most of

the accidents were groundings and collisions,

followed by pollutions, fires, machinery damages

and technical failures (Fig 1) One in ten of the

accidents are defined as other types of accidents

Figure 1 Vessel accidents in the Baltic Sea in 1989–2010 by

accident types (HELCOM 2012)

According to HELCOM (2012), 1520 vessels in

total have been involved in the accidents occurred in

the Baltic Sea during the years 1989–2010 Almost

half of the vessels were different types of cargo

vessels excluding tankers (Fig 2) Large number of

other vessel types (e.g pilot vessels, tugs, dredgers)

was also involved in the accidents One in seven of

the accidents involved a tanker and a passenger

Figure 2 Vessel accidents in the Baltic Sea in 1989–2010 by

vessel types (HELCOM 2012)

Based on the HELCOM’s accident statistics, 210 tankers (including crude oil tankers, chemical tankers, oil/chemical product tankers, gas carriers and other types of vessels carrying liquid bulk cargoes) were involved in the accidents that occurred in the Baltic Sea during the years 1989–

2010 During this period, 28 of all tanker accidents

in the Baltic Sea led to some sort of pollution Due

to these 28 pollution cases, approximately 3100 m3

of harmful substances in total spilled in the sea In almost all of the pollution cases, spilled substance was conventional oil or an oil product (e.g crude oil, gasoline oil, fuel oil, diesel oil) (Fig 3) In one pollution case only, the spilled substance was a chemical (a leakage of 0.5 m3 of orthoxylene in Gothenburg on 13 February 1996) 13 out of the 28 tanker pollution cases in the Baltic Sea that were reported by HELCOM have been classified as spills/pollutions; 5 were classified as collisions; 3 as groundings; 2 as technical failures; 1 as machinery damage; 1 as contact with bollard; 1 as hull damage;

1 as loading accident; and 1 as an accident caused by broken hose Over one-third (11) of all these tanker pollution accidents happened on the Swedish coast;

4 accidents happened in Lithuania; 3 accidents in Latvia; 2 accidents in Estonia; 2 accidents in Russia;

1 accident in Finland; 1 accident in Poland; 0 accidents in Germany; and 4 accidents in other areas

of the Baltic Sea The largest pollution case involving a tanker in the Baltic Sea during the period of 1989–2010 happened in the Danish waters

on 29 March 2001 when approximately 2500 m3 of oil spilled into the sea as a result of a collision between a tanker and a bulk carrier (HELCOM 2012)

Figure 3 Tanker accidents and the share of pollution cases in the Baltic Sea in 1989–2010 (HELCOM 2012)

Based on the EMSA’s Maritime Accident Reviews (EMSA 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010), the annual number of accidents in the Baltic Sea has varied between 75 and 120 accidents over the period

of 2007–2010 In each of these years approximately

15 per cent of all maritime accidents in the EU

happened in the Baltic Sea During the reviewed

period, the main causes of the accidents have been

groundings (32–52 per cent of all accidents),

followed by collisions/contacts (23–35 %), fires and

explosions (10–17 %) and sinkings (2–5 %) In

every year, the largest proportion of accidents

happened in the south-western approaches off the

Danish and Swedish coasts, with these accounting

for around 70–77 per cent of the regional total

Groundings off the Danish and Swedish coasts

accounted for around 80–88 per cent of the total

Baltic Sea region groundings in the years 2007–

2010 Most of the accidents in the region happened

in the heavily trafficked approaches around eastern

Denmark, which can be more difficult to navigate

than many other areas The recorded figures show

that the Finnish and Estonian coastlines accounted

for around 15–17 per cent of the total number of

accidents happened in the Baltic Sea in this 4 year

period Accidents recorded by EMSA in the years

2007–2010 include 4 significant pollution events in

total As a consequence of these pollution events, at

least 695 tonnes of oil/oil products spilled into the

Baltic Sea (the size of pollution in one accident was

not available) No significant chemical accidents

happened in the Baltic Sea during the reviewed

period In addition to these significant pollution

events, some smaller accidental spills were recorded

by EMSA in the years 2007–2010 For example, in

2007 EMSA’s daily research recorded about 30

accidental oil spills of different sizes in and around

EU waters (EMSA 2007)

HELCOM and EMSA mainly provide

coarse-level information about each maritime accident

Therefore, more detailed information on maritime

accidents involving a tanker was searched using

maritime accident databases and reports provided by

the authorities and/or other actors who are

responsible for collecting maritime accident data in

each Baltic Sea country More detailed maritime

accident investigation reports were found about

Denmark, Finland, Germany, Latvia and Sweden,

and basic information about accidents was found

about Estonia and Lithuania There was no maritime

accident data found about Poland or Russia

4.2 National accident statistics

According to the Danish Maritime Authority’s

(DMA) annual marine accident publications (Danish

Maritime Authority 2009), the total of 42 accidents

involving a tanker registered under the Danish or

Greenlandic flag happened during the period of

1999–2008 When examining foreign vessels, it can

be seen that 63 foreign tankers in total were

involved in the accidents that happened in

Denmark’s territorial waters in the reviewed period

51 of these foreign tankers are classified as oil tankers, 9 as chemical tankers, and 3 as gas tankers

In addition to the DMA’s annual marine accident publications, Danish Maritime Authority and the Danish Maritime Accident Investigation Board (DMAIB) have published, on their Internet sites,

142 maritime accident investigation reports or investigation summary reports on merchant ships during the years 1999–2011 (Danish Maritime Authority 2012, Danish Maritime Accident Investigation Board 2012) Study of these investigation reports revealed that 21 accidents involving a tanker in total were investigated by the DMA and the DMAIB 9 of these accidents can be classified as personal accidents, 6 as collisions, 4 as groundings, 1 as an explosion, and 1 as an oil spill

Over half (11) of the accidents occurred in the Baltic Sea, 1 accident in the North Sea, and the rest of the accidents in other sea areas around the world Only 2

of the investigated accidents led to pollution: 1)

2700 tonnes of fuel oil spilled in the sea as a consequence of a collision between two vessels in Flensburg Fjord in 2001 and 2) 400–500 litres of heavy fuel oil spilled into the sea during bunkering near Skagen in 2008

