Hailed on its initial publication as a realworld, practical handbook, the second edition of Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations continues to make the same basic point: water and wastewater operators must have a basic skill set that is both wide and deep. They must be generalists, wellrounded in the sciences, cyber operations, math operations, mechanics, technical concepts, and common sense. With coverage that spans the breadth and depth of the field, the handbook explores the latest principles and technologies and provides information necessary to prepare for licensure exams. Expanded from beginning to end, this second edition provides a noholdsbarred look at current management issues and includes the latest security information for protecting public assets. It presents indepth coverage of management aspects and security needs and a new chapter covering the basics of blueprint reading. The chapter on water and wastewater mathematics has tripled in size and now contains an additional 200 problems and 350 math system operational problems with solutions. The manual examines numerous realworld operating scenarios, such as the intake of raw sewage and the treatment of water via residual management, and each scenario includes a comprehensive problemsolving practice set. The text follows a nontraditional paradigm based on realworld experience and proven parameters. Clearly written and user friendly, this revision of a bestseller builds on the remarkable success of the first edition. This book is a thorough compilation of water science, treatment information, process control procedures, problemsolving techniques, safety and health information, and administrative and technological trends.
Trang 1Handbook of
Water and Wastewater
Treatment Plant
Operations
Trang 3Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Trang 46000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S Government works
Version Date: 20130305
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Trang 5Foreword xxxvii
Preface to ThirdEdition xxxix
Preface to First and Second Editions xli To the Reader xliii Author xlv Water: The New Oil? xlvii Section i Water and Wastewater operations: An overview Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Sick Water 3
1.3 Publicly Owned Treatment Works: Cash Cows or Cash Dogs? 5
1.4 The Paradigm Shift 6
1.4.1 A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done 6
1.5 Multiple-Barrier Concept 8
1.5.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach and Wastewater Operations 8
1.6 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations 9
1.6.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations 9
1.6.2 Privatization and/or Reengineering 11
1.6.3 Benchmarking 12
1.6.3.1 What Benchmarking Is 13
1.6.3.2 Potential Results of Benchmarking 13
1.6.3.3 Targets 13
1.6.3.4 Benchmarking Process 13
1.6.3.5 Benchmarking Steps 13
1.6.3.6 Collection of Baseline Data and Tracking Energy Use 14
1.6.3.7 Baseline Audit 15
1.6.4 Technical vs Professional Management 17
1.6.5 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability 18
1.6.5.1 Sustainable Water/Wastewater Infrastructure 19
1.6.5.2 Maintaining Sustainable Infrastructure 19
1.6.5.3 Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Gap 20
1.6.5.4 Energy Efficiency: Water/Wastewater Treatment Operations 20
Chapter Review Questions 20
References and Recommended Reading 21
Chapter 2 Water/Wastewater Operators 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Setting the Record Straight 24
2.3 Computer-Literate Jack or Jill 24
2.4 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders 25
2.5 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions 25
2.6 Operator Certification and Licensure 26
Chapter Review Questions 27
References and Suggested Readings 27
Trang 6Chapter 3 Upgrading Security 29
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Consequences of 9/11 29
3.3 Security Hardware/Devices 31
3.3.1 Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices 31
3.3.1.1 Aboveground Outdoor Equipment Enclosures 31
3.3.1.2 Alarms 32
3.3.1.3 Backflow Prevention Devices 33
3.3.1.4 Barriers 34
3.3.1.5 Biometric Security Systems 36
3.3.1.6 Card Identification/Access/Tracking Systems 37
3.3.1.7 Fences 38
3.3.1.8 Films for Glass Shatter Protection 39
3.3.1.9 Fire Hydrant Locks 39
3.3.1.10 Hatch Security 39
3.3.1.11 Intrusion Sensors 40
3.3.1.12 Ladder Access Control 40
3.3.1.13 Locks 40
3.3.1.14 Manhole Intrusion Sensors 41
3.3.1.15 Manhole Locks 41
3.3.1.16 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages 41
3.3.1.17 Reservoir Covers 42
3.3.1.18 Security for Side-Hinged Doors 42
3.3.1.19 Valve Lockout Devices 43
3.3.1.20 Security for Vents 44
3.3.1.21 Visual Surveillance Monitoring 44
3.3.2 Water Monitoring Devices 45
3.3.2.1 Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination 45 3.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors: Arsenic Measurement System 46
3.3.2.3 Chemical Sensor: Adapted BOD Analyzer 46
3.3.2.4 Chemical Sensor: Total Organic Carbon Analyzer 46
3.3.2.5 Chemical Sensors: Chlorine Measurement System 47
3.3.2.6 Chemical Sensors: Portable Cyanide Analyzer 47
3.3.2.7 Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs 48
3.3.2.8 Radiation Detection Equipment 48
3.3.2.9 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets 49
3.3.2.10 Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters 50
3.3.3 Communication and Integration 50
3.3.3.1 Electronic Controllers 50
3.3.3.2 Two-Way Radios 50
3.3.3.3 Wireless Data Communications 51
3.3.4 Cyber Protection Devices 51
3.3.4.1 Antivirus and Pest-Eradication Software 51
3.3.4.2 Firewalls 52
3.3.4.3 Network Intrusion Hardware and Software 52
3.4 SCADA 53
3.4.1 What Is SCADA? 54
3.4.2 SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater Systems 54
3.4.3 SCADA Vulnerabilities 54
3.4.4 Increasing Risk 56
3.4.5 Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities 56
3.4.6 Cyber Threats to Control Systems 57
3.4.7 Securing Control Systems 57
3.4.8 Steps to Improve SCADA Security 58
Chapter Review Questions 61
References and Recommended Reading 61
Trang 7Chapter 4 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Pumping System Energy Conservation Measures 63
4.2.1 Pumping System Design 64
4.2.2 Pump Motors 65
4.2.2.1 Motor Efficiency and Efficiency Standards 66
4.2.2.2 Motor Management Programs 66
4.2.2.3 Innovative and Emerging Technologies 67
4.2.3 Power Factor 67
4.2.4 Variable Frequency Drives 69
4.2.4.1 Energy Savings 69
4.2.4.2 Applications 69
4.2.4.3 Strategies for Wastewater Pumping Stations 69
4.3 Design and Control of Aeration Systems 69
4.3.1 ECMs for Aeration Systems 70
4.3.1.1 ECMs for Diffused Aeration Systems 70
4.3.1.2 ECMs for Mechanical Aerators 72
4.3.2 Control of the Aeration Process 72
4.3.2.1 Automated DO Control 72
4.3.3 Emerging Technologies Using Control Parameters Other than DO 85
4.3.3.1 Respirometry 85
4.3.3.2 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance 85
4.3.3.3 Critical Oxygen Point Control Determination 86
4.3.3.4 Off-Gas Analysis 86
4.3.4 Innovative and Emerging Control Strategies for Biological Nitrogen Removal 86
4.3.4.1 SymBio® 86
4.3.4.2 Bioprocess Intelligent Optimization System (BIOS) 87
4.4 Blowers 87
4.4.1 High-Speed Gearless (Turbo) Blowers 89
4.4.2 Single-Stage Centrifugal Blowers with Inlet Guide Vanes and Variable Diffuser Vanes 89
4.4.3 New Diffuser Technology 90
4.4.3.1 Fine Bubble Aeration 90
4.4.3.2 Fine Bubble Aeration Application Examples 90
4.4.4 Preventing Diffuser Fouling 91
4.5 Innovative and Emerging Energy Conservation Measures 91
4.5.1 UV Disinfection 92
4.5.1.1 Design 93
4.5.1.2 Operation and Maintenance 94
4.5.2 Membrane Bioreactors 94
4.5.3 Anoxic and Anaerobic Zone Mixing 95
4.5.3.1 Hyperbolic Mixing 95
4.5.3.2 Pulsed Large Bubble Mixing 96
Chapter Review Question 97
References and Recommended Reading 97
Chapter 5 Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology 99
5.1 Setting the Stage 99
5.2 Treatment Process Models 99
5.2.1 Additional Wastewater Treatment Models 99
5.2.1.1 Green Bay, Wisconsin, Metropolitan Sewerage District 99
5.2.1.2 Sheboygan, Michigan, Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant 101
5.2.1.3 Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant 102
5.2.1.4 City of Bartlett, Tennessee, Wastewater Treatment Plant 103
5.2.1.5 Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission Western Branch WWTP, Prince Georges County, Maryland 104
Trang 85.2.1.6 San Jose/Santa Clara, California, Water Pollution Control Plant 105
5.2.1.7 Waco, Texas, Metropolitan Area Regional Sewer System Wastewater Treatment Facility 107
5.3 Key Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations Used in Water and Wastewater Operations 108
5.3.1 Definitions 109
5.3.2 Acronyms and Abbreviations 115
Chapter Review Questions 116
References and Recommended Reading 117
Section ii Water/Wastewater operations: Math, Physics, and technical Aspects Chapter 6 Water/Wastewater Math Operations 121
