Factors contributing to efl adult learners’ reticence in speaking classes at saigon american society english center

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY --- FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EFL ADULT LEARNERS’ RETICENCE IN SPEAKING CLASSES AT SAIGON AMERICAN SOCIETY E

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

-

DO QUOC MINH CHAU

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EFL ADULT LEARNERS’ RETICENCE IN SPEAKING CLASSES AT SAIGON AMERICAN SOCIETY

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

-

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EFL ADULT LEARNERS’ RETICENCE IN SPEAKING CLASSES AT SAIGON AMERICAN SOCIETY

ENGLISH CENTER

Submitted to the Faculty of English Language

in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in English Language

The thesis entitled Factors Contributing to EFL Adult Learners’ Reticence in Speaking Classes at Saigon American Society English Center was successfully defended and

approved on October 19th, 2021 at Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology

(HUTECH)

Academic supervisor: Le Thi Thuy Nhung, Ph.D

Examination Committee

1 Nguyen Thi Kieu Thu, Ph.D Chair

2 Le Van Tuyen, Ph.D Reader 1

3 Cao Thi Phuong Dung, Ph.D Reader 2

4 Pham Huy Cuong, Ph.D Member

5 Tran Quoc Thao, Ph.D Secretary Member

On behalf of the Examination Committee

Chair

HCMC UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

POSTGRADUATE INSTITUTE

HCMC, … … … …, 2021

MASTER’S THESIS REPORT

Student name: Do Quoc Minh Chau Sex: Male

Date of birth: 11/07/1996 Place of birth: Ba Ria – Vung Tau Major: English Language Student code: 1941900005

I- Thesis title:

Factors Contributing to EFL Adult Learners’ Reticence in Speaking Classes at Saigon American Society English Center

II- Objectives and contents:

The study was conducted in order to explore the factors that contribute to the EFL adult learners’ reticence in a private English center in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam Also, the study also examined the degree to which the learners’ levels of language proficiency affect their reticence in the classroom

The results reveal that three factors including Psychological, Cultural, and Linguistic factor exerted a significant impact on the learners’ reticence, while the Learning Environment played a minor role Besides, learners of higher levels of proficiency were more confident and eager to participate in the classroom activities than those of lower language proficiency levels

III- Starting date: October 20

IV- Completing date: May 2021

V- Academic supervisor: Le Thi Thuy Nhung, Ph.D

ACADEMIC SUPERVISOR FACULTY DEAN

(full name, signature) (full name, signature)

i

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I certify my authorship of the Master’s Thesis submitted today entitled:

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EFL ADULT LEARNERS’ RETICENCE

IN SPEAKING CLASSES AT SAIGON AMERICAN SOCIETY

ENGLISH CENTER

In terms of the statement of requirements for Theses in Master’s programs issued by the Higher Degree Committee of Faculty of English Language, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology

Ho Chi Minh City, May 2021

DO QUOC MINH CHAU

ii

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, DO QUOC MINH CHAU, being a candidate for the degree of Master of Arts (English Language) accept the requirements of the University relating

to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my Master’s Thesis deposited

in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Librarian for the care, loan, and reproduction for theses

Ho Chi Minh City, May 2021

Signature:

DO QUOC MINH CHAU

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In order to be able to finish this thesis, I was given a tremendous amount of support and assistance from many people The first person I would like to express my gratitude to is my supervisor, Dr Le Thi Thuy Nhung I would never have completed this thesis without her watchful supervision, perceptive guidance, and relentless encouragement

I also wish to thank the staff members, teachers, and learners at Saigon American Society English Center (Go Vap campus) for their wholehearted assistance and participation during the data collection for the study Besides, my special thanks go

to the teachers and staff member at Institute of Post Graduate Studies of HUTECH University for their tremendous help throughout my study of Master’s program Last but not least, I would like to show my deepest appreciation to my family They have always been my inspiration and motivation to aim high, take responsibility, strive to study and work to my potential Their love, support, encouragement, and sacrifices for me are beyond imagination