Accident investigation reports provided by the Finnish Safety Investigation Authority shows that 10 tanker-related accidents in total happened to vessels

in Finland’s waters and to those that were sailing under Finnish flag during the period of 1997–2011

4 of these accidents were groundings, 3 collisions, 2 spills and 1 personal injury Two of the accidents led

to spill: 1) on 20th July 2000 in the Port of Hamina, about 2 tonnes of nonyl phenol ethoxylate leaked on the quay area and into sea during loading, and 2) on 27th February 2002 in the port of Sjöldvik, about 2

unloading (Finnish Safety Investigation Authority 2012)

The study of the marine casualty statistics (BSU 2012a) and maritime casualty investigation reports (BSU 2012b) provided by the Federal Bureau of Maritime Casualty Investigation (BSU) revealed that during 2002–2011 the BSU recorded 27 marine casualties involving a tanker that happened in Germany’s territorial waters or to vessels sailing under the German flag 16 of these casualties were collisions, 7 personal accidents, 2 groundings, 1 water contamination, and 1 carbon monoxide exposure 17 chemical tankers, 10 tankers, 1 river tanker and 1 motor tanker in total were involved in the accidents Most of the accidents occurred in the Kiel Canal, in the Elbe River, in the Port of Hamburg, or outside Germany’s waters Only one of the accidents happened in the Baltic Sea, north of Fünen Information about possible pollution as a consequence of an accident was not available in all cases However, at least 18 of 27 accidents involving

a tanker did not cause pollution and only 1 of the

accidents was reported to have led to pollution

(appr 960 tonnes of sulphuric acid in the Port of

Hamburg on 6 June 2004)

According to the maritime accident statistics of

the Latvian Maritime Administration, the total of 30

accidents involving a liquid bulk vessel happened in

Latvia’s territorial waters or to vessels sailing under

the Latvian flag during the period of 1993–2010 17

of these accidents were classified as collisions, 3 as

groundings, 3 as personal injuries, 2 as

fires/explosions, 2 as pollutions, and 3 as other types

of accidents Unfortunately, the Latvian Maritime

Administration’s accident statistics do not provide

information on whether the accidents caused

pollution or not (Latvian Maritime Administration

2012)

The Swedish Transport Agency’s annual

maritime accident/incident reports (Swedish

Transport Agency 2012a) revealed that the total of

90 accidents and 14 incidents involving a tanker

occurred in the Swedish territorial waters during the

period of 2002–2010 Machine damages (24 per cent

of all the tanker accidents), groundings (22 %),

collisions with other object than a vessel (19 %), and

collisions between vessels (17 %) have been the

most common reasons for tanker accidents

Approximately 51 per cent of the tankers involved in

the accidents were vessels sailing under the Swedish

flag and 49 per cent were foreign vessels There was

some lack of information, but it could be determined

that at least 4 of these accidents led to pollution

(Swedish Transport Agency 2012a, 2012b): 1) 500

litres of fuel oil spilled from a fuel tank during

bunkering in Gothenburg in 2005; 2) 100 litres of

gas oil spilled into the sea as a consequence of a

collision between two vessels in Gothenburg in

1998; 3) approximately 45 m3 of gas oil spilled from

a fuel tank due to vessel grounding in Brofjorden in

1999; and 4) approximately 600 tonnes of

hydrochloric acid were released into the sea under

the control of the Swedish Maritime Administration

near Öresund in 2000 as a consequence of a

collision between two vessels

According to the Estonian Maritime

Administration, the total of 16 accidents involving a

tanker happened to vessels in Estonia’s territorial

waters, or to vessels which have been sailing under

Estonia’s flag during the period of 2002–2011 7 of

these accidents were groundings, 3 fires, 4 contacts

with a quay, and 2 collisions None of the accidents

have caused pollution (Estonian Maritime

Administration 2012)

According to the maritime accident statistics of

the Lithuanian Maritime Safety Administration, 12

accidents involving a liquid bulk vessel happened in

Lithuania’s territorial waters or to vessels sailing

under the Lithuanian flag during the period of 2001–

2010 4 of these accidents can be classified as spills,

3 as collisions, 2 as contacts with a quay/other

vessel, 1 as fire, and 2 as other types of accidents

As a consequence of the 4 spill types in the accidents, at least 3.5 tonnes of oil and 0.06 tonnes

of diesel fuel leaked into the sea in the Lithuanian waters The amount of oil spilled in the water is probably higher since regarding the 2 oil spill cases, there was no information available about the level of pollution (Lithuanian Maritime Safety Administration 2012)

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This paper provided an overview of the past tanker accidents in the Baltic Sea and HNS accidents in seas worldwide It also aimed at finding out what can be learned from past accidents, especially from the environmental point of view

The results of this study showed that chemical tanker accidents are very rare, even though there is always the possibility that such incident may happen Many other studies have shown that the most commonly transported chemicals are the ones most likely to be involved in an accident Moreover, the risks are different and vary in different sea areas

The risk of an accident is the highest in water areas where the largest amounts of chemicals are transported, the density of the maritime traffic is at its highest point, where bad weather conditions exists, as well as the ship-shore interface in ports where unloading/loading take place Incidents involving chemical spills are statistically much less likely to occur than oil spills

Actually, very little is known about the actual marine pollution effect of most of highly transported substances From the environmental point of view, the previous studies have highlighted accidents in which pesticides were released to water, but also substances considered as non-pollutants (vegetable oils) seem to have a negative effect on biota in the water environment When comparing hazardous chemicals with oil, it can be said that the danger of coastline pollution is a far greater concern in oil spills than in chemical spills It is very difficult to evaluate chemical risks if a ship is carrying diverse chemicals and some of those substances are unknown during the first hours after the accident