6.1 Introduction 121
6.2 Calculation Steps 121
6.3 Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols 121
6.4 Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations 121
6.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median 121
6.4.2 Units and Conversions 124
6.4.2.1 Temperature Conversions 124
6.4.2.2 Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million) 125
6.4.3 Area and Volume 125
6.4.4 Force, Pressure, and Head 125
6.4.5 Flow Conversions 127
6.4.6 Flow Calculations 128
6.4.6.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates 128
6.4.6.2 Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank 128
6.4.6.3 Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank 129
6.4.6.4 Flow through a Full Pipeline 129
6.4.6.5 Velocity Calculations 129
6.4.6.6 Average Flow Rate Calculations 130
6.4.6.7 Flow Conversion Calculations 130
6.4.7 Detention Time 130
6.4.8 Hydraulic Detention Time 131
6.4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days 131
6.4.8.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours 131
6.4.8.3 Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes 131
6.4.9 Chemical Dosage Calculations 132
6.4.9.1 Dosage Formula Pie Chart 132
6.4.9.2 Chlorine Dosage 132
6.4.9.3 Hypochlorite Dosage 133
6.4.10 Percent Removal 134
6.4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor 134
6.4.12 Specific Gravity 135
6.4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge 135
6.4.14 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation 135
6.4.14.1 Calculating Feed Rate 135
6.4.14.2 Calculating Solution Strength 135
6.4.15 Filtration 136
6.4.15.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration 136
6.4.15.2 Filter Backwash 136
6.4.16 Water Distribution System Calculations 136
6.4.16.1 Water Flow Velocity 136
6.4.16.2 Storage Tank Calculations 138
6.4.16.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations 138
6.4.17 Complex Conversions 139
Trang 96.4.17.1 Concentration to Quantity 139
6.4.17.2 Quantity to Concentration 139
6.4.17.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate 140
6.5 Applied Math Operations 140
6.5.1 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance 140
6.5.2 Mass Balance for Settling Tanks 140
6.5.3 Mass Balance Using BOD Removal 141
6.5.4 Measuring Plant Performance 141
6.5.4.1 Plant Performance/Efficiency 142
6.5.4.2 Unit Process Performance/Efficiency 142
6.5.4.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge 142
6.6 Water Math Concepts 142
6.6.1 Water Sources and Storage Calculations 142
6.6.2 Water Source Calculations 142
6.6.2.1 Well Drawdown 142
6.6.2.2 Well Yield 143
6.6.2.3 Specific Yield 143
6.6.2.4 Well Casing Disinfection 143
6.6.2.5 Deep-Well Turbine Pump Calculations 144
6.6.2.6 Vertical Turbine Pumps 144
6.6.3 Water Storage Calculations 144
6.6.4 Copper Sulfate Dosing Calculations 145
6.6.5 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations 145
6.6.5.1 Coagulation 145
6.6.5.2 Flocculation 146
6.6.5.3 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations 146
6.6.6 Chemical Usage Calculations 150
6.6.7 Sedimentation Calculations 151
6.6.7.1 Calculating Tank Volume 151
6.6.7.2 Detention Time 151
6.6.7.3 Surface Loading Rate 151
6.6.7.4 Mean Flow Velocity 152
6.6.7.5 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate) 152
6.6.7.6 Percent Settled Biosolids 153
6.6.7.7 Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L) 153
6.6.7.8 Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day) 155
6.6.7.9 Determining Lime Dosage (g/min) 155
6.6.8 Filtration Calculations 155
6.6.8.1 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm) 156
6.6.8.2 Filtration Rate 157
6.6.8.3 Unit Filter Run Volume (UFRV) 157
6.6.8.4 Backwash Rate 158
6.6.8.5 Backwash Rise Rate 159
6.6.8.6 Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal) 159
6.6.8.7 Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft) 159
6.6.8.8 Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm) 160
6.6.8.9 Percent Product Water Used for Backwashing 160
6.6.8.10 Percent Mud Ball Volume 160
6.6.8.11 Filter Bed Expansion 161
6.6.9 Water Chlorination Calculations 161
6.6.9.1 Chlorine Disinfection 161
6.6.9.2 Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) 161
6.6.9.3 Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual 162
6.6.9.4 Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate 164
6.6.9.5 Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate 165
6.6.9.6 Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions 165
6.6.9.7 Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite 165
Trang 106.6.10 Chemical Use Calculations 166
6.6.11 Fluoridation Calculations 166
6.6.11.1 Water Fluoridation 166
6.6.11.2 Fluoride Compounds 166
6.6.11.3 Optimal Fluoride Levels 167
6.6.11.4 Fluoridation Process Calculations 168
6.6.12 Water Softening Calculations 172
6.6.12.1 Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 172
6.6.12.2 Calculating Magnesium Hardness as CaCO3 172
6.6.12.3 Calculating Total Hardness 172
6.6.12.4 Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness 173
6.6.12.5 Alkalinity Determination 174
6.6.12.6 Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness 174
6.6.12.7 Recarbonation Calculation 175
6.6.12.8 Calculating Feed Rates 176
6.6.12.9 Ion-Exchange Capacity 176
6.6.12.10 Water Treatment Capacity 177
6.6.12.11 Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required) 177
6.6.12.12 Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration 178
6.7 Wastewater Math Concepts 178
6.7.1 Preliminary Treatment Calculations 178
6.7.1.1 Screening 178
6.7.1.2 Grit Removal 179
6.7.2 Primary Treatment Calculations 181
6.7.2.1 Process Control 181
6.7.2.2 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overflow Rate) 182
6.7.2.3 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate) 182
6.7.2.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lb/day) 182
6.7.3 Trickling Filter Process Calculations 183
6.7.3.1 Hydraulic Loading 183
6.7.3.2 Organic Loading Rate 184
6.7.3.3 Recirculation Flow 184
6.7.4 Rotating Biological Contactor Calculations 184
6.7.4.1 Hydraulic Loading Rate 185
6.7.4.2 Soluble BOD 185
6.7.4.3 Organic Loading Rate 186
6.7.4.4 Total Media Area 186
6.7.5 Activated Biosolids Calculations 186
6.7.5.1 Moving Averages 186
6.7.5.2 BOD or COD Loading 187
6.7.5.3 Solids Inventory 187
6.7.5.4 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio) 187
6.7.5.5 Gould Sludge Age 189
6.7.5.6 Mean Cell Residence Time 189
6.7.5.7 Estimating Return Rates from SSV60 190
6.7.5.8 Sludge Volume Index 190
6.7.5.9 Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids 191
6.7.5.10 Biosolids Waste Based on Mass Balance 191
6.7.5.11 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time 191
6.7.6 Treatment Ponds Calculations 192
6.7.6.1 Treatment Pond Parameters 192
6.7.6.2 Treatment Pond Process Control 192
6.7.6.3 Hydraulic Detention Time (Days) 192
6.7.6.4 BOD Loading 193
6.7.6.5 Organic Loading Rate 193
6.7.6.6 BOD Removal Efficiency 193
Trang 116.7.6.7 Population Loading 193
6.7.6.8 Hydraulic Loading (In./Day) (Overflow Rate) 193
6.7.7 Chemical Dosing Calculations 193
6.7.7.1 Chemical Feed Rate 194
6.7.7.2 Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual 194
6.7.7.3 Hypochlorite Dosage 195
6.7.8 Chemical Solution Calculations 196
6.7.8.1 Solution Chemical Feeder Setting (gpd) 196
6.7.8.2 Chemical Feed Pump: Percent Stroke Setting 197
6.7.8.3 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (mL/min) 197
6.7.8.4 Chemical Feed Calibration 197
6.7.8.5 Average Use 198
6.7.8.6 Process Residuals: Biosolids Production and Pumping 199
6.7.8.7 Primary and Secondary Solids Production 199
6.7.8.8 Primary Clarifier Solids Production 199
6.7.8.9 Secondary Clarifier Solids Production 199
6.7.8.10 Percent Solids 200
6.7.8.11 Biosolids Pumping 200
6.7.8.12 Biosolids Thickening 201
6.7.8.13 Centrifuge Thickening 203
6.7.8.14 Biosolids Digestion/Stabilization 203
6.7.8.15 Aerobic Digestion Process Control 203
6.7.8.16 Anaerobic Digestion Process Control 204
6.7.9 Biosolids Dewatering and Disposal Calculations 205
6.7.9.1 Pressure Filtration 206
6.7.9.2 Plate and Frame Press 206
6.7.9.3 Belt Filter Press 206
6.7.9.4 Rotary Vacuum Filter Dewatering 208
6.7.9.5 Sand Drying Beds 209
6.7.10 Biosolids Disposal Calculations 210
6.7.10.1 Land Application 210
6.7.10.2 Biosolids to Compost 212
6.7.10.3 Composting Calculations 212
6.8 Water/Wastewater Laboratory Calculations 212
6.8.1 Faucet Flow Estimation 212
6.8.2 Service Line Flushing Time 213
6.8.3 Composite Sampling 213
6.8.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 214
6.8.4.1 BOD5 (Unseeded) 214
6.8.4.2 BOD5 (Seeded) 215
6.8.4.3 BOD 7-Day Moving Average 215
6.8.5 Moles and Molarity 215
6.8.5.1 Moles 215
6.8.5.2 Normality 216
6.8.6 Settleability (Activated Biosolids) 216
6.8.7 Settleable Solids 216
6.8.8 Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Solids, and Volatile Solids 217