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ABSTRACT

Nowadays, more and more people are attending English classes at English centers for various reasons including preparation for examinations, career advancement, and migration Particularly, communicative English has attracted a great number of learners because of its practicality, which allows them more time to practice speaking Despite such advantage, research shows that many adult learners experience reticence

in speaking classes This study investigated the factors that contribute to the EFL adult learners’ reticence in a private English center in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam The study also examined the degree to which the learners’ levels of language proficiency affect their reticence in the classroom The study used a mixed method design to collect data including a questionnaire survey on 150 learners and semi-structured interview conducted with 15 learners The results show that three factors including Psychological, Cultural, and Linguistic factor exerted a significant impact

on the learners’ reticence, while the Learning Environment played a minor role Besides, the adult learners’ degree of reticence was dependent on their level of language proficiency Learners of higher levels of proficiency were more confident and eager to participate in the classroom activities than those of lower language proficiency levels The findings have significant implications for language teachers, course designers and educators to reflect on teaching pedagogies so as to stimulate more interaction and participation from the adult learners (223 words)

Keywords: Reticence, anxiety, passiveness, EFL adult learners, culture, learning environment, psychological, linguistic, levels of proficiency (about 10 words)

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Certificate of originality i

Retention and use of the thesis ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Table of contents v

List of tables x

List of figures xi

List of abbreviations and symbols xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Statement of the problem 3

1.3 Aims and objectives of the study 4

1.4 Research questions 4

1.5 Scope of the study 5

1.6 Significance of the study 6

1.7 Definitions of key terms 6

1.8 Organization of the thesis 7

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 Definition of reticence 9

2.2.1 Reticence in oral communication 9

2.2.2 Reticence in ESL/EFL classrooms 11

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2.2.3 Reticence among Asian ESL/EFL learners 12

2.3 Factors contributing to Asian ESL/EFL learners’ reticence in English classes 13

2.3.1 Cultural factor 13

2.3.2 Learning environment factor 14

2.3.3 Psychological factor 16

2.3.4 Linguistic factor 17

2.4 The relationship between the learners’ foreign language proficiency and their reticence 18

2.5 Previous studies 19

2.5.1 Studies on reticence in international contexts 19

2.5.2 Studies on reticence in Vietnamese context 20

2.6 Conceptual Framework 23

2.7 Summary 25

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction 27

3.2 Research design 27

3.3 Research site 28

3.4 Sample and sampling procedures 29

3.4.1 Quantitative approach 29

3.4.2 Qualitative approach 33

3.5 Research instruments 35

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3.6 Data collection procedures 36

3.7 Data analysis procedures 37

3.7.1 Quantitative data analysis 37

3.7.1.1 Reliability analysis 38

3.7.1.1.1 Reliability analysis of the Cultural factor 38

3.7.1.1.2 Reliability analysis of the Learning environment factor 39

3.7.1.1.3 Reliability analysis of the Psychological factor 40

3.7.1.1.4 Reliability analysis of the Linguistic factor 40

3.7.1.2 Descriptive analysis 41

3.7.1.2.1 Observed variables analysis 41

3.7.1.2.2 Factors comparison 41

3.7.1.5 Independent Sample T-Test 41

3.7.1.6 Scatter plots 42

3.7.2 Qualitative data analysis 42

3.8 Validity and reliability 43

3.8.1 Validity 43

3.8.2 Reliability 44

3.9 Ethical issues 44

3.9.1 Honesty and integrity 44

3.9.2 Confidentiality 44

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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Introduction 45

4.2 Results 45

4.2.1 Factors contributing to the adult learners’ reticence 45

4.2.1.1 Findings from quantitative data 45

4.2.1.1.1 Effects of the Cultural factor on adult learners’ reticence 45

4.2.1.1.2 Effects of the Learning environment factor on adult learners’ reticence 46

4.2.1.1.3 Effects of the Psychological factor on adult learners’ reticence 47

4.2.1.1.4 Effects of the Linguistic factor on adult learners’ reticence 47

4.2.1.1.5 Factors comparison 48

4.2.1.2 Findings from qualitative data 49

4.2.1.2.1 Cultural factor 49

4.2.1.2.2 Learning environment factor 51

4.2.1.2.3 Psychological factor 52

4.2.1.2.4 Linguistic factor 53

4.2.2 Relationship between the learners’ levels of English proficiency and their reticence in speaking classes 54

4.2.2.1 Comparison between groups of learners of different English proficiency levels 54

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4.2.2.2 Comparison among groups of learners of different English

proficiency levels 58

4.3 Discussions 63

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS 5.1 Summary of the main findings of the thesis 67