This aforementioned situation is often faced when a vessel is carrying packaged dangerous goods The most important difference between chemical and oil spill may be related to response actions The air quality or the risk of explosion does not usually cause concern for response personnel in case of oil spills, but for chemical spills, it should be carefully evaluated if some response actions are made In case

of chemical spills, the response may be limited, in most cases, to initial evaluation, establishing exclusions zones, modeling and monitoring, followed by planning of a controlled release,

recovery or leaving in-situ This process will take

many weeks or even months

Both literary and data mining showed that neither

major chemical spills nor oil spills, such as Erika or

Prestige, have happened in the Baltic Sea However,

every year over 100 shipping accidents (all cargoes

included) take place in the Baltic Sea Collisions and

groundings are the main types of accident/incidents

in the Baltic Sea Human factor is the main cause for

the accidents, followed by technical reasons The

largest proportion of accidents happens in the

south-western approaches off the Danish and Swedish

coasts Annually, on average, 15 per cent of all

shipping accidents in the Baltic Sea have involved a

tanker Less than 5 per cent of the tanker accidents

have led to spill/pollution The spilled substance has

in most cases been oil or an oil product – only very

few chemical spill cases have been reported in the

Baltic Sea Considering both chemical and oil

tankers, only very small spills have happened and

their environmental impact has been neglected

Since there have been no major accidents in the

Baltic Sea, it is not possible to learn about accident

cases However, there are some excellently

described international tanker accidents which give

valuable lessons to be learned from by different

stakeholders and rescue services

There are many parties in the Baltic Sea Region,

including e.g HELCOM, EMSA and the national

authorities, which are collecting/producing data on

the maritime accidents that have occurred in the

Baltic Sea In addition, some European or worldwide

databases (e.g Cedre) contain data of accidents that

have occurred in the Baltic Sea However, in the

future, the maritime accident databases on the Baltic

Sea Region should be improved and harmonised

Regarding accident investigation reports, each Baltic

Sea country should publish these reports publicly in

electronic format It would be worth to contemplate

whether all accident investigation reports concerning

accidents that have occurred in the Baltic Sea waters

or to vessels sailing under a Baltic Sea country’s

flag could be gathered under one public information

service

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study is made as a part of the Chembaltic

(Risks of Maritime Transportation of Chemicals in

Baltic Sea) project Special thanks to the European

Regional Development Fund (ERDF), the Finnish

Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation

(Tekes), companies supporting the research project,

and all the research partners being involved in the

project

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http://www.turvallisuustutkinta.fi/Etusivu/Tutkintaselostuk set/Vesiliikenne (accessed 17 July 2012)

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2006 Spill hazard evaluation for chemicals shipped in bulk

using modeling Environmental Modelling and Software,

vol 21, pp 156–159

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GESAMP reports and studies No 64, No 463/03, 137 pp

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Maritime Transport & Shipping – Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation – Weintrit & Neumann (Eds)

1 INTRODUCTION

The influence of the chemicals, mineral oils and

petrochemicals industry in daily life and in industry

is well known – chemical and petrochemical

products go into the manufacture of soaps,

pharmaceuticals, plastics, tires and other objects

vital to the onward march of civilization as well as

mineral oils are both used by public and industry

However, before consumers can reap the benefits of

these products, a great deal of logistical planning

goes into the manufacture, transport and processing

(Gaurav Nath & Brian Ramos, 2011, Marine Dock

Optimization for a Bulk Chemicals Manufacturing

Facility) Today there are three kinds of terminals;

the ones having their own refineries, terminals that

only rent storage tanks for their customers only and

the ones which include the both The logistics part of

these terminals deal with loading, unloading and

also transporting these products via truck, train,

pipeline and ships in which operation activities play

the most important role To become a global and

regional terminal, today’s ports should always be in

improvement process about operational efficiency of

their terminals in accordance with the regional and

international rules and manuals

2 IMPORTANCE OF SEA TERMINALS

In today’s global economic conditions, there is

worldwide storage need for chemical mineral oil and

petrochemical industry producers and customers

Port of Rotterdam offers more than 30 million cubic

meter of tank storage capacity for all types of liquid bulk Products handled include crude oil, mineral oil products such as petrol, diesel, kerosene and naphtha, all kinds of bulk chemicals and edible oils

and fats In Port of Rotterdam region there are now

five oil refineries, which process the imported oil, and over 45 chemical companies which have large-scale facilities There is also 1500 km of pipelines interconnecting oil and chemical companies (http://www.portofrotterdam.com)

These liquid raw materials and products are commonly transported by maritime transportation mode because of its lowest cost per ton mile and amount efficiency Also pipelines as mentioned above play another important role for the transfer of the raw materials and products between refineries and terminals, especially located in the same geographical area or where maritime transportation

is not cost/effective like Baku-Tiflis-Ceyhan pipeline

Truck and railway transportation modes are mostly used domestically for shipping the products from the terminals to the manufacturers

All of these facilities require a terminal with its berth or jetties for the ships and also for the barges, railway for the trains, locomotives for the wagons, roads and stations for the trucks, pipelines between the terminals and/or refineries, tank farms for the storage of the raw materials and products, hoses or pipelines between the berth/jetty, wagon and truck loading/unloading stations

During loading and unloading of the liquid chemicals, operational safety is another important factor Spills and accidents can be seen in many

Factors Affecting Operational Efficiency of Chemical Cargo Terminals:

A Qualitative Approach

T.A Gülcan, S Esmer, Y Zorba & G ùengönül

Dokuz Eylul University, Maritime Faculty, Izmir, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Chemical cargo terminals constitute are a special terminal form where high and international

levels of safety and quality elements applied Unlike conventional bulk cargo and container cargo operations,

chemical cargo operations include own priorities, applications, and the evaluation criteria The aim of this

study is to perform a qualitative research to determine the factors affecting the operational efficiency of ship,

berth and warehousing operations in chemical cargo terminals

ways e.g (Duffey and Saull,185:2009); while filling,

in storage, during transport, at process and transfer

facilities; plus failures of vessels and pipeline Safe

and efficient operational procedures should include

design, control and management with together

considering all relevant factors in chemical

terminals Therefore “The Operational Efficiency of

the Terminals” is a very important component on top

of the facilities mentioned above

3 METHODOLOGY

In this work “In-depth Interview” method was used

face to face with the authorized Operational

Manager/Staff of the companies as listed below

Because of all manager and staff do not want to

disclose their names, the table do not include name

 Jetty capabilities of the companies,

 The intermodal logistics capabilities of the

companies,

 Loading and unloading automatic system/tools

they use,

 The software systems they benefit during the

operations and their tools

 The watch systems for the operational staff the

companies apply (number of personnel at

operation stations, working hours, watch system

etc.),

 The training systems,

 The inspections of the terminals,

 The Risk analyses procedures

4 RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.1 Jetty capabilities of the companies;

Numbers of Jetties of the terminals are as listed

The products handled in the jetties of VOPAK and OIL Tanking are mostly mineral oils and this is the reason why these jetties are convenient for ships between 2.000 and 200.000 dwt VOPAK is also handling sulfuric acid as chemicals In the inside parts of the jetties of these two terminals, handling operations are usually realized with the barges and only hoses are used in handling operations The mineral oils can be handled up to 2000 cbm/hour in OIL Tanking and also 1000 cbm/hour in VOPAK with loading arms according to the receiving capacity of the ships and to the property of the products Although, pipelines used in mineral oil handlings are generally produced for a maximum pressure of 12-13 bars, they’re usually used under pressures of between 6-7 bars due to safety and material lifetime