6.8.9 Wastewater Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids 218
6.8.10 Biosolids Volume Index and Biosolids Density Index 218
Chapter Review Questions 219
References and Suggested Reading 229
Chapter 7 Science Fundamentals 231
7.1 Introduction 231
7.2 Force and Motion 231
Trang 127.2.1 Position and Time 231
7.2.2 Speed and Velocity 231
7.3 Acceleration 233
7.3.1 Acceleration of Gravity 233
7.4 Force 233
7.5 Newton’s Laws of Motion 234
7.5.1 Newton’s First Law 234
7.5.2 Newton’s Second Law 234
7.5.3 Newton’s Third Law 234
7.6 Work 234
7.7 Energy 235
7.7.1 Potential Energy 235
7.7.2 Kinetic Energy 235
7.8 Momentum 235
7.9 Circular Motion 236
7.10 Angular Motion 236
7.11 Angular Velocity 236
7.12 Angular Acceleration 237
7.13 Torque 237
7.14 Angular Momentum 237
7.15 Gravity 237
7.16 Thermal Properties 237
7.16.1 Specific Heat 238
7.17 States of Matter 238
7.17.1 Gas Laws 238
7.17.2 Liquids and Solutions 238
7.18 Wave Motion and Sound 239
7.18.1 Waves 239
7.18.1.1 Wave Characteristics 239
7.18.1.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves 239
7.18.2 Physics of Sound 239
7.18.2.1 Octave Bands 240
7.18.2.2 Sound Pressure 240
7.19 Light 241
7.19.1 Speed of Light 241
7.19.2 Sources of Light 241
7.19.3 Luminous Intensity of Light 241
7.19.4 Laws of Reflection and Refraction 242
7.19.4.1 Laws of Reflection 242
7.19.4.2 Laws of Refraction 242
7.19.5 Polarization 243
7.20 Color 243
Chapter Review Questions 243
Chapter 8 Blueprint Reading 245
8.1 Blueprints: The Universal Language 245
8.1.1 Blueprint Standards 246
8.1.1.1 Standards-Setting Organizations 246
8.1.1.2 ANSI Standards for Blueprint Sheets 246
8.1.2 Finding Information 247
8.1.2.1 Detail Drawings 247
8.1.2.2 Assembly Drawings 247
8.1.3 Title Block 247
8.1.4 Drawing Notes 250
8.1.4.1 General Notes 250
8.1.4.2 Local Notes 250
Trang 138.2 Units of Measurement 252
8.2.1 Fractions and Decimal Fractions 252
8.3 Alphabet of Lines 253
8.3.1 Just a Bunch of Drawn Lines? 253
8.3.2 Visible Lines 254
8.3.3 Hidden Lines 254
8.3.4 Section Lines 254
8.3.5 Center Lines 254
8.3.6 Dimension and Extension Lines 254
8.3.7 Leaders 254
8.3.8 Cutting Plane or Viewing Plane Lines 254
8.3.9 Break Lines 254
8.3.10 Phantom Lines 256
8.3.11 Line Gauge 256
8.3.12 Views 256
8.3.12.1 Orthographic Projections 256
8.3.12.2 One-View Drawings 259
8.3.12.3 Two-View Drawings 259
8.3.12.4 Three-View Drawings 259
8.3.12.5 Auxiliary Views 260
8.4 Dimensions and Shop Notes 262
8.4.1 Dimensioning 262
8.4.2 Decimal and Size Dimensions 262
8.4.3 Definition of Dimensioning Terms 263
8.4.3.1 Nominal Size 263
8.4.3.2 Basic Size 263
8.4.3.3 Allowance 263
8.4.3.4 Design Size 263
8.4.3.5 Limits 263
8.4.3.6 Tolerance 264
8.4.3.7 Datum 264
8.4.4 Types of Dimensions 264
8.4.4.1 Linear Dimensions 264
8.4.4.2 Angular Dimensions 264
8.4.4.3 Reference Dimensions 265
8.4.4.4 Tabular Dimensions 265
8.4.4.5 Arrowless Dimensions 265
8.4.5 Shop Notes 265
8.5 Machine Drawings 266
8.5.1 Centrifugal Pump Drawing 266
8.5.1.1 Centrifugal Pump Attributes 266
8.5.1.2 How a Centrifugal Pump Works 266
8.5.1.3 Centrifugal Pump Components 267
8.5.2 Packing Gland Drawing 267
8.5.3 Submersible Pump Drawing 267
8.5.4 Turbine Pump Drawing 268
8.6 Sheet Metal Drawings 268
8.6.1 Sheet Metal 268
8.6.2 Dimension Calculations 268
8.6.2.1 Calculations for Allowances in Bend 268
8.6.2.2 Set-Back Table 268
8.6.2.3 Formulae Used to Determine Developed Length 269
8.6.3 Hems and Joints 270
8.7 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings 270
8.7.1 Standard Hydraulic System 270
8.7.2 Standard Pneumatic System 271
8.7.3 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems: Similarities and Differences 271
Trang 148.7.4 Types of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings 271
8.7.5 Graphic Symbols for Fluid Power Systems 272
8.7.5.1 Symbols for Methods of Operation (Controls) 272
8.7.5.2 Symbols for Rotary Devices 272
8.7.5.3 Symbols for Lines 272
8.7.5.4 Symbols for Valves 272
8.7.5.5 Symbols for Miscellaneous Units 274
8.7.6 Supplementary Information Accompanying Graphic Drawings 274
8.7.6.1 Sequence of Operations 274
8.7.6.2 Solenoid Chart 274
8.7.6.3 Bill of Materials 275
8.8 Welding Blueprints and Symbols 275
8.8.1 Welding Processes 275
8.8.2 Types of Welded Joints 276
8.8.2.1 Butt Joints 276
8.8.2.2 Lap Joints 276
8.8.2.3 Tee Joints 276
8.8.2.4 Edge Joints 276
8.8.2.5 Corner Joints 276
8.8.3 Basic Weld Symbols 276
8.8.3.1 Symbols for Arc and Gas Welds 276
8.8.3.2 Symbols for Resistance Welds 276
8.8.3.3 Symbols for Supplementary Welds 277
8.8.4 The Welding Symbol 277
8.8.4.1 Reference Line 277
8.8.4.2 Arrowhead 277
8.8.4.3 Weld Symbol 278
8.8.4.4 Dimensions 278
8.8.4.5 Special Symbols 279
8.8.4.6 Tail 280
8.9 Electrical Drawings 280
8.9.1 Troubleshooting and Electrical Drawings 280
8.9.2 Electrical Symbols 280
8.9.2.1 Electrical Voltage and Power 280
8.9.2.2 What Is Voltage? 280
8.9.2.3 How Is Voltage Produced? 281
8.9.2.4 How Is Electricity Delivered to the Plant? 281
8.9.2.5 Electric Power 281
8.9.2.6 Types of Electrical Drawings 281
8.9.2.7 Types of Architectural Drawings 282
8.9.2.8 Circuit Drawings 282
8.9.2.9 Ladder Drawing 283
8.10 AC&R Drawings 284
8.10.1 Refrigeration 284
8.10.1.1 Basic Principles of Refrigeration 284
8.10.1.2 Refrigeration System Components 284
8.10.1.3 Refrigeration System Operation 284
8.10.1.4 Using Refrigeration Drawings in Troubleshooting 285
8.10.1.5 Refrigeration Component Drawings 286
8.10.2 Air Conditioning 286
8.10.2.1 Operation of a Simple Air Conditioning System 286
8.10.1.2 Design of Air Conditioning Systems 287
8.10.1.3 Air Conditioning Drawings 287
8.11 Schematics and Symbols 287
8.11.1 How to Use Schematic Diagrams 288
8.11.2 Schematic Circuit Layout 288
8.11.3 Schematic Symbols 289
Trang 158.11.3.1 Lines on a Schematic 289
8.11.3.2 Lines Connect Symbols 289
8.11.4 Schematic Diagram: An Example 289
8.11.4.1 A Schematic by Any Other Name Is a Line Diagram 289
8.11.5 Schematics and Troubleshooting 291
8.12 Electrical Schematics 291
8.12.1 Electrical Symbols 292
8.12.1.1 Schematic Lines 292
8.12.1.2 Electrical System Power Supplies 292
8.12.1.3 Electronics Power Supplies 293
8.12.1.4 Electrical Loads 294
8.12.1.5 Switches 294
8.12.1.6 Inductors (Coils) 295
8.12.1.7 Transformers 295
8.12.1.8 Fuses 295
8.12.1.9 Circuit Breakers 295
8.12.1.10 Electrical Contacts 296
8.12.1.11 Resistors 296
8.12.2 Reading Plant Schematics 296
8.13 General Piping Systems and System Schematics 298
8.13.1 Piping Systems 299
8.13.2 Joints 299
8.13.2.1 Screwed Joints 299
8.13.2.2 Welded Joints 299
8.13.2.3 Flanged Joints 299
8.13.2.4 Bell-and-Spigot Joints 299
8.13.2.5 Soldered Joints 300
8.13.2.6 Joints and Fitting Symbols 300
8.13.3 Valves 300
8.13.3.1 Valves: Definition and Function 300
8.13.3.2 Valve Construction 301
8.13.4 Types of Valves 301
8.13.4.1 Ball Valve 301
8.13.4.2 Cock Valves 302
8.13.4.3 Gate Valves 302
8.13.4.4 Globe Valves 302
8.13.4.5 Check Valves 303
8.14 Hydraulic and Pneumatic System Schematic Symbols 303
8.14.1 Fluid Power Systems 303
8.14.2 Symbols Used for Hydraulic and Pneumatic Components 304
8.14.3 AC&R System Schematic Symbols 304
8.14.4 Schematic Symbols Used in Refrigeration Systems 305
8.14.4.1 Refrigeration Piping Symbols 305
8.14.4.2 Refrigeration Fittings Symbols 305
8.14.4.3 Refrigeration Valve Symbols 305
8.14.4.4 Refrigeration Accessory Symbols 306
8.14.4.5 Refrigeration Component Symbols 306
8.14.4.5 Schematic Symbols Used in AC&R Air Distribution System 306
Chapter Review Questions 307
References and Suggested Reading 308
Chapter 9 Water Hydraulics 309
9.1 What Is Water Hydraulics? 309
9.2 Basic Concepts 309
9.2.1 Stevin’s Law 310
9.3 Density and Specific Gravity 311
Trang 169.4 Force and Pressure 312
9.4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure 312
9.4.2 Effects of Water under Pressure 313
9.5 Head 313
9.5.1 Static Head 314
9.5.2 Friction Head 314
9.5.3 Velocity Head 314
9.5.4 Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) 314
9.5.5 Pressure and Head 314
9.5.6 Head and Pressure 314
9.6 Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion 314
9.6.1 Area and Velocity 315
9.6.2 Pressure and Velocity 316
9.7 Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem 316
9.7.1 Conservation of Energy 316
9.7.2 Energy Head 316
9.7.3 Piezometric Surface 316
9.7.4 Head Loss 317
9.7.5 Hydraulic Grade Line 317
9.7.6 Bernoulli’s Theorem 317
9.7.7 Bernoulli’s Equation 318
9.8 Well and Wet Well Hydraulics 319
9.8.1 Well Hydraulics 319
9.8.2 Wet Well Hydraulics 320
9.9 Friction Head Loss 320
9.9.1 Flow in Pipelines 320
9.9.2 Major Head Loss 321
9.9.3 Calculating Major Head Loss 322
9.9.4 C Factor 322
9.9.5 Slope 323
9.9.6 Minor Head Loss 323
9.10 Basic Piping Hydraulics 323
9.10.1 Piping Networks 323
9.11 Open-Channel Flow 324
9.11.1 Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 325
9.11.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 325
9.11.1.2 Uniform and Varied Flow 325
9.11.1.3 Critical Flow 325