5.2 Implications of the research 68

5.3 Limitation of the research 69

5.4 Recommendations for further research 69

REFERENCES 71

APPENDICES 80

Appendix A: Quantitative data analysis results 80

Appendix B: Research instruments 87

Appendix C: The questionnaire items from previous studies 93

Appendix D: Plagiarism check result 96

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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1 Background information of the participants 34

Table 3.2 Reliability test of the Cultural factor 39

Table 3.3 Reliability test of the Learning environment factor 39

Table 3.4Reliability test of the Psychological factor 40

Table 3.5Reliability test of the Linguistic factor 40

Table 4.1 Effects of the Cultural factor on adult learners’ reticence 45

Table 4.2 Effects of the Learning environment factor on adult learners’ reticence 46

Table 4.3Effects of the Psychological factor on adult learners’ reticence 47

Table 4.4 Effects of the Linguistic factor on adult learners’ reticence 47

Table 4.5 Descriptive statistics of the main factors 48

Table 4.6 Difference between Beginner and Intermediate learners 55

Table 4.7 Difference between Intermediate and Advanced learners 56

Table 4.8 Difference between Beginner and Advanced learners 57

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework of the factors contributing to the EFL adult

learners’ reticence, and how the learners’ proficiency levels affect

their reticence 24

Figure 3.1 Gender of the participants 29

Figure 3.2 Age of the participants 30

Figure 3.3 Participants’ time of learning English 31

Figure 3.4 Participants’ time of learning communicative English at SAS 32

Figure 4.1 Degree of reticence among groups of learners regarding Cultural factor 59

Figure 4.2 Degree of reticence among groups of learners regarding Learning environment factor 60

Figure 4.3 Degree of reticence among groups of learners regarding Psychological factor 61

Figure 4.4 Degree of reticence among groups of learners regarding Linguistic factor 62

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

CELTA Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

CLT Communicative Language Teaching

EFL English as a foreign language

ESL English as a Second Language

IELTS International English Language Test

TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

TOEIC Test of English for International Communication

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

English has been considered the most effective language for broad communication (Baugh & Cable, 2002) In fact, English has been spoken not only in native countries such as England, the USA, or Australia; but non-native countries and territories such as Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong have also adopted English as a second language Nowadays, it is estimated that over a billion people speak English all over the world The significance of the English language is particularly highlighted

in modern societies, where it plays a bridging tool to global communication,

connecting people around the world (Nishanthi, 2018)

In the current socio-economic context in Vietnam, the importance of being able to communicate in English is indisputable More and more international companies and organizations are choosing Vietnam as a reliable country for cooperation, trading, and investment (Hoang Van Tan, 2010) Furthermore, as English has already been recognized as a lingua franca (Jenkins, 2007), those who can speak English in addition to their mother tongue are likely to gain significant advantages over monolinguals Firstly, they have more job opportunities, career advancement and mobility (Eddy, 1991) Secondly, people who can speak English fluently may be able to make more international friends, learn new cultures, and therefore enrich their life experience Also, they can expand their knowledge in many fields (Genesee & Cloud, 1998) Thirdly, bilinguals are considered to be more conscientious and industrious One’s analytical and interpretive capabilities can be tremendously developed via the study of a second language (Bruck, 2007) Last but not least, learning foreign languages makes people mentally healthier It is scientifically proven that studying foreign languages enhances human’s cognitive function, and therefore improves memory and lowers the risk of Alzheimer disease