DOW is handling only chemical products in its terminal with its jetties between 155 meter and 270 meter long The loading arms on the jetties can be remote controlled which prevents the possible delays caused by the ship maneuvers

SOLVENTAù uses one of its jetties for chemical liquids and the other one for fuel and gas oil handlings which are 250 and 275 meter long There

is real-time fuel oil and gas oil blending capability

on the jetty as loaded to the barges for bunkering

On chemical jetty, 42 separate products can be handled at the same time with 4 or 8 ships according

to their tonnages LøMAù can handle 10 separate chemicals simultaneously on its 165 meter long jetty with two ships

As described “The Physical Oceanographic” effect, tidal level in the Elbe River reaches up to 5 meter which causes delays in ship operations in connection with the drafts of the ships sometimes

4.2 Intermodal logistics capabilities of the

companies;

The European railway network is directly connected

to the terminals in Hamburg and therefore is a very flexible instrument for transports leaving Hamburg and arriving at the terminals from the hinterland All three companies in Hamburg have their own locomotives and railway inside their terminals The yearly average number of wagons handled in OIL Tanking is 20.000 Also this number in VOPAK is daily between 100-200 wagons As a result, the amount of handled liquid by railway is more than seaborne transports in these two companies 26% of the products leave DOW / Hamburg terminal by railway

VOPAK and OIL Tanking has pipeline

connection between their terminals and also with

other refineries in their region DOW international

has a 380 km long Ethylene pipeline inside

Germany to its other refineries

Tanker loading capabilities allow these three

companies serious amounts of product handling and

transporting them via trucks inside Germany and

Europe OIL Tanking handles average 65.000

tankers yearly and DOW / Hamburg forwards its

21% of chemical products by road transport by

tankers

The firms located in øzmit/TURKEY use

seaborne and tanker transportation modes in

common

LøMAù has pipeline connections with two

companies producing chemical products in its

region The average Tanker loading number in

SOLVENTAù is daily 250 and has 43 loading

stations which allows a yearly handling amount

1.400.000 tons in average The loading stations

number in LøMAù is 16 with a daily average 100

tankers loading capacity

4.3 The Automatic Loading and Unloading

system/tools the companies use;

All the terminals use automatic handling systems in

accordance with their capacities In this case,

VOPAK and OIL Tanking can control all the

handling cycle with the help of the software by

which they realize the planning and handling that

includes from which station and line number the

product loading is going to be realized or which tank

is going to be unloaded/loaded, in the “Control

Rooms” they use The staff working in these control

rooms can control the level of the products in the

Tanks and also the physical conditions of the

products real time as well Handling operations with

ships and wagons are completed under the auspices

of terminal staff

The three Hamburg located terminals use full

automatic loading systems for the tankers This

loading process is realised under the terminal’s

safety and security rules only by the tanker drivers

who pass the tests made at the entrance of the

terminal and who are experienced in automatic

loading at least for a specific time that the company

defines

If the driver makes some mistakes during the

loading process, then the system doesn’t let him to

go on with loading and warns the staff in the control

room for helping the driver with the communication

system or personally

SOLVENTAù is realizing all the handling

operations, including the ones that are completed

under nitrogen cover automatically with help of the

software the company created The handling

planning should be done by using this program and

it doesn’t let the planner to do this over the lines or valves that malfunction or under construction which inhibits the accident possibilities by the material In loading process of tankers, it starts automatically by entering the number of “Loading Conformity Paper”

by the staff to the system at the loading station which is brought by the tanker driver and ends automatically when the volume of the product reaches the required amount as it should be

4.4 The Software systems the terminals benefit

during the operations;

The examined terminals are all using various software according to their capacities during their operational facilities, connected within the framework of delegated limitations to the other departments such as technical and commercial

After the clients order, handle planning is realized via these Decision Support System software including the variables like ETA of the vehicles or ships, the line numbers going to be used during handling, the necessary tank levels at the beginning and at the end etc Additionally by the Local Area Network, operators can achieve ship’s information, essential manuals, and procedures and check lists for the operations which they’re assigned for with these software’s During the operations if operator does something wrong than the program automatically stops the handling process and informs the control room or quality management departments of the terminals

Further the stated tools, some terminals like SOLVENTAù enable tank leaseholders, owners of the products and freight forwarders to achieve with

in competence of they are allowed to its software database to check out the real time information about their products, the bureaucratic works status etc This software tool capability enables the freight forwarders make their loading and shipping plans by entering all the information about the tanker and also the drivers to the system

After the freight forwarders’ handling planning are loaded in the system, if traffic or other issues don’t let the plan get realized at the terminal then the related staff inform the forwarders about the situation and guide them

4.5 The operational staff working systems;

In the Hamburg terminals, the handling process continues 24 hours for ships, barges and wagons

Tanker operations are 24 hours only in OIL Tanking terminal In SOLVENTAù and LøMAù terminals ship handling processes are also 24 hours Tanker operations in this two terminals are only daytime available