9.11.2 Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow 325
9.11.2.1 Hydraulic Radius 325
9.11.2.2 Hydraulic Depth 326
9.11.2.3 Slope 326
9.11.3 Open-Channel Flow Calculations 326
9.12 Flow Measurement 327
9.12.1 Flow Measurement the Old-Fashioned Way 328
9.12.2 Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement 328
9.12.3 Flow Measuring Devices 328
9.12.3.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters 329
9.12.3.2 Magnetic Flowmeters 331
9.12.3.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 331
9.12.3.4 Velocity Flowmeters 332
9.12.3.5 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters 333
9.12.4 Open-Channel Flow Measurement 333
9.12.4.1 Weirs 334
9.12.4.2 Flumes 335
Chapter Review Questions 335
References and Recommended Readings 336
Trang 17Chapter 10 Fundamentals of Electricity 337
10.1 Nature of Electricity 338
10.2 Structure of Matter 338
10.3 Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators 340
10.4 Static Electricity 340
10.4.1 Charged Bodies 340
10.4.2 Coulomb’s Law 341
10.4.3 Electrostatic Fields 341
10.5 Magnetism 341
10.5.1 Magnetic Materials 342
10.5.2 Magnetic Earth 343
10.6 Difference in Potential 343
10.6.1 Water Analogy 343
10.6.2 Principal Methods for Producing a Voltage 344
10.7 Current 344
10.8 Resistance 345
10.9 Battery-Supplied Electricity 345
10.9.1 Voltaic Cell 345
10.9.2 Primary and Secondary Cells 346
10.9.3 Battery 346
10.9.4 Battery Operation 346
10.9.5 Combining Cells 346
10.9.6 Types of Batteries 347
10.9.6.1 Dry Cell 347
10.9.6.2 Lead–Acid Battery 347
10.9.6.3 Alkaline Cell 348
10.9.6.4 Nickel–Cadmium Cell 348
10.9.6.5 Mercury Cell 348
10.9.7 Battery Characteristics 348
10.10 Simple Electrical Circuit 348
10.10.1 Schematic Representations 349
10.11 Ohm’s Law 350
10.12 Electrical Power 351
10.12.1 Electrical Power Calculations 352
10.13 Electrical Energy (Kilowatt-Hours) 352
10.14 Series DC Circuit Characteristics 353
10.14.1 Series Circuit Resistance 353
10.14.2 Series Circuit Current 354
10.14.3 Series Circuit Voltage 354
10.14.4 Series Circuit Power 355
10.14.5 Summary of the Rules for Series DC Circuits 356
10.14.6 General Series Circuit Analysis 356
10.14.7 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 357
10.14.8 Polarity of Voltage Drops 357
10.14.9 Series Aiding and Opposing Sources 358
10.14.10 Kirchhoff’s Law and Multiple Source Solutions 358
10.15 Ground 358
10.16 Open and Short Circuits 359
10.17 Parallel DC Circuits 359
10.17.1 Parallel Circuit Characteristics 359
10.17.2 Voltage in Parallel Circuits 359
10.17.3 Current in Parallel Circuits 360
10.17.4 Parallel Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Current Law 361
10.17.5 Parallel Circuit Resistance 362
10.17.6 Reciprocal Method 363
10.17.7 Product over the Sum Method 364
Trang 1810.17.8 Reduction to an Equivalent Circuit 364
10.17.9 Power in Parallel Circuits 364
10.17.10 Rules for Solving Parallel DC Circuits 364
10.18 Series–Parallel Circuits 365
10.18.1 Solving a Series–Parallel Circuit 365
10.19 Conductors 365
10.19.1 Unit Size of Conductors 365
10.19.2 Square Mil 365
10.19.3 Circular Mil 366
10.19.4 Circular-Mil-Foot 366
10.19.5 Resistivity 367
10.19.6 Wire Measurement 367
10.19.7 Factors Governing the Selection of Wire Size 368
10.19.8 Copper vs Other Metal Conductors 368
10.19.9 Temperature Coefficient 369
10.19.10 Conductor Insulation 369
10.19.11 Conductors, Splices, and Terminal Connections 369
10.19.12 Soldering Operations 370
10.19.13 Solderless Connections 370
10.19.14 Insulating Tape 370
10.20 Electromagnetism 370
10.20.1 Magnetic Field around a Single Conductor 370
10.20.2 Polarity of a Single Conductor 371
10.20.3 Field around Two Parallel Conductors 371
10.20.4 Magnetic Field of a Coil 372
10.20.5 Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil 372
10.20.6 Strength of an Electromagnetic Field 372
10.20.7 Magnetic Units 372
10.20.8 Properties of Magnetic Materials 373
10.20.8.1 Permeability 373
10.20.8.2 Hysteresis 373
10.20.9 Electromagnets 373
10.21 AC Theory 373
10.21.1 Basic AC Generator 374
10.21.2 Cycle 374
10.21.3 Frequency, Period, and Wavelength 375
10.21.4 Characteristic Values of AC Voltage and Current 376
10.21.5 Peak Amplitude 376
10.21.6 Peak-to-Peak Amplitude 376
10.21.7 Instantaneous Amplitude 376
10.21.8 Effective or RMS Value 377
10.21.9 Average Value 377
10.21.10 Resistance in AC Circuits 377
10.21.11 Phase Relationships 378
10.22 Inductance 379
10.22.1 Self-Inductance 380
10.22.2 Mutual Inductance 381
10.22.3 Calculation of Total Inductance 381
10.23 Practical Electrical Applications 382
10.23.1 Electrical Power Generation 382
10.23.1.1 DC Generators 382
10.23.1.2 AC Generators 384
10.23.1.3 Motors 384
10.23.1.4 DC Motors 384
10.23.1.5 AC Motors 385
10.23.2 Transformers 387
Trang 1910.23.3 Power Distribution System Protection 388
10.23.3.1 Fuses 389
10.23.3.2 Circuit Breakers 389
10.23.3.3 Control Devices 389
Chapter Review Questions 389
References and Suggested Reading 390
Chapter 11 Hydraulic Machines: Pumps 391
11.1 Introduction 391
11.2 Basic Pumping Calculations 391
11.2.1 Velocity of a Fluid through a Pipeline 391
11.2.2 Pressure–Velocity Relationship 392
11.2.3 Static Head 392
11.2.3.1 Static Suction Head 392
11.2.3.2 Static Suction Lift 392
11.2.3.3 Static Discharge Head 393
11.2.4 Friction Head 393
11.2.5 Velocity Head 394
11.2.6 Total Head 394
11.2.7 Conversion of Pressure Head 394
11.2.8 Horsepower 394
11.2.8.1 Hydraulic (Water) Horsepower (WHP) 395
11.2.8.2 Brake Horsepower (BHP) 395
11.2.9 Specific Speed 395
11.2.9.1 Suction Specific Speed 395
11.2.10 Affinity Laws—Centrifugal Pumps 396
11.2.11 Net Positive Suction Head 396
11.2.11.1 Calculating NPSHA 396
11.2.12 Pumps in Series and Parallel 398
11.3 Centrifugal Pumps 398
11.3.1 Description 398
11.3.2 Terminology 399
11.3.3 Pump Theory 400
11.3.4 Pump Characteristics 400
11.3.4.1 Head (Capacity) 400
11.3.4.2 Efficiency 400
11.3.4.3 Brake Horsepower Requirements 401
11.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Centrifugal Pump 401
11.3.6 Centrifugal Pump Applications 402
11.3.7 Pump Control Systems 402
11.3.7.1 Float Control 403
11.3.7.2 Pneumatic Controls 403
11.3.7.3 Electrode Control Systems 404
11.3.7.4 Other Control Systems 404
11.3.8 Electronic Control Systems 404
11.3.8.1 Flow Equalization System 404
11.3.8.2 Sonar or Other Transmission Type Controllers 404
11.3.8.3 Motor Controllers 405
11.3.8.4 Protective Instrumentation 405
11.3.8.5 Temperature Detectors 405
11.3.8.6 Vibration Monitors 405
11.3.8.7 Supervisory Instrumentation 405
11.3.9 Centrifugal Pump Modifications 405
11.3.9.1 Submersible Pumps 406
11.3.9.2 Recessed Impeller or Vortex Pumps 406
11.3.9.3 Turbine Pumps 407
Trang 2011.4 Positive-Displacement Pumps 407
11.4.1 Piston Pump or Reciprocating Pump 407
11.4.2 Diaphragm Pump 407
11.4.3 Peristaltic Pumps 408
11.5 Chapter Review Questions 408
References and Recommended Reading 408
Chapter 12 Water/Wastewater Conveyance 411
12.1 Delivering the Lifeblood of Civilization 411
12.2 Conveyance Systems 411
12.3 Definitions 412
12.4 Fluids vs Liquids 414
12.5 Maintaining Fluid Flow in Piping Systems 414
12.5.1 Scaling 414
12.5.2 Piping System Maintenance 415
12.6 Piping System Accessories 415
12.7 Piping System Temperature Effects and Insulation 416
12.8 Metallic Piping 416
12.8.1 Piping Materials 416
12.8.2 Piping: The Basics 416
12.8.3 Pipe Sizes 417
12.8.3.1 Pipe Wall Thickness 417
12.8.3.2 Piping Classification 417
12.8.4 Types of Piping Systems 418
12.8.4.1 Code for Identification of Pipelines 418
12.8.5 Metallic Piping Materials 418
12.8.6 Characteristics of Metallic Materials 419
12.8.6.1 Cast Iron Pipe 420
12.8.6.2 Ductile Iron Pipe 420
12.8.6.3 Steel Pipe 420
12.8.7 Maintenance Characteristics of Metallic Piping 420
12.8.7.1 Expansion and Flexibility 420
12.8.7.2 Pipe Support Systems 420
12.8.7.3 Valve Selection 420
12.8.7.4 Isolation 420
12.8.7.5 Preventing Backflow 420
12.8.7.6 Water Hammer 421
12.8.7.7 Air Binding 421
12.8.7.8 Corrosion Effects 421
12.8.8 Joining Metallic Pipe 421
12.8.8.1 Bell-and-Spigot Joints 422
12.8.8.2 Screwed or Threaded Joints 422
12.8.8.3 Flanged Joints 422
12.8.8.4 Welded Joints 423
12.8.8.5 Soldered and Brazed Joints 423
12.9 Nonmetallic Piping 423
12.9.1 Nonmetallic Piping Materials 423
12.9.1.1 Clay Pipe 423
12.9.1.2 Concrete Pipe 424
12.9.1.3 Plastic Pipe 426
12.10 Tubing 426
12.10.1 Tubing vs Piping: The Difference 427
12.10.2 Advantages of Tubing 428
12.10.2.1 Mechanical Advantages of Tubing 428
12.10.2.2 Chemical Advantages of Tubing 428
12.10.3 Connecting Tubing 429
Trang 2112.10.3.1 Cutting Tubing 429
12.10.3.2 Soldering Tubing 429
12.10.3.3 Connecting Flared/Nonflared Joints 429
12.10.4 Bending Tubing 430
12.10.5 Types of Tubing 430
12.10.6 Typical Tubing Applications 431
12.11 Industrial Hoses 431
12.11.1 Hose Nomenclature 431
12.11.2 Factors Governing Hose Selection 432
12.11.3 Standards, Codes, and Sizes 433
12.11.3.1 Hose Size 433
12.11.3.2 Hose Classifications 433
12.11.3.3 Nonmetallic Hose 433