Being fully aware of such benefits, the number of English learners in Vietnam has been drastically increasing in the recent few decades (London, 2011) Not only students but people of many social statuses and occupations are signing up for communicative English classes at private English centers By the same token, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach has been gradually appreciated and applied as it offers real-life learning contexts within the classroom (Richards, 2006) The application of pragmatic activities is of great assistance to help learners realize practical values of the lessons and might therefore stimulate their classroom participation level (Rhalmi, 2009) CLT approach also increases the learners’ role, giving them more freedom and time to practice (Burns, 1998) Compared to traditional teaching methods, which highly regard the teacher’s role and promote accuracy (grammar, writing, word use, etc.), the newly adopted approach shows greater advantages in terms of practicality, promotion of the learners’ confidence and enthusiasm

People go to private English centers for a variety of purposes Many of EFL learners wish to enhance their communication skills Besides, high school and college students want to perform better at school and improve their grades Working people hope to gain more confidence in communicating in English with foreign partners and

be able to advance their career Individuals who are intending to settle in a foreign country would like to have a good preparation for the language they are going to use regularly Other learners simply perceive studying English at private centers as a healthy pastime, or regard this as an environment to make more friends

In order to better understand such type of learners, the present study was conducted in a private English center in Ho Chi Minh city, where communication skills such as listening, speaking, and pronunciation skills were mainly focused in learning activities The researcher investigated ten speaking classes with EFL adult learners in general as participants

1.2 Statement of the problem

Learners at English centers have different motivations and attitudes towards studying English compared to college students, whose main goal is to achieve good grades in examinations From the researcher’s observation, learners in English centers come from different age groups (they can be as young as high school students, and as old as retired people), educational background (for instance, some learners might have been studying English continuously since childhood, whereas some might have never studied English before), level of exposure to English in different working environments, self-study time, so on and so forth However, similar to learners at schools, colleges, and universities, the learners at English centers are susceptible to passiveness and anxiety during learning activities in the classroom, especially those involve speaking Their common reaction to the teacher’s questions is silence Besides, many of the learners will not share their ideas unless they are called upon and asked for their opinion individually An ESL/EFL classroom may become uncomfortable, and the learning session may consequently be unproductive when quietness emerges repeatedly, or only limited interaction between the learners and the instructor is recognized (Fritschner, 2000) In spite of the teacher’s constant encouragement and provision with necessary skills, resources, and assistance, learners’ passiveness, anxiety, and hesitation in participation are to be anticipated In the context of foreign language acquisition, academia typically refers to such phenomenon as ‘reticence’ (Braddock et al., 1995; Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Tsui, 1996; Jackson, 2002)

From the researcher’s own experience, EFL adult learners encounter various difficulties in English speaking classes For instance, many adult learners have not been exposed to the English language for a certain amount of time, which causes them anxiety when orally practicing the target foreign language Additionally, because of the obsolete language learning methods they have adopted throughout in high school, which predominantly focus on receptive skills, real-life speaking tasks in communicative classrooms are likely to be unfamiliar and complicated to the learners

(Tran Thi Tuyet, 2013) Other obstacles include the lack of vocabulary for designated topics, incorrect pronunciation, unwillingness to speak English when called upon, the shortage of time to preview or review the lessons as many of the adult learners have

to work full-time (Soo & Goh, 2013) Those aspects might be hypothesized as causes for EFL adult learners’ reticence before further research was implemented

While researchers have conducted a great number of studies on reticence among learners in high schools, colleges, and universities, a scarcity of research on the similar issue with adult learners in general at private English centers is recognized Motivated to expand understanding of this gap, the researcher was determined to conduct a study on EFL adult learners’ reticence at a private English center, where the researcher is working as a teacher of communicative English

1.3 Aims and objectives of the study

The aim of the study was to gain a better understanding of EFL adult learners’ reticence in speaking classes at private English centers In order for this aim to be achieved, the following objectives were set:

- To investigate the factors that contribute to EFL adult learners’ reticence in English speaking classes

- To explore the relationship between EFL adult learners’ levels of English proficiency and their reticence in English speaking classes

1.4 Research questions

1 What factors contribute to EFL adult learners’ reticence in English speaking classes?

2 How do EFL adult learners’ levels of English proficiency affect their reticence

in English speaking classes?