Although, all terminals have various watch

systems according to their personnel numbers, they

apply daily 8 hour working with 3 watches (LøMAù

has 2 watches) Some of them support the day time

watches with staff who works only at day times on

working days Every watch except DOW has Watch

Leaders The watch leaders at SOLVENTAS should

be ship engineers in principle

The watch leaders assign their watch staff to the

stations according to their skills and experience after

they analyze the Planning Department’s daily

operational plans Except operational problems,

OIL Tanking doesn’t assign any staff to the tanker

loading area

According to the GERMAN rules, during the

handling operations at jetties, one staff should

always be on duty on jetty Additionally on jetties,

in all terminals in HAMBURG there are always

enough numbers of staff at train loading stations and

in tank farm area The terminals in Hamburg and

also IZMIT principle about their staff are their

having the skills to work on every station inside the

terminal In DOW and OIL Tanking terminals in

every watch there are a few locomotive drivers who

are trained and licensed by Deutsche Bahn

4.6 The training systems for the Operational staff;

All operational staff both in Germany and Turkey

are well trained by internal and also external trainers

as well According to the international and national

rules, all of the staff should be trained in specific

issues like IMDG Code, ISPS Code, Fire Fighting

and First Aid These trainings are generally given by

licensed internal trainer in the terminal

SOLVENTAS and LøMAù are also trains it’s staff

about “Emergency Response Against Marine

Pollution”

Additionally these trainings, simulators are used

in some terminals for training the operators

especially to build up their visual memories OIL

Tanking is using a wagon simulator from an external

training company to train its staff and is planning to

do this with a ship simulator next year

4.7 The inspections of the terminals;

Today’s global economic circumstances, safety and

security rules forces the terminals to have

certificates which are valid worldwide to subsist in

the market All terminals in this work have the

technical and quality (ISO) certificates according to

their capabilities and are inspected frequently to

keep these standards

Today, intuitions like CDI or SGS imposed

themselves worldwide and the terminals which work

with their standards and have their certificates are

always one step forward to the others in the

competition

Some companies like OIL Tanking creates an inspection team with its employees who work at the other terminals worldwide an inspects it’s terminals with this teams

4.8 The risk analyze procedures to minimize

accidents during the operations activities;

Analyzing all risks, accidents and taking precautions principle is implemented by all the terminals in this work Although the analyzing methods are various, the managers and watch leaders determines the possible risks during the operations and after analyzing them with coefficients, bring out measures

to minimize them

5 CONCLUSION Almost all terminals included in this work primary subject is to convert the manual handling systems to full automatic systems by the time to prevent the accident possibilities caused by human mistakes and

to save up from labor force and leeway

Especially railway intermodal mode affects the operational efficiency positively in terminals and doesn’t require labor force like road mode Investments on upper structure in this case by Eastern European countries and Turkey and integration with Western European countries would increase the capacity seriously

Determining the specific criteria for the tanker drivers to enable them to do loading operations in automatic stations without terminal staff and applying them widely would affect the operational efficiency positively

Making use of simulators by training the operational staff would give the personnel a visual memory which would be helpful them during the operational activities

Allowing the customers to enter the terminals software within the framework and to make their own handle plan with the terminals planning department can help the planning department in making operational plans

REFERENCES Duffey, R.B., Saull, J.W., 2009, Managing and Predicting Maritime and Off-shore Risk, International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, Vol.3, Number 2, pp.181-188

Gaurav Nath & Brian Ramos, 2011, Marine Dock Optimization for a Bulk Chemicals Manufacturing Facility http://www.portofrotterdam.com, 08.10.2012

http://www.dowstade.de, 08.10.2012

Interviews:

DOW International, Hamburg, Germany Dock Operations Leader, November 2012

LøMAù, øzmit/Turkey, Tank Terminal Manager, December

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Maritime Transport & Shipping – Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation – Weintrit & Neumann (Eds)

1 SEA TRANSPORT AS A SECTOR OF

MARITIME ECONOMY

1.1 Sea transport

Carriage of goods by sea is the most important form

of transport in the world In 2011, it was accounted

for more than 80% of global freight The volume of

transportation of goods by sea is an indicator of the

global economy Global reduction in the gross world

product and reduction of the trade in goods

drastically affected the value of maritime transport

Positive macroeconomic phenomena have a direct

impact on the state of maritime transport and

structure An important factor determining the state

of the maritime industry is the structure of maritime

transport [Grzelakowski 2009]

Te United Nations Conference on Trade and

Development, making an annual analysis of the

maritime economy, divided all the cargoes according

to the following groups:

 oil and oil products,

 dry cargo - divided into two groups:

1 five basic solid bulk cargoes: concentrates and

iron ore, coal, bauxite, phosphates, and grain;

2 other bulk cargoes: metal ore concentrates

agricultural goods and construction materials

The volume of the cargo transportation of these groups is an indicator of the global economy [UN 2010]

1.2 Transport of bulk cargoes

Ore concentrates and other similar fine – grained materials shipped by sea are mostly loaded in bulk without packing and considered as bulk cargoes

Over the 1990 - 2011 period major dry bulk volumes moved, growing at an average rate over 5% They represent over 25% of the volume of cargo transported by sea Two loads – coal and iron ore concentrate predominate in this group The demand for iron ore remains in the global economy at a high level, thus a steady increase in volumes is observed, for example: in the 2010 approximately 8,6% The demand for coal remained at the same level, as in

2010 only a slight increase in volume of approximately 2,1% was observed

The year 2010 was positive for major and minor dry bulks and other dry cargo as total volumes bounced back and grew by 8,4% In the group of the remaining goods solid, especially mineral resources,

in the year 2010 there was an increase in carriage by about 10 %, and the increase of demand for oil, which revived the freight market in this area [UN 2011]

The Parameters Determining the Safety of Sea Transport of Mineral

Concentrates

M Popek

Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland

ABSTRACT: Solid bulk cargoes belong to two major groups of goods classified in sea transportation The

safe transportation of these cargoes is a responsible task When the wet granular materials, such as mineral

concentrates and coals lose their shear strength resulted from increased pore pressure, they flow like fluids

Too high humidity of cargo leading to its liquefaction may cause the shift of the cargo In consequence, it

may cause ship’s heel and even its capsizing and sinking The oxidation of mineral concentrates, under

certain circumstances, leads to spontaneous combustion which can cause many serious problems during

storage and transportation

The results of the investigation on possibility of using starch as absorber (hydrophilic) material are presented