12.11.3.4 Metallic Hose 434
12.11.4 Hose Couplings 435
12.11.5 Hose Maintenance 435
12.12 Pipe and Tube Fittings 435
12.12.1 Fittings 436
12.12.2 Functions of Fittings 436
12.12.2.1 Changing the Direction of Flow 436
12.12.2.2 Providing Branch Connections 436
12.12.2.3 Changing the Sizes of Lines 436
12.12.2.4 Sealing Lines 436
12.12.2.5 Connecting Lines 437
12.12.3 Pipe Fittings and Connections 437
12.12.3.1 Screwed Fittings 437
12.12.3.2 Flanged Connections 437
12.12.3.3 Welded Connections 437
12.12.4 Tubing Fittings and Connections 437
12.13 Valves 438
12.13.1 Valve Construction 439
12.13.2 Types of Valves 439
12.13.2.1 Ball Valves 440
12.13.2.2 Gate Valves 440
12.13.2.3 Globe Valves 440
12.13.2.4 Needle Valves 440
12.13.2.5 Butterfly Valves 441
12.13.2.6 Plug Valves 441
12.13.2.7 Check Valves 441
12.13.2.8 Quick-Opening Valves 441
12.13.2.9 Diaphragm Valves 441
12.13.2.10 Regulating Valves 441
12.13.2.11 Relief Valves 442
12.13.2.12 Reducing Valves 442
12.13.3 Valve Operators 442
12.13.3.1 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Valve Operators 443
12.13.3.2 Magnetic Valve Operators 443
12.13.4 Valve Maintenance 443
12.14 Piping System Protective Devices 443
12.14.1 Applications 443
12.14.2 Strainers 443
12.14.3 Filters 444
12.14.4 Traps 444
12.14.4.1 Trap Maintenance and Testing 445
12.15 Piping Ancillaries 445
12.15.1 Gauges as Indicators of System Performance 445
12.15.2 Pressure Gauges 446
Trang 2212.15.2.1 Spring-Operated Pressure Gauges 44612.15.2.2 Bourdon Tube Gauges 44612.15.2.3 Bellows Gauge 44712.15.2.4 Plunger Gauge 44712.15.3 Temperature Gauges 44712.15.4 Vacuum Breakers 44812.15.5 Accumulators 44812.15.6 Air Receivers 44812.15.7 Heat Exchangers 449Chapter Review Questions/Problems 449References and Recommended Reading 450
Section iii characteristics of Water
Chapter 13 Basic Water Chemistry 453
13.1 Chemistry Concepts and Definitions 45313.1.1 Concepts 453
13.1.1.1 Miscible and Solubility 45313.1.1.2 Suspension, Sediment, Particles, and Solids 45313.1.1.3 Emulsion 45313.1.1.4 Ion 45413.1.1.5 Mass Concentration 45413.1.2 Definitions 45413.2 Chemistry Fundamentals 45513.2.1 Matter 45513.2.2 Content of Matter: The Elements 45513.2.3 Compound Substances 45713.3 Water Solutions 45813.4 Water Constituents 45813.4.1 Solids 45913.4.2 Turbidity 45913.4.3 Color 45913.4.4 Dissolved Oxygen 45913.4.5 Metals 46013.4.6 Organic Matter 46013.4.7 Inorganic Matter 46013.4.8 Acids 46013.4.9 Bases 46013.4.10 Salts 46113.4.11 pH 46213.5 Common Water Measurements 46213.5.1 Alkalinity 46313.5.2 Water Temperature 46313.5.3 Specific Conductance 46313.5.4 Hardness 46313.5.5 Odor Control (Wastewater Treatment) 46313.6 Water Treatment Chemicals 46413.6.1 Disinfection 46413.6.2 Coagulation 46413.6.3 Taste and Odor Removal 46413.6.4 Water Softening 465
13.6.4.1 Chemical Precipitation 46513.6.4.2 Ion Exchange Softening 46513.6.5 Recarbonation 46513.6.6 Scale and Corrosion Control 46513.7 Chemical Drinking Water Parameters 466
Trang 2313.7.1 Organics 46613.7.2 Synthetic Organic Chemicals 46713.7.3 Volatile Organic Compounds 46713.7.4 Total Dissolved Solids 46713.7.5 Fluorides 46713.7.6 Heavy Metals 46713.7.7 Nutrients 468Chapter Review Questions 469References and Suggested Reading 469
Chapter 14 Water Microbiology 471
14.1 Introduction 47114.2 Microbiology: What Is It? 47114.3 Water/Wastewater Microorganisms 47214.4 Key Terms 47214.5 Microorganism Classification and Differentiation 47214.5.1 Classification 47314.5.2 Differentiation 47414.6 The Cell 47414.6.1 Structure of the Bacterial Cell 474
14.6.1.1 Capsules 47414.6.1.2 Flagella 47414.6.1.3 Cell Wall 47514.6.1.4 Plasma Membrane (Cytoplasmic Membrane) 47514.6.1.5 Cytoplasm 47514.6.1.6 Mesosome 47514.6.1.7 Nucleoid (Nuclear Body or Region) 47514.6.1.8 Ribosomes 47514.6.1.9 Inclusions 47514.7 Bacteria 47514.7.1 Bacterial Growth Factors 47614.7.2 Destruction of Bacteria 47614.7.3 Waterborne Bacteria 47614.8 Protozoa 47714.9 Microscopic Crustaceans 47814.10 Viruses 47814.11 Algae 47914.12 Fungi 47914.13 Nematodes and Flatworms (Worms) 47914.14 Water Treatment and Microbiological Processes 48014.14.1 Pathogenic Protozoa 480
Trang 2414.15.8 Nitrogen Cycle 49014.15.9 Sulfur Cycle 49114.15.10 Phosphorus Cycle 491Chapter Review Questions 492References and Suggested Reading 492
Chapter 15 Water Ecology 495
15.1 Introduction 49515.2 What Is Ecology? 49515.3 Why Is Ecology Important? 49615.4 Why Study Ecology? 49715.4.1 Leaf Processing in Streams 49715.5 History of Ecology 49915.5.1 Example Ecosystem: Agrosystem Model 500
15.5.1.1 Agroecosystem Characteristics 50015.5.1.2 Ecosystem Pattern and Process 50015.6 Levels of Organization 50115.7 Ecosystems 50115.8 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem 50215.9 Food Chain Efficiency 50315.10 Ecological Pyramids 50315.11 Productivity 50415.12 Population Ecology 50415.13 Stream Genesis and Structure 50715.13.1 Water Flow in a Stream 50815.13.2 Stream Water Discharge 50915.13.3 Transport of Material 50915.13.4 Characteristics of Stream Channels 50915.13.5 Stream Profiles 51015.13.6 Sinuosity 51015.13.7 Bars, Riffles, and Pools 51015.13.8 Flood Plain 51015.13.9 Adaptations to Stream Current 51315.13.10 Types of Adaptive Changes 51315.13.11 Specific Adaptations 51315.14 Benthic Life 51415.15 Benthic Plants and Animals 51415.16 Benthic Macroinvertebrates 51415.16.1 Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates 51515.16.2 Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web 51615.16.3 Units of Organization 51615.17 Typical Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Running Waters 51615.17.1 Macroinvertebrate Glossary 51615.17.2 Insect Macroinvertebrates 517
15.17.2.1 Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera) 51715.17.2.2 Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera) 51815.17.2.3 Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera) 51815.17.2.4 True Flies (Order: Diptera) 51915.17.2.5 Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) 52015.17.2.6 Water Strider (“Jesus Bugs”) Order: Hemiptera) 52115.17.2.7 Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera) 52215.17.2.8 Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata) 52215.17.3 Non-Insect Macroinvertebrates 523
15.17.3.1 Oligochaeta (Family Tubificidae, Genus Tubifex) 523
15.17.3.2 Hirudinea (Leeches) 52315.17.3.3 Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail) 523
Trang 2515.18 Summary of Key Terms 524Chapter Review Questions 524References and Recommended Reading 525
Chapter 16 Water Quality 527
16.1 Introduction 52716.2 Water Cycle 52816.3 Water Quality Standards 52916.3.1 Clean Water Act 52916.3.2 Safe Drinking Water Act 530
16.3.2.1 Implementing the Safe Drinking Water Act 53016.4 Water Quality Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 53316.4.1 Physical Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 533
16.4.1.1 Solids 53316.4.1.2 Turbidity 53316.4.1.3 Color 53716.4.1.4 Taste and Odor 53716.4.1.5 Temperature 53816.4.2 Chemical Characteristics of Water 539
16.4.2.1 Total Dissolved Solids 53916.4.2.2 Alkalinity 53916.4.2.3 Hardness 54016.4.2.4 Fluoride 54016.4.2.5 Metals 54016.4.2.6 Organics 54116.4.2.7 Nutrients 54116.4.3 Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater 542
16.4.3.1 Organic Substances 54216.4.3.2 Inorganic Substances 54316.4.4 Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 544
16.4.4.1 Bacteria 54416.4.4.2 Viruses 54416.4.4.3 Protozoa 54516.4.4.4 Worms (Helminths) 545Chapter Review Questions 545References and Suggested Reading 545
Chapter 17 Biomonitoring, Monitoring, Sampling, and Testing 547
17.1 What Is Biomonitoring? 54717.1.1 Advantages of Using Periphyton 54717.1.2 Advantages of Using Fish 54717.1.3 Advantages of Using Macroinvertebrates 54817.2 Periphyton Protocols 54817.3 Fish Protocols 54917.4 Macroinvertebrate Protocols 54917.4.1 Biotic Index 549
17.4.1.1 Metrics within the Benthic Macroinvertebrates 55017.5 Biological Sampling in Streams 55117.5.1 Biological Sampling Planning 55117.5.2 Sampling Stations 55217.5.3 Sampling Frequency and Notes 55317.5.4 Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment 55317.5.5 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams 553
17.5.5.1 Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment 55517.5.6 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams 557
17.5.6.1 Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment 559
Trang 2617.5.7 Post-Sampling Routine 56017.5.8 Sampling Devices 560
17.5.8.1 Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor 56017.5.8.2 Sampling Nets 56117.5.8.3 Sediment Samplers (Dredges) 56117.5.8.4 Plankton Sampler 56217.5.8.5 Secchi Disk 56217.5.8.6 Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment 56217.5.9 Bottom Line on Biological Sampling 56317.6 Drinking Water Quality Monitoring 56317.6.1 Is the Water Good or Bad? 56317.6.2 State Water Quality Standards Programs 56417.6.3 Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program 56517.7 General Preparation and Sampling Considerations 56517.7.1 Cleaning Procedures 565