1.5 Scope of the study

The conduct of the study took place at Saigon American Society English Center (SAS) SAS has had a reputation for cutting-edge teaching programs that mainly focus on communicative English Thanks to the multi-form classrooms, authentic teaching materials, and flexible learning schedules, SAS has attracted a great number of EFL learners all over Vietnam In order to investigate the factors accounting for EFL adult learners’ reticence and passiveness, ten communicative English classes (with the total learners of 150) from three different levels, including Beginner, Intermediate, and Advanced, were invited to participate in a survey Besides, in addition to the data collected from the survey, fifteen EFL adult learners

at three above mentioned levels studying communicative English at SAS agreed to

be interviewed to share their perceptions on subjects regarding communicative English

The research was set to be conducted at a private English Center instead of a conventional academic institute (high school, college, or university) because of the fact that not many studies on EFL learners’ reticence at private language centers in Vietnam had been recognized By the same token, from the researcher’s observation, the participants chosen in most previous studies were predominantly high school or college students Hence, this study was determined to survey adult learners in general

so that the readers might have a different view on reticence in learning communicative English, and formulate comparisons between the two types of learners

The study focused on four main factors that contributed to the adult learners’ reticence in speaking classes The four factors were Cultural factor, Learning environment factor, Psychological factor, and Linguistic factor In terms of research methodology, due to the unexpected outbreak of Coronavirus (Covid-19), two main changes were made Firstly, because of the restriction of physical interaction, a part

of the data collection procedures was conducted online Specifically, a certain number

of the participants completed the questionnaire via a Google form link provided by

the researcher Secondly, the researcher decided not to conduct the classroom observation due to the significant reduction in working hours and gathering at SAS English Center

1.6 Significance of the study

By conducting this study, the researcher aspired to be able to shed light on the factors causing reticence to EFL adult learners in English speaking classes at private English centers The results of this study may be beneficial to those who are working

as teachers of communicative English, syllabus designers for communicative English programs, English center managers, and for ESL/EFL learners in Asian contexts The opportune realization of the learners’ problems may help teachers modify their teaching methods and activities in a more flexible way, help syllabus designers plan teaching programs with more appropriate topics, tasks, and examinations Last but not least, based on the results of the study, the researcher proposed some recommendations for further research on the same domain

1.7 Definitions of key terms

Reticence: In the present study, reticence refers to EFL learners’ sense of

passiveness, anxiety, shyness; or their tendency to withdraw from classroom

activities

EFL: EFL stands for English as a Foreign Language, meaning the learning and using

English as an additional language in a non-native English-speaking country

ESL: ESL stands for English as a Second Language, which is the learning and using

English in a country where English is recognized as an official language

Communicative English: Communicative English refers to an aspect of the English

language that focuses on interaction (mainly including talking and responding)

EFL adult learners: In the present study, EFL adult learners represent mature

English learners, predominantly aging from 18 to 50 Some relatively younger or older learners may also be included

1.8 Organization of the thesis

The thesis includes five chapters

Chapter 1 gave an overview of the study background, which is the increasing demands for studying English in Vietnam Next, the chapter emphasized the behavior

of reticence of EFL adult learners in English speaking classes, which was the research focus of the thesis The chapter then explained how the study was narrowed and the benefits it might offer Finally, the chapter explained the key terms that were frequently mentioned in the study

Chapter 2 presented literature review, in which theories about reticence in general communication and reticence in ESL/EFL learning contexts in Asia were reviewed The chapter then narrowed its focus to Asian ESL/EFL learners to support the researcher’s arguments for the present study Following that, the factors that accounted for reticence and the impacts of reticence on East Asian learners were discussed Also, the chapter reviewed a number of previous studies which had been conducted in Vietnam and other Asian countries on the present research issue Chapter 3 explained the methodology of the study Specifically, the chapter described the research site, characteristics of the participants, how the data was collected and analyzed Moreover, the chapter explained how the validity and reliability of the study had been assessed and verified before the data collection was implemented The chapter concluded with the researcher’s guarantee of authenticity, integrity, and confidentiality during the implementation of the study