Biodegradable materials, composed of starch are added to the ore to prevent sliding and shifting of ore

concentrates in storage The role of starch materials in properties of mineral concentrates from the point of

view of safe shipment was investigated

2 SEA TRANSPORTOTION OF MINERAL

CONCENTRATES

2.1 Hazards

The transportation safety of mineral concentrates is

dependent upon the measurement and control of its

properties as well as the behavior of bulk on a

macro-scale Because there is a great variety in the

solids properties and characteristics of such

assemblies, there is a need to understand the

mechanico-physical properties of solid particles as

well as the physico-chemical interaction of adsorbed

solid-water boundaries on particles

The comparison of qualitative behavior of solid

materials gives a very general characterization of the

cargoes These terms may be sufficient to ensure the

ability for safe shipment by sea Solid bulk cargoes

as being either three–phase (solids–water–air) or two

(solids–water) structure can be treated as a single

continuum

These cargo may liquefy when contains at least

some fine particles and some moisture, although it

need not be visible wet in appearance They may

liquefy if shipped with a moisture content in the

excess of its Flow Moisture Point [IMO 2011]

Too high humidity of cargo leading to its

liquefaction may cause the shift of the cargo and in

consequence , ship’s heel and even its capsizing and

sinking

Self-heating is a catalytic process resulting in the

accumulation of heat in the load, which is released

during the oxidation of sulphide minerals with

oxygen from the air Consequently, the local

temperature rise in the load causes a further

acceleration of the process of oxidation, generating a

faster increase in temperature [Zarrouk &

O’Sullivan 2006]

The oxidation of mineral concentrates, under

certain circumstances, leads to self-heating and,

under exceptional conditions, to combustion

Associated phenomena, such as atmospheric oxygen

depletion, emission of toxic fumes, corrosion,

agglomeration and sintering also arise during

transport and the storage of concentrates In

conditions of maritime transport, this process poses

a threat to human life and health and the

environment.It lowers the quality of the cargo as

well as consequently substantial economic losses

[Bouffard & Senior 2011]

Many factors would determine the liquefaction

and oxidation such as the cargo environment and

the physical variables

2.2 Liquefaction

When the wet granular materials lose their shear

strength resulted from increased pore water

pressure, they flow like fluids The flow state is a

state that occurs when a mass of granular material is saturated with liquid to an extent that, under the influence of prevailing external force such as vibration, impaction or ship’s motion [Zhang 2005]

To minimize the risk of liquefaction, the IMSBC Code introduces the upper bound of moisture content of cargo called the Transportable Moisture Limit (TML) The TML is defined as 90% of the Flow Moisture Content (FMP), which depends on the characteristics of cargo and should be measured experimentally

2.2.1 The method of estimation TML

Many methods dealing with determination of the moisture content which simulates transition of fine-grained bulk cargo from solid into liquid state in sea trade conditions can be found in the scientific literature IMO approved the following assessment methods of safe moisture content:

 Flow Table Test,

 Japanese Penetration Method,

 Proctor C/Fagerberg Method

The results of estimationn TML obtained using Proctor C/Fagerberg Method are higher in all cases than those given by remaining methods The results

of FMP determination obtained using Penetration Method are consistent with those got from the Flow Table Test [Popek & Rutkowska 2001] Statistical parameters calculated for the measured values confirmed the conclusion

2.3 Self –heating of concentrates

Typical moisture contents of concentrates under shipment vary from 3 to 10% by weight Thus, mineral concentrates are moist and, in fine particle size–conditions, conducive to oxidation Mineral concentrates may exhibit self-heating to various degrees during storage or shipping The worst cases present a serious fire to SO2 emission hazard It has been recognized that oxygen and moisture was of great importance in the triggering of self–heating

Bone dry material will neither heat nor moist the material in the absence of a supply of oxygen The onset of self–heating leading to combustion in metal sulphide concentrates has been taken to consist of an initiating event, a low temperature, aqueous oxidation (<1000C) and high–temperature oxidation

At low temperatures, aqueous exothermic sulphation reaction, similar to the process of weathering, is exhibited by many sulphids in the initial stages of the oxidation The accumulation of the heat can lead

to autothermic reaction associated with active combustion and evaluation of sulphur dioxide, which leads, in turn, to oxide products

2.3.1 Methods of estimation ability to self-heating

Using different methods research have been made focusing on the propensity of sulphide concentrates

to spontaneous combustion To guard against the

risk of self-heating during overseas transport, there

is usually testing used and approved by protocol

such as the United Nations Transportation of

Dangerous Goods Protocol [UNECE 2008]

According to the Protocol, concentrate is subjected

to the “cage” test which classifies it as self-heating

or not The most likely exothermic reactions are the

oxidation of elemental sulphur to sulphur dioxide in

temperature does not increase to over 2000C over the

24 h period, then the concentrate is classified as a

non-self–heating material [Rosenblum et al 2001]

This test has some inconveniences: requires a

large mass of concentrate, a minimum of 24 h, the

cage and furnace are not the equipment available in

most laboratories

That is the reason, why a fast, inexpensive and

quantitative method to measure the self –heating

character of sulphide concentrates has been

developed The new method, intended for quick

diagnosis, consists of measuring the amount of

sulphur evolved at 3000C Elemental sulphur is a

product of oxidation of sulphide minerals The

content of elemental sulphur in the concentrates has

proven to be a good indicator of self –heating

potential of a sulphide concentrate The sulphur

content is correlated to the UN self –heating

protocol that measures the rise of temperature that

occurs when a concentrate is heated The sample

that contains less than 2% elemental sulphur is not

to experience a temperature rise of more than 600C,

considered to be not prone to self–heating [Bouford

& Senior 2011]

The used "hot - storage" test allows to determine

the activation energy, but it is a time-consuming

method and therefore research are made on the

development of alternative methods [Malow &

Krause 2004]

This development resulted in the introduction of

the heat realase (HR) rate method [Jones et al

1998], and the crossing – point temperature (CPT)

method [Nugroho et al 2000] The advantage of

these method is that only one sample size needs to

be investigated providing a faster and less expensive

method

3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

The behavior of a mineral concentrate is liable to

liquefy and its threat to the ship’s stability is closely

related to the effect of a liquid free surface The

liquefaction is created by moisture migration – the

water content of a cargo to rise to the bottom of a

hold The wetter bottom layer may therefore be

prone to liquefaction and provoke instability of the

entire cargo, even though the average moisture

content of the whole cargo is less than the TML [Eckersley 1997]