17.7.1.1 Method A: General Preparation of Sampling Containers 56517.7.1.2 Method B: Acid Wash Procedures 56617.7.2 Sample Types 56617.7.3 Collecting Samples from a Stream 566
17.7.3.1 Whirl-Pak® Bags 56617.7.3.2 Screw-Cap Bottles 56617.7.4 Sample Preservation and Storage 56717.7.5 Standardization of Methods 56817.8 Test Methods for Drinking Water and Wastewater 56817.8.1 Titrimetric Methods 56817.8.2 Colorimetric Methods 56817.8.3 Visual Methods 56817.8.4 Electronic Methods 56817.8.5 Dissolved Oxygen Testing 568
17.8.5.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 56917.8.5.2 Winkler Method (Azide Modification) 56917.8.5.3 Meter and Probe 57017.8.6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing 572
17.8.6.1 Sampling Considerations 57217.8.6.2 BOD Sampling, Analysis, and Testing 57217.8.6.3 BOD5 Calculation (Unseeded) 57317.8.6.4 BOD5 Calculation (Seeded) 57317.8.7 Temperature Measurement 574
17.8.7.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 57417.8.8 Hardness Measurement 57417.8.9 pH Measurement 575
17.8.9.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations 57517.8.9.2 pH Meters 57517.8.9.3 pH “Pocket Pals” and Color Comparators 57517.8.10 Turbidity Measurement 575
17.8.10.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 57517.8.10.2 Using a Secchi Disk 57617.8.10.3 Transparency Tube 57617.8.11 Orthophosphate Measurement 576
17.8.11.1 Forms of Phosphorus 57717.8.11.2 Phosphorus Cycle 57717.8.11.3 Testing Phosphorus 57717.8.11.4 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 57717.8.11.5 Ascorbic Acid Method for Determining Orthophosphate 57817.8.12 Nitrates Measurement 578
17.8.12.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 57817.8.12.2 Cadmium Reduction Method 578
Trang 2717.8.12.3 Nitrate Electrode Method 57917.8.13 Solids Measurement 579
17.8.13.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 58017.8.13.2 Total Suspended Solids 58017.8.13.3 Volatile Suspended Solids Testing 58117.8.14 Conductivity Testing 582
17.8.14.1 Sampling, Testing, and Equipment Considerations 58217.8.15 Total Alkalinity 583
17.8.15.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations 58317.8.16 Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing 583
17.8.16.1 USEPA’s Total Coliform Rule 58417.8.16.2 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 58517.8.16.3 Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing Methods 58617.8.17 Apparent Color Testing and Analysis 59017.8.18 Odor Analysis of Water 59117.8.19 Chlorine Residual Testing and Analysis 592
17.8.19.1 DPD–Spectrophotometry 59217.8.19.2 DPD–FAS Titration 59317.8.19.3 Titrimetric–Amperometric Direct Titration 59317.8.20 Fluorides 593Chapter Review Questions 594References and Suggested Reading 594
Section iV Water and Water treatment
Chapter 18 Potable Water Source 599
18.1 Earth’s Blood 59918.2 Introduction 59918.2.1 Key Terms and Definitions 60018.3 Hydrologic Cycle 60018.4 Sources of Water 60118.5 Surface Water 60218.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water 60218.5.2 Surface Water Hydrology 60218.5.3 Raw Water Storage 60218.5.4 Surface Water Intakes 60218.5.5 Surface Water Screens 60418.5.6 Surface Water Quality 60418.6 Groundwater 60418.6.1 Groundwater Quality 60518.7 Groundwater under the Direct Influence of Surface Water 60518.8 Surface Water Quality/Treatment Requirements 60618.8.1 Stage 1 D/DBP Rule 60618.8.2 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule 60718.8.3 Regulatory Deadlines 60718.9 Public Water System Quality Requirements 60718.10 Well Systems 60718.10.1 Well Site Requirements 60718.10.2 Type of Wells 608
18.10.2.1 Shallow Wells 60818.10.2.2 Deep Wells 60818.10.3 Components of a Well 609
18.10.3.1 Well Casing 60918.10.3.2 Grout 60918.10.3.3 Well Pad 609
Trang 2818.10.3.4 Sanitary Seal 60918.10.3.5 Well Screen 61018.10.3.6 Casing Vent 61018.10.3.7 Drop Pipe 61018.10.3.8 Miscellaneous Well Components 61018.10.4 Well Evaluation 61018.10.5 Well Pumps 61018.10.6 Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements 61018.10.7 Well Maintenance 611
18.10.7.1 Troubleshooting Well Problems 61118.10.8 Well Abandonment 612Chapter Review Questions 612References and Suggested Reading 612
Chapter 19 Watershed Protection 613
19.1 Introduction 61319.2 Current Issues in Water Management 61319.3 What Is a Watershed? 61419.3.1 Water Quality Impacts 61419.4 Watershed Protection and Regulations 61419.5 A Watershed Protection Plan 61419.6 Reservoir Management Practices 61519.7 Watershed Management Practices 61519.8 Eight Tools of Watershed Protection 61519.8.1 Tool 1—Land Use Planning 61519.8.2 Tool 2—Land Conservation 61619.8.3 Tool 3—Aquatic Buffers 61719.8.4 Tool 4—Better Site Design 61719.8.5 Tool 5—Erosion and Sediment Control 61719.8.6 Tool 6—Stormwater Management Practices 61719.8.7 Tool 7—Non-Stormwater Discharges 618
19.8.7.1 Septic Systems 61819.8.7.2 Sanitary Sewers 61819.8.7.3 Other Non-Stormwater Discharges 61819.8.8 Tool 8—Watershed Stewardship Programs 618Chapter Review Questions 619References and Recommended Reading 619
Chapter 20 Water Treatment Operations 621
20.1 Introduction 62120.2 Waterworks Operators 62120.3 Purpose of Water Treatment 62220.4 Stages of Water Treatment 62220.5 Pretreatment 62320.5.1 Aeration 62320.5.2 Screening 62320.5.3 Chemical Addition 624
20.5.3.1 Chemical Solutions 62420.5.3.2 Chemical Feeders 62520.5.3.3 Types of Chemical Feeders 62520.5.3.4 Chemical Feeder Calibration 62520.5.3.5 Calibration Procedures 62620.5.3.6 Iron and Manganese Removal 62720.5.3.7 Iron and Manganese Removal Techniques 62720.5.3.8 Hardness Treatment 628
Trang 2920.5.3.9 Corrosion 62920.5.3.10 Corrosion Control 63020.6 Coagulation 63120.7 Flocculation 63320.8 Sedimentation 63420.9 Filtration 63420.9.1 Types of Filter Technologies 635
20.9.1.1 Slow Sand Filters 63520.9.1.2 Rapid Sand Filters 63520.9.1.3 Pressure Filter Systems 63620.9.1.4 Diatomaceous Earth Filters 63620.9.1.5 Direct Filtration 63720.9.1.6 Alternative Filters 63720.9.2 Common Filter Problems 63720.9.3 Filtration and Compliance with IESWTR Turbidity Requirements 637
20.9.3.1 IESWTR Regulatory Requirements 63820.9.3.2 Reporting and Recordkeeping 63920.9.3.3 Additional Compliance Issues 64020.9.3.4 Variances and Exemptions 64220.10 Disinfection 64220.10.1 A Sherlock Holmes Type at the Pump 644
20.10.1.1 Cholera 64420.10.1.2 Flashback to 1854 London 64420.10.1.3 From Pump Handle Removal to Water Treatment (Disinfection) 64520.10.2 Need for Disinfection in Water Treatment 64620.10.3 Pathogens of Primary Concern 64620.10.4 Recent Waterborne Outbreaks 647
and Maintenance of Biological Stability 65020.10.6.5 Removal of Taste and Odors through Chemical Oxidation 65120.10.6.6 Improvement of Coagulation and Filtration Efficiency 65120.10.6.7 Prevention of Algal Growth in Sedimentation Basins and Filters 65120.10.6.8 Removal of Color 65120.10.7 Types of DBPs and Disinfection Residuals 65120.10.8 Disinfection Byproduct Formation 652
20.10.8.1 Disinfection Byproduct Precursors 65320.10.8.2 Impacts of pH on DBP Formation 65320.10.8.3 Organic Oxidation Byproducts 65420.10.8.4 Inorganic Byproducts and Disinfectants 65420.10.9 DBP Control Strategies 654
20.10.9.1 Source Water Quality Control 65420.10.9.2 DBP Precursor Removal 65420.10.10 Disinfection Strategy Selection 65520.10.11 CT Factor 65520.10.12 Disinfectant Residual Regulatory Requirements 65620.10.13 Summary of Current National Disinfection Practices 65620.10.14 Summary of Methods of Disinfection 65720.10.15 Chlorination 657
Trang 3020.10.15.1 Chlorine Terminology 65720.10.15.2 Chlorine Chemistry 65820.10.15.3 Breakpoint Chlorination 65920.10.15.4 Breakpoint Chlorination Curve 65920.10.15.5 Gas Chlorination 65920.10.15.6 Hypochlorination 66020.10.15.7 Determining Chlorine Dosage 66120.10.15.8 Chlorine Generation 66320.10.15.9 Primary Uses and Points of Application of Chlorine 66320.10.15.10 Factors Affecting Chlorination 66420.10.15.11 Measuring Chlorine Residual 66420.10.15.12 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy 66420.10.15.13 Disinfection Byproducts 66520.10.15.14 Application Methods 66620.10.15.15 Safety and Handling Considerations 66720.10.15.16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Chlorine Use 66720.10.15.17 Chlorine Summary Table 66820.11 Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water 66820.11.1 Arsenic Exposure 66820.11.2 Arsenic Removal Technologies 669
20.11.2.1 Prescriptive Processes 66920.11.2.2 Adsorptive Processes 67020.11.2.3 Membrane Processes 67120.11.2.4 Alternative Technologies 67120.12 Who Is Ultimately Responsible for Drinking Water Quality? 673Chapter Review Questions 674References and Suggested Reading 676
Section V Wastewater and Wastewater treatment
Chapter 21 Wastewater Treatment Operations 681