Chapter 4 presented the results retrieved after the data (both quantitative and qualitative data) was analyzed Next, the chapter presented the discussions and comparisons with the literature or previous studies, formulated by the researcher based on the present study’s findings

Chapter 5 presented the conclusions of the study First, the chapter started with a summary of the major findings of the study Following that, the chapter presented the pedagogical implications, which were formulated by the researcher based on the results of the study Next, the chapter mentioned limitation of the study, which

included the aspects revolving around the issue that the present study was unable to shed light on Finally, the chapter concluded with recommendations, in which the researcher suggested a number of new directions related to the current issue for further research

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Reticence is a phenomenon that usually manifests when an individual appears unwilling to speak in a typical conversation (Jackson, 2002) Because of the distinct characteristics and significant impacts that it may generate, reticence has been attracting the attention of many researchers in the last few decades, in terms of both general communication and ESL/EFL contexts (Liu & Jackson, 2009) To shed light

on the issue, this chapter will start with the enumeration of several definitions of reticence in general communication and in ESL/EFL learning contexts Next, the chapter will narrow its scope to reticence and passiveness in Asian ESL/EFL learners, who are the target audience of the present study Specifically, how reticence affects differently to East Asian learners compared to learners from other ethnic groups, and the possible reasons that lead to such apprehensive behavior will be discussed Furthermore, the chapter will review previous studies, including studies conducted in Vietnam and other countries, from which this study will be compared and contrasted

in order to explore the similarities and differences

2.2 Definition of reticence

2.2.1 Reticence in oral communication

One of first authors to conduct research on reticence was Gerald M Phillips

In 1965, Phillips published an article concerning communicative problems that a number of people encountered in various contexts He defined reticence as the inclination to avoid social interaction or the unwillingness to communicate His research set a foundation for further studies aspiring to investigate reticence in communication Overtime, his concept was revised and supplemented Originally, Phillips’ research perceived reticence as a disorder involving personality and anxiety However, behavioral dimension was focused instead in his later research According

to this, an individual’s reticence was predominantly caused by the scarcity of communication skills rather than personality (Phillips, 1984, 1997) His revised studies revealed that social withdrawal and the tendency to shirk conversations were the main characteristics of a reticent person In other words, it is the feeling of incompetence that impedes their communicative participation and public utterance Phillips (1984, p 52) emphasizes that due to the thought that keeping silent might be more beneficial than talking, people are inclined to avoid conversations when they can That illustrates how reticence is referred to as communicative behavior This is considered the first and groundwork definition of reticence that sheds light on behavioral and cognitive dimensions

The two aforementioned aspects were later studied in a broader manner by Keaten and Kelly (2000), in which behavioral dimension is associated with the avoidance of communication caused by the lack of necessary skills in five key rhetorical aspects (invention, disposition, style, delivery, and memory), while cognitive dimension involves belief generated to justify such social behavior Furthermore, reticent individuals experience higher levels of negative emotions, fear

of social judgement, peer pressure, etc when compared to people with higher levels

of confidence (Keaten et al., 1999) Plus, individuals who avoid communication believe that remaining silence is a better option than facing the probability of appearing imprudent

Besides Phillips, another well-known researcher to profoundly study reticence

in communication is McCroskey In 1970, McCroskey proposed a hypothesis called

‘communication apprehension’, which is basically a manifestation of nervousness when a person is unable to communicate with other people Also, reticent individuals

do not necessarily avoid any conversation Instead, they may choose to be as brief and less participative as possible (McCroskey, 1976) Because the element of eagerness to communicate effectively among people in a society is always highly regarded, people with high levels of reticence and anxiety tend to benefit considerably

less from society such as grades at school, career opportunities, relationship prospects, and so forth