The specific behavior of mineral concentrates, when being transported by sea, makes it necessary to find a new solution to prevent movement of these cargoes by liquefaction

The purpose of this work was investigation on possibility of using starch materials as moisture absorbers

Spontaneous combustion of sulphide concentrates can cause many serious problems during storage and transportation The next aim of the work was estimation of the possibility of the self-heating of selected mixtures mineral concentrates with starch materials by using crossing – point method and determination corresponding to the apparent activation energies

3.1 Materials

Two types of concentrates: zinc (zinc blende), and iron sulfide concentrates were sampled and used for the investigation These materials are a typical bulk

cargoes “which may liquefy” For the liquefaction to

occur, the mineral concentrates need to have a permeability low enough that excess pore pressures cannot dissipate before sliding occurs It is controlled by grain size distribution, expressed by requirement that 95% or more, the cargo should be coarser than 1 mm to prevent liquefaction The results of grain size analysis are presented in Fig 1

Figure 1 The grain size distribution in zinc blende and iron concentrate

In zinc blende, the content of particle with a diameter greater than 1 mm is about 22% In iron concentrate, the content of particle with a diameter greater than 1 mm is about 2% These cargoes are typical materials which are able to liquefy The concentrates should be tested for liquefaction and shall only be accepted for loading when the actual moisture content is less than its TML

It may be concluded from the results given in Figure 1 that zinc blende is composed of finer grains than iron concentrates The values of TML depend on grain size, so if content of smaller grains

in mineral concentrates increases, the value of TML

increases too The higher TML values of zinc

blende (9,2%) than iron TML values (7,4%) is

connected with the degree of concentrates grinding

The results of the grain size analysis of mixtures

concentrates with selected starch material presented

in Figure 2

Figure 2 The grain size distribution in mixture of zinc blende

and iron concentrate with Lubostat

The starch material does not significantly change

grain size distribution Based on the effective size

D10 it can be said that the tested mixtures are the

ma-terials, which may liquefy during shipment

The chemical composition of concentrates

influences the transport – technological properties,

particularly the ability to oxidize The study found

also that among many parameters that determine

susceptibility to self-heating, the most important role

is of the chemical composition [Iliyas et al 2010] In

addition, differences in elemental composition,

especially in the content of useful part which is

metal as well as the presence of sulfur, can cause

variations in chemical activity Table 1 presents the

percentages of major elements – sulphur and metals

Source: based on data obtained from manufacturers

Following starch materials were tested (potato

starch obtained from Potato Industry Company at

LuboĔ):

 distarch phosphate -“Lubostat”

 acetylated distarch adipate -“AD”

 granulated product - granulated starch

Selected starch materials have different ability to

absorb moisture The greatest capacity to collect

moisture from the atmosphere is distinguished by an

acetylated distarch adipate Hygroscopicity distarch

phosphate is comparable with the properties of granulated starch

High ability to absorb moisture is a very desirable phenomenon in the conduct of research AD and Lubostat are characterized by a similar water absorption and water absorption of granulated starch is lower

3.2 Methods

The influence of adding starch materials to the ores

on its parameters determining ability for safe shipment by sea was assessed on the basis of determination of the following parameters: Flow Moisture Point and reaction activity The evaluation

of FMP was performed with the use of the Flow Table Test according to the recommendations given

in IMSBC Code The samples with Lubostat, AD and granulated starch were tested for estimation TML at several time intervals

The self-heating property of sulfide concentrates was estimated according to the procedure presented

by Yang [Yang et al 2011] The constant temperature in the chest was maintained stable at

1400C, 1500C, 1600C and 1800C, respectively over a long period of the experiments to determine the crossing – point temperature at four different ambient temperature

4 RESULTS AND DISUSSION The results of estimation TML for zinc blende and iron concentrate and for their mixtures with starch materials are presented in Figures 3 and 4

Figure 3 TML values determined by means of Flow Table Test –zinc blende +starch materials

Figure 4 TML values determined by means of Flow Table

Test –iron concentrate +starch materials

Starch material absorbed water from the mixtures

at the amount approximately proportional to the

starch material content in the mineral concentrates

It can be noticed that modified starch presents higher

solubility than granulated starch In general, the

higher values of TML were observed in the case of

testing concentrates + 2 % of starch material For the

mixtures containing 2 % Lubostat and AD, greater

increasing of TML was observed than for

concentrate containing 2 % granulated starch

In the case of zinc blende, the highest expected

changes of TML were observed for a mixture with

2% share of AD The time, in which half of the

maximum absorption was obtained, shows a high

absorption rate that is a highly desirable in the

conditions of transport

In the case of iron concentrate, determined values

of the parameters indicates that 2% share in mixture

of the Lubostat with the concentrate results in the

largest increase of the TML The time, in which half

of the maximum value of TML was obtained ,

indicates that the rate of moisture absorption by this

starch materials is rapid, the waiting time to improve

parameters relevant to the transport is short The

equilibrium absorption of water by starch materials

is reached in four days

The results of estimation activation energy for

concentrates and mixtures with starch materials are

The ability to oxidize and self-heating depends

primarily on the chemical composition of

concentrates Sulfide minerals contain non –

stoichiometric sulfur that would readily be

decomposed into stoichiometric sulfide with sulfur liberation to precede the exothermic oxidation

Sulfide–reach mineral samples exhibit accelerated self-heating behavior compared to lower sulfide samples, because of spontaneous reaction with oxygen following desulfuration [Ilias et al 2010]

As presented in Table 1, tested concentrates differ

in sulfur content which may significantly influence the susceptibility to oxidation

The greatest ability to self-heating showed a zinc concentrate that probably contains the largest non-stoichiometric amount of sulfur The research results indicate that iron concentrate exhibits the higher activation energy The presence of starch materials

in mixtures does not increase the ability of concentrates to self-heating

5 CONCLUSIONS

It may be concluded that there are several criterions which influence the transportation safety of mineral concentrates