21.1 Wastewater Operators 68121.1.1 Wastewater Treatment Process: The Model 68121.2 Wastewater Terminology and Definitions 68121.3 Measuring Plant Performance 68421.3.1 Plant Performance and Efficiency 68421.3.2 Unit Process Performance and Efficiency 68521.3.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge 68521.3.4 Hydraulic Detention Time 685
21.3.4.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days 68521.3.4.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours 68521.3.4.3 Detention Time in Minutes 68521.4 Wastewater Sources and Characteristics 68621.4.1 Wastewater Sources 686
21.4.1.1 Generation of Wastewater 68621.4.1.2 Classification of Wastewater 68621.4.2 Wastewater Characteristics 687
21.4.2.1 Physical Characteristics 68721.4.2.2 Chemical Characteristics 68721.4.2.3 Biological Characteristics and Processes 68821.5 Wastewater Collection Systems 68821.5.1 Gravity Collection System 68821.5.2 Force Main Collection System 68921.5.3 Vacuum System 689
Trang 3121.5.4 Pumping Stations 689
21.5.4.1 Wet Well/Dry Well Pumping Stations 68921.5.4.2 Wet Well Pumping Stations 68921.5.4.3 Pneumatic Pumping Stations 68921.5.5 Pumping Station Wet Well Calculations 68921.6 Preliminary Treatment 69021.6.1 Screening 690
21.6.1.1 Manually Cleaned Screens 69021.6.1.2 Mechanically Cleaned Screens 69121.6.1.3 Screening Safety 69121.6.1.4 Screening Removal Computations 69121.6.2 Shredding 692
21.6.2.1 Comminution 69221.6.2.2 Barminution 69221.6.3 Grit Removal 692
21.6.3.1 Gravity/Velocity-Controlled Grit Removal 69221.6.3.2 Aeration 69421.6.3.3 Cyclone Degritter 69421.6.3.4 Grit Removal Calculations 69421.6.4.5 Preaeration 69521.6.4.6 Chemical Addition 69521.6.4.7 Equalization 69521.6.4 Preliminary Treatment Sampling and Testing 69521.6.5 Preliminary Treatment Process Control Calculations 69621.7 Primary Treatment (Sedimentation) 69721.7.1 Process Description 69721.7.2 Overview of Primary Treatment 69721.7.3 Types of Sedimentation Tanks 698
21.7.3.1 Septic Tanks 69821.7.3.2 Two-Story (Imhoff) Tank 69821.7.3.3 Plain Settling Tanks (Clarifiers) 69821.7.4 Operator Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 698
21.7.4.1 Primary Clarification Normal Operation 69821.7.4.2 Primary Clarification Operational Parameters (Normal Observations) 69921.7.5 Process Control Calculations 699
21.7.5.1 Percent Removal 69921.7.5.2 Detention Time 69921.7.5.3 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate, Surface Overflow Rate) 69921.7.5.4 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate) 70021.7.5.5 Sludge Pumping 70021.7.5.6 Percent Total Solids (%TS) 70021.7.5.7 BOD and SS Removal 70021.7.6 Problem Analysis 701
21.7.6.1 Causal Factors for Poor Suspended Solids Removal (Primary Clarifier) 70121.7.6.2 Causal Factors for Floating Sludge 70121.7.6.3 Causal Factors for Septic Wastewater or Sludge 70121.7.6.4 Causal Factors for Too Low Primary Sludge Solids Concentration 70121.7.6.5 Causal Factors for Too High Primary Sludge Solids Concentrations 70121.7.7 Effluent from Settling Tanks 70121.8 Secondary Treatment 70121.8.1 Treatment Ponds 702
21.8.1.1 Types of Ponds 70321.8.1.2 Ponds Based on Location and Types of Wastes They Receive 70321.8.1.3 Ponds Based on the Type of Processes Occurring Within 70421.8.1.4 Pond Organisms 70521.8.1.5 Biochemistry in a Pond 706
Trang 3221.8.1.6 Physical Factors 70821.8.1.7 Pond Nutritional Requirements 70921.8.1.8 Process Control Calculations for Stabilization Ponds 71021.8.1.9 Troubleshooting Wastewater Ponds 71121.8.2 Trickling Filters 711
21.8.2.1 Trickling Filter Definitions 71121.8.2.2 Trickling Filter Equipment 71521.8.2.3 Filter Classifications 71521.8.2.4 Standard Operating Procedures 71621.8.2.5 General Process Description 71621.8.2.6 Overview and Brief Summary of Trickling Filter Process 71621.8.2.7 Operator Observations 71721.8.2.8 Process Control Sampling and Testing 71721.8.2.9 Troubleshooting Operational Problems 71821.8.2.10 Process Calculations 72021.8.3 Rotating Biological Contactors 722
21.8.3.1 RBC Equipment 72221.8.3.2 RBC Operation 72321.8.3.3 RBC Expected Performance 72321.8.3.4 Operator Observations 72321.8.3.5 RBC Process Control Sampling and Testing 72321.8.3.6 Troubleshooting Operational Problems 72321.8.3.7 RBC Process Control Calculations 72421.9 Activated Sludge 72521.9.1 Activated Sludge Terminology 72621.9.2 Activated Sludge Process Equipment 727
21.9.2.1 Aeration Tank 72721.9.2.2 Aeration 72721.9.2.3 Settling Tank 72721.9.2.4 Return Sludge 72721.9.2.5 Waste Sludge 72821.9.3 Overview of Activated Sludge Process 72821.9.4 Factors Affecting Operation of the Activated Sludge Process 72821.9.5 Growth Curve 72821.9.6 Activated Sludge Formation 72821.9.7 Activated Sludge Performance-Controlling Factors 729
21.9.7.1 Aeration 72921.9.7.2 Alkalinity 72921.9.7.3 Nutrients 72921.9.7.4 pH 72921.9.7.5 Temperature 72921.9.7.6 Toxicity 72921.9.7.7 Hydraulic Loading 72921.9.7.8 Organic Loading 72921.9.8 Activated Sludge Modifications 730
21.9.8.1 Extended Aeration Package Plants 73021.9.8.2 Oxidation Ditches 73221.9.9 Activated Sludge Process Control Parameters 737
21.9.9.1 Alkalinity 73721.9.9.2 Dissolved Oxygen 73721.9.9.3 pH 73721.9.9.4 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids, Mixed Liquor Volatile
Suspended Solids, and Mixed Liquor Total Suspended Solids 73721.9.9.5 Return Activated Sludge Rate and Concentration 73721.9.9.6 Waste Activated Sludge Flow Rate 73721.9.9.7 Temperature 73721.9.9.8 Sludge Blanket Depth 737
Trang 3321.9.10 Activated Sludge Operational Control Levels 738
21.9.10.1 Influent Characteristics 73821.9.10.2 Industrial Contributions 73821.9.10.3 Process Sidestreams 73821.9.10.4 Seasonal Variations 73821.9.10.5 Control Levels at Startup 73821.9.11 Visual Indicators for Influent or Aeration Tanks 739
21.9.11.1 Turbulence 73921.9.11.2 Surface Foam and Scum 73921.9.11.3 Sludge Color and Odor 73921.9.11.4 Mixed Liquor Color 73921.9.12 Final Settling Tank (Clarifier) Observations 73921.9.13 Process Control Sampling and Testing 739
21.9.13.1 Aeration Influent Sampling 74021.9.13.2 Aeration Tank 74021.9.13.3 Interpretation 74121.9.13.4 Settling Tank Influent 74321.9.13.5 Settling Tank 74321.9.13.6 Settling Tank Effluent 74421.9.13.7 Return Activated Sludge and Waste Activated Sludge 74421.9.13.8 Process Control Adjustments 74421.9.13.9 Troubleshooting Operational Problems 74521.9.13.10 Process Control Calculations 74521.9.14 Solids Concentration in Secondary Clarifier 75221.9.15 Activated Sludge Process Recordkeeping Requirements 75221.10 Disinfection of Wastewater 75221.10.1 Chlorine Disinfection 752
21.10.1.1 Chlorination Terminology 75221.10.1.2 Wastewater Chlorination Facts 75321.10.1.3 Water Chlorination Process Description 75321.10.1.4 Chlorination Equipment 75421.10.1.5 Chlorination Operation 75421.10.1.6 Troubleshooting Operation Problems 75421.10.1.7 Chlorination Environmental Hazards and Safety 75521.10.1.8 Chlorination Process Calculations 75721.10.2 Ultraviolet Irradiation 759
21.10.2.1 Advantages 76021.10.2.2 Disadvantages 76021.10.2.2 Applicability 76021.10.2.3 Performance Examples 76021.10.2.4 Operation and Maintenance 76121.10.3 Ozonation 762
21.10.3.1 Advantages 76221.10.3.2 Disadvantages 76221.10.3.2 Applicability 76221.10.3.3 Performance Example: Indianapolis, Indiana 76221.10.3.4 Operation and Maintenance 76321.10.4 Bromine Chloride 76321.10.5 No Disinfection 76321.11 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 76321.11.1 Chemical Treatment 764
21.11.1.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 76421.11.2 Microscreening 764
21.11.2.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 76521.11.3 Filtration 765
21.11.3.1 Filtration Process Description 76521.11.3.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 766
Trang 3421.11.4 Membrane Bioreactors 766
21.11.4.1 Advantages 76721.11.4.2 Disadvantages 76721.11.4.3 Applicability 76721.11.4.4 Membrane Filtration 76721.11.4.5 Design Considerations 76721.11.4.6 Design Features 76821.11.5 Biological Nitrification 769
21.11.5.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 77021.11.6 Biological Denitrification 770
21.11.6.1 Operational Observations, Operation, and Troubleshooting 77021.11.7 Carbon Adsorption 774
21.11.7.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 77421.11.8 Land Application 774
21.11.8.1 Types and Modes of Land Application 77421.11.8.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 77621.11.9 Biological Nutrient Removal 776
21.11.9.1 Description 77621.11.9.2 Process 77821.11.9.3 Performance 78021.11.9.4 Operation and Maintenance 78121.11.10 Enhanced Biological Nutrient Removal 785
21.11.10.1 0.5-MGD Capacity Plant 78621.11.10.2 1.5-MGD Capacity Plant 78621.11.10.3 1.55-MGD Capacity Plant 78621.11.10.4 2-MGD Capacity Plant 78621.11.10.5 2.6-MGD Capacity Plant 78621.11.10.6 3-MGD Capacity Plant 78721.11.10.7 4.8-MGD Capacity Plant 78721.11.10.8 5-MGD Capacity Plant 78721.11.10.9 24-MGD Capacity Plant 78721.11.10.10 39-MGD Capacity Plant 78721.11.10.11 42-MGD Capacity Plant 78721.11.10.12 54-MGD Capacity Plant 78821.11.10.13 67-MGD Capacity Plant 78821.12 Solids (Sludge/Biosolids) Handling 78821.12.1 Background Information on Sludge 78821.12.2 Sources of Sludge 78821.12.3 Sludge Characteristics 789