2.2.2 Reticence in ESL/EFL classrooms

In ESL/EFL contexts, the theories about reticence proposed and developed by Phillips, Keaten and Kelly, and McCroskey still remain significantly relevant Reticence, in common with passiveness and anxiety, is a phenomenon observed in many ESL/EFL learners A typical reticent learner is likely to keep silent, hesitate to partake in classroom activities, and appear anxious when answering the teacher’s questions in the target foreign language (Jackson, 2002; Zhang & Head, 2009) As confirmed by Jenkin (2008), reticence is among major issues that hinder learners’ development of speaking skills Moreover, Jenkin points out that not only does reticence negatively affect the learners’ process of language acquisition, it also causes confusion to teachers as they may infer that their teaching methods or tasks are inappropriate or tedious

In their study, MacIntyre and Gardner (1994) refer reticence in learners as Foreign Language (FL) anxiety, which is “the feeling of nervousness and apprehension produced during situations in which a second language is involved”

FL anxiety encompasses three elements: communication trepidation, test apprehension, and fear of negative evaluation (Horwitz & Cope, 1986) Specifically, communication trepidation means the sense of shyness that manifests when a person converses with other people Those who are uncomfortable speaking in groups may encounter more difficulties and disadvantages in FL classrooms than extraverted individuals Meanwhile, test apprehension is characterized by the fear of failure in examinations It is the demand to perform better than their own ability that increases the learners’ level of neuroticism, which includes anxiety, frustration, and depression Finally, fear of negative evaluation is connected with the dread of being judged by other people FL learners who have a fear of negative evaluation tend to compare themselves with their peers, conclude that their ability is inconsequential, and

consequently avoid conversations or interact as minimally as they possibly can (Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002)

Reticence or FL anxiety causes a considerable number of negative impacts to learners Firstly, it is self-evident that a reticent student is not likely to have a good performance in the target foreign language Despite the willingness to work hard, anxious and passive students can hardly achieve the desired learning outcomes or level of foreign language proficiency compared to active and social students (Horwitz

& Cope, 1986) Reticence also affects group interaction A group composed of many shy and apprehensive individuals undoubtedly contributes less to the lesson than active groups (Shao & Gao, 2016) Moreover, passive group members are likely to reduce productivity of the whole group In fact, low level of participation leads to the lack of diversity of ideas and arguments; and therefore, the expected learning outcomes may not be fully achieved (Lee & Ng, 2010)

2.2.3 Reticence among Asian ESL/EFL learners

Language learners are generally categorized by their ethnic or cultural background (Shao & Gao, 2016) By the same token, Asian ESL/EFL learners are usually referred to as groups of English learners coming from Asian countries with Confucian philosophy foundation such as Mainland China, Hong Kong, Korea, Taiwan (Griffiths et al., 2014) Numerous studies indicate that Asian learners have disproportionately high levels of reticence in ESL/EFL classrooms, especially those are involved in communicative or cooperative learning activities (Tong, 2010) Hong Kong college students, for instance, were described by their lecturers as inactive and unwilling learners because of the continual shortage of oral interactions (Flowerdew

& Miller, 1996) Song (1995) states that it is Asian student groups in his or her classrooms that remain silent frequently in group discussions and rarely ask questions It can be assumed that studying Asian ESL/EFL learners about their classroom behaviors has attracted the researchers’ attention more than other learner groups as they hold distinct characteristics, which may substantially affect their

process of foreign language acquisition Such characteristics will be mentioned in the following section, in which the factors responsible for Asian ESL/EFL learners’ reticence and passiveness are discussed

2.3 Factors contributing to Asian ESL/EFL learners’ reticence in English

classes

2.3.1 Cultural factor

In many studies, culture is reported to be the most popular reason for Asian ESL/EFL learners’ reticence In terms of learning style, Chinese learners are described to be more passive than Western learners because of the Chinese culture of respect to teachers or authoritative figures (Liu, 2005) Students are consequently bound to express Chinese honorific phrases in English classes, which causes them certain adversities in learning the target foreign language naturally and effectively Furthermore, the Confucian philosophy in Asian countries emphasizes and promotes the social harmony and face value (Ho & Crookall, 1995; Miller & Aldred, 2000), which considerably prevent students from forthrightly expressing their ideas, showing disagreements, or seeking help from their peers or instructors in order not to harm their reputation