The ability to absorb water is related primarily to the composition of starch material and the percentage of starch in mixture The higher content starch material in mixtures contributes to the increase value of FMP estimated by Flow Table Test It may be concluded that applied starch materials can be used for decreasing moisture content of mineral concentrate before shipment Due

to presence starch materials, the risk of passing mineral concentrate into liquid state is lower

Physical and chemical characteristics of sulphide concentrates and their behavior during oxidation are very important for sea transportation The activation energy is the critical input – parameter and its accurate experimental determination is of primary importance for estimation of self-heating The experimental data confirm the relationship between sulfur content and the ability to self-heating of the concentrate The information gained by using the crossing – point temperature (CPT) method in the present investigation will prove to be useful when simulating the self–heating behavior of a large pile

of sulfide concentrates during shipping and storage

REFERENCES Bouffard, S.& Senior, G D 2011 A new method for testing

the self –heating character of sulphide concentrates

Iliyas, A Hawboldt., Khan, F 2010 Thermal stability

investigation of sulfide minerals in DSC Journal of

Hazardous Materials 178: 814-822

Jones, J Henderson, K Littlefair, J Rennie, S 1998 Kinetic

parameters of oxidation of coals from heat release

measurement and their relevance to self-heating tests Fuel

77 (1-2): 19-22

IMO 2011 International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes Code,

London

Malow, M Krause, U 2004 The overall activation energy of

the exothermic reactions of thermally unstable materials

Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 17:

51-58

Nugroho, Y McIntosh, A Gibbs, B 2000 Low-temperature

oxidation of single and blended coals Fuels 79 (15):

1951-1961

Popek, M Rutkowska, M 2002 The Methods for

Determination of flow Moisture Point in Bulk Cargoes

Commodity Science in Global Quality Perspective Proc

intern Symp., Maribor, 2-8 September 2001

Popek, M 2010 The Influence of Organic Polymer on

Parameters determining ability to Liquefaction of Mineral

concentrates International Journal on Maritime

Navigation and safety of sea Transportation 4(4):435-440

Shitaram, T 2003 Descrete element modeling of cyclic

behavior of granular materials Geotechnical and Geological Engineering 21: 297 -329

Rosemblum, F Nesset, J Spira, P 2001 Evaluation and control of self -heating in sulphide concentrates CIM Bulletin 94(1056): 92-99

UN 2010 Review of Maritime Transport United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

UN 2011 Review of Maritime Transport United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

UNECE 2008 Manual of Tests and Criteria for Self-Heating Substances (Part III, Classification, Procedures, Test Method and Criteria Relating to Class 3, Class 4, Division

5.1 and Class 9) Fifth Edition: 357-359

Yang, F Wu, Ch Li, Z 2011 Investigation of the propensity

of sulfide concentrates to spontaneous combustion in

storage Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 24: 131-137

Zarrouk, S J O’Sullivan, M.J 2006 Self-heating of coal the

diminishing reaction rate Chemical Engineering Journal

119: 83-92

Zhang, M 2005 Modeling liquefaction of water saturated

granular materials under undreined cyclic shearing Act

Mech Sinica 21: 169-175.

Maritime Transport & Shipping – Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation – Weintrit & Neumann (Eds)

1 INTRODUCTION

The Chemical Abstract Service (CAS) lists over 63

000 chemicals outside the laboratories environments

and the number increases each year The United

States Department of Transportation and

International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulate

over 3800 hazardous materials in transportation The

European Union and IMO regulations of dangerous

goods are similar Sea transport of hazardous

substances is regulated in International Maritime

Dangerous Goods Code – IMDG Code (for

packaging goods) and International Maritime Solid

Bulk Cargoes Code - IMSBC Code

According to UN Directive dangerous chemicals

are classified as: T+ – very toxic, T – toxic, Xn –

harmful Xi – irritant, C – corrosive, N - dangerous

to the environment, E – explosive, O – oxidizing,

F+ – extremely flammable, F – highly flammable

[Emergency Guide Book 2002, Bruke 2003]

Dangerous goods in the sea transport

classification is regulated by IMO Codes

[IMDG-Code 2011, IMSBC [IMDG-Code 2012] IMDG [IMDG-Code

classification is based on physical and chemical

dangerous properties Dangerous goods are divided

into nine classes: 1 – explosives, 2 - gases (where

2.1 - flammable gases, 2.2 – non-flammable gases,

2.3 – toxic gases), 3 – flammable liquid, 4 –

flammable solids (where: 4.1 – flammable solids,

self- reactive substances and solid desensitizes explosive, 4.2 - substances liable to spontaneous combustion, 4.3 – substances which, in contact with water , emit flammable gases), 5 – oxidizing substances and organic peroxides (5.1 – oxidizing substances, 5.2 – organic peroxides), 6 – toxic and infectious substances (where: 6.1 – toxic substances, 6.2 – infectious substances) 7 – radioactive materials, 8 – corrosive substances, 9 – miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles

A major fire aboard a ship carrying these materials may involve a risk of explosion in the event of contamination by combustible materials An adjacent detonation may also involve a risk of explosion

During thermal decomposition nitrate fertilizers give toxic gases and gases which support combustion Dust of fertilizers might be irritating to skin and mucous membranes

There are at present no established good criteria for determining packaging groups of dangerous goods Class 5.1 Substances of great danger belong

to packaging group I, of medium danger to packaging group II - medium danger, or minor danger to packaging group III In this paper are presented two methods of classification oxidizers as the dangerous goods

Determination of the Fire Safety of Some Mineral Fertilizers (3)

K Kwiatkowska-Sienkiewicz, P Kutta & E Kotulska

Gdynia Maritime University, Department of Chemistry and Industrial Commodity Science, Poland

ABSTRACT: This paper provides an outlook on fire safety assessment concerning nitrates fertilizers in sea

transport The investigation was aimed at comparison of two methods of classification and assignment to a

packing group of solid fertilizers of class 5.1 of International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code First research

was conducted in accordance with the Manual of Test and Criteria, “Test for oxidizing solids” described in

the United Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods The second method was the

differential thermal analysis (DTA), where the basis was the determination of the temperature change rate

during thermal reaction According to two used tests, the investigated three fertilizers belong to 5.1 Class and

to packaging group III of the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code Two fertilizers do not belong to

dangerous goods The DTA method gives more quantitative information about fire risk on the ship than the

method recommended in the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code