21.12.3.1 Sludge Pathogens and Vector Attraction 79021.12.4 Sludge Pumping Calculations 791
21.12.4.1 Estimating Daily Sludge Production 79121.12.4.2 Sludge Pumping Time 79121.12.4.3 Gallons Sludge Pumped per Day 79121.12.4.4 Pounds Sludge Pumped per Day 79221.12.4.5 Pounds Solids Pumped per Day 79221.12.4.6 Pounds Volatile Matter (VM) Pumped per Day 79221.12.4.7 Sludge Production in Pounds per Million Gallons 79221.12.4.8 Sludge Production in Wet Tons per Year 79221.12.5 Sludge Thickening 793
21.12.5.1 Gravity Thickening 79321.12.5.2 Flotation Thickening 79321.12.5.3 Solids Concentrators 79421.12.5.4 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 79421.12.5.5 Process Calculations (Gravity and Dissolved Air Flotation) 794
Trang 3521.12.6 Sludge Stabilization 795
21.12.6.1 Aerobic Digestion 79621.12.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion 79721.12.6.3 Other Sludge Stabilization Processes 80021.12.6.4 Stabilization Operation 80821.12.6.5 Stabilization Performance Factors 81321.12.6.6 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 81421.12.7 Rotary Vacuum Filtration 814
21.12.7.1 Types of Rotary Vacuum Filters 81521.12.7.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 81521.12.7.3 Process Control Calculations 81521.12.8 Pressure Filtration 816
21.12.8.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 81721.12.8.2 Filter Press Process Control Calculations 81721.12.9 Centrifugation 818
21.12.9.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 81821.12.10 Sludge Incineration 819
21.12.10.1 Process Description 81921.12.10.2 Incineration Processes 82021.12.10.3 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 82021.12.11 Land Application of Biosolids 820
21.12.11.1 Process Control Sampling and Testing 82021.12.11.2 Process Control Calculations 82021.13 Permits, Records, and Reports 82621.13.1 Definitions 82721.13.2 NPDES Permits 827
21.13.2.1 Monitoring 82721.13.2.2 Reporting 82821.13.3 Sampling and Testing 828
21.13.3.1 Effluent Limitations 82821.13.3.2 Compliance Schedules 82821.13.3.3 Special Conditions 82821.13.3.4 Licensed Operator Requirements 82821.13.3.5 Chlorination/Dechlorination Reporting 82821.13.4 Reporting Calculations 828
21.13.4.1 Average Monthly Concentration 82821.13.4.2 Average Weekly Concentration 82921.13.4.3 Average Hourly Concentration 82921.13.4.4 Daily Quantity (kg/day) 82921.13.4.5 Average Monthly Quantity 82921.13.4.6 Average Weekly Quantity 82921.13.4.7 Minimum Concentration 82921.13.4.8 Maximum Concentration 82921.13.4.9 Bacteriological Reporting 829Chapter Review Questions 829References and Suggested Reading 832
Appendix A Answers to Chapter Review Questions/Problems 835 Appendix B Formulas 851 Index 853
Trang 37It is very difficult to make an accurate prediction, especially
about the future.
Niels Bohr
A rational person would have difficulty arguing against
Bohr’s view concerning the difficulty of making accurate
predictions about the future It must be said, however, that
rational people are also capable of recognizing that in a few
instances there are exceptions to every rule More
specifi-cally, as the result of certain actions that occur,
knowledge-able and observant individuals can make fairly accurate
predictions about the potential future consequences of such
actions As a case in point, consider the actions of humans
that pollute the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the
land we live on and gain our sustenance from It is probably
safe to predict that when contamination and destruction of
our life-sustaining environment occur on a daily basis,
cer-tain fairly accurate predictions can be made about the future
consequences Awareness and observance of these actions
have resulted in a sense of foreboding concerning the dire
consequences of the impact of humans on their environment
that motivated a group of concerned and enlightened
indi-viduals to organize the first Earth Day celebration in 1970
The organizers of the first Earth Day celebration were
con-cerned about these destructive actions of humans To a degree,
the organizers’ concern was driven by obvious predictors of a
quality of life anticipated for the future that was not that
prom-ising Some of these organizers and other concerned
individu-als made dire predictions based on what they had observed,
on what they had read, or on what they had heard For
exam-ple, they might have observed or learned about certain
riv-ers within the United States that were so oil soaked that they
actually burned Moreover, others had observed or heard or
read about skies above great metropolitan areas that were red
with soot Others had breathed air that they could actually see
And still others had observed lakes choked with algae, lakes
that were dying Then there were those unusual mountains
that they had heard about These were mountains unlike the
Alps or Rocky Mountains, however Instead, these mountains
were made of trash, garbage, refuse, discarded materials, and
with and were torn down The entire unsightly, stinking mess was deposited into rivers, lakes, streams, oceans, or landfills Sometimes these mountains of unwanted wastes were torn down and piled up again on barges that were towed from port
to port to port with no place to land; no one wanted these floating mountains of waste, a case of “not in my backyard” (NIMBY) All these observations, of course, were indicators
of what was occurring environmentally in the here and now; moreover, they were actions portending what was in store for the inhabitants of Earth and for future generations to come Thus, these present indicators of environmental problems became reliable predictors of greater environmental problems ahead in the future
Along with the organizers and participants of that first Earth Day celebration in 1970 there were other citizens who were concerned about their futures and the futures of their loved ones And although Niels Bohr was correct in his state-ment about the difficulty in making accurate predictions, especially those about the future, in 1970 it was clear to many concerned individuals that if corrective actions were not taken quickly to protect and preserve the Earth’s environ-ment then there would be no need to worry about making future predictions; that is, there would be no future to predict
To say that we face huge environmental challenges today,
as was the case in 1970, is to make an accurate statement Since that first Earth Day celebration in 1970, progress has been made in restoring the Earth’s environment, but there
is still a long way to go before predictors or indicators of the future consequences of the ongoing damage to Earth’s environment become more promising It should come as no surprise to anyone that it can be said with a great deal of accuracy that the quality of life here on Earth is directly con-nected to our actions
It should be pointed out that not all of the news concerning manmade waste and its disposal is of the doom and gloom variety For example, it is noteworthy to take into account the steps that have been taken in recent years to clean up our air and our lakes and to properly dispose of waste using Earth-friendly disposal techniques One such clean-up step, cleaning up the water we drink and dispose of, is described
in this text
Trang 39The growing interest in water and wastewater treatment
plant operations and their main products (potable water and
cleaned used water), ongoing advancements in treatment
techniques and innovations such as energy conservation
measures, and the unprecedented reception of the first and
second editions of this book have called for a new edition
After publication of the previous editions, many reviewers
sent me their comments I am grateful for their constructive
criticism and valuable suggestions and have incorporated
them in this new edition For example, this edition includes
the addition of
• Updates on current issues facing the water and
wastewater treatment industries
• 200 additional math operations with solutions
• A new chapter on package units
• Expanded discussion of oxidation ditches
• Expanded discussion of biological nutrient removal processes
• Discussion of water quality reports
• New chapter on energy conservation measures with applicable case studies
• Discussion of membrane bioreactors
• Discussion of variable frequency controls
• Discussion of PID control systems
• Expanded discussion of ultraviolet disinfection
In addition to assisting utility administrators, managers, and directors; water and wastewater plant managers; plant operators; and maintenance operators manage or operate their treatment works in a successful and compliant manner, this new edition (as was the purpose of the other editions)
is designed to aid and assist all personnel preparing for all levels of operator licensure