In fact, the effects of culture and the relationship between the students and the teacher are two of three sub-streams that explain Asian students’ low participation in the classroom (Tani, 2005) Confucianism plays a significant role in orienting Asian people to public socialization and behavior Confucianism regards the benefits of maintaining harmony amongst people, avoiding conflicts, and working collectively instead of individually In addition, the fear of “losing face” also substantially affects Asian learners’ degree of classroom engagement (Irwin, 1996; Watson, 1999) Asian students are concerned with the possibility of being embarrassed or criticized, losing self-esteem and reputation amongst classmates, or even being punished by their teacher if they perform below expectation Being burdened with such apprehensions,

it is self-evident that Asian ESL/EFL learners are often anxious and passive in dynamic learning environments such as English-speaking classes

Another research conducted by Hiraga and Turner (1996) as to the impacts of cultural norms on academic learning activities revealed that Japanese abroad students

in the U.K were hesitant to participate in dialectical and analytic discourse in certain courses Turner and Hiraga infer that Japanese students’ reticent behavior could be generated by Japanese culture, which highly regards the importance of demonstration, rather than transformation of knowledge Additionally, Asian students are willing to sacrifice their own interests in order to avoid disagreements during group discussions (Littlewood, 1999) Asian social norms convince them that contending or opposing other people’s opinions publicly should be eliminated Hence, regardless of language proficiency level, Asian students usually show reluctance and irresolution as they are afraid of appearing too disagreeable or arrogant

by forthrightly expressing their own ideas or arguments

Vietnamese EFL learners are also influenced by Confucius practices In EFL classrooms, cultural and social norms have negative effects on the students’ learning progress (Nguyen Tuong Hung, 2002) For instance, the students are accustomed to listening and writing down everything on the board in silence Plus, they are afraid to appear disrespectful if they look the teachers in the eye and ask them more questions during the lesson Consequently, although Vietnamese EFL learners may be proficient in writing or grammar, they experience acute difficulties when attending English classes in which speaking skills are required

2.3.2 Learning environment factor

Apart from the factor of culture, results from many empirical studies also enumerate reasons from other dimensions that are held accountable for Asian ESL/EFL learners’ reticence and anxiety Apparently, the surrounding learning environment plays a crucial part in the learners’ process of foreign language acquisition By the same token, a number of learning environment-related aspects are

recognized as causes that impede ESL/EFL learners’ language development For instance, Chinese EFL learners are reported to feel apprehension when using the English language because of the shortage of extra practice outside the classroom (Liu

& Jackson, 2008) Liu and Jackson maintain that not only do Chinese students refuse

to seek opportunities to practice speaking English in their daily life, they tend to use the Chinese language even for learning activities such as games and discussions in English classes As a result, Chinese students are likely to experience difficulties when asked to express their ideas in English, or get bad grades in English speaking exams

The adaption of inappropriate teaching materials and methodology is also reported as a common cause for the learners’ passiveness and apprehension Students tend to refuse to participate in classroom activities when they find the topics unfamiliar, difficult, or uninteresting (Punthamsen, 2007) In relation with the teachers’ pedagogical techniques, it is proven that the right application of methods and time allowance for students to prepare for the lesson actually promote their dynamism and productivity (Wei, 2008) For example, Wei suggests that real-life based projects and presentations are two effective learning forms that attract students’ attention and participation Meanwhile, having the students prepare vocabulary and ideas that are potentially relevant and useful to the upcoming topic helps boost their confidence when they actually speak

In addition, there are other causes generated by learning environment that may also be taken into account of EFL learners’ reticence For example, irrational learning methods adopted from family are likely to cause a learner confusion when he or she

is introduced with new approaches at school Past learning experience (pronunciation mistakes, defective grammar and writing skills, etc.) is believed to negatively affect both the learner and the teacher because they may have to rectify the learner’s previously embedded mistakes before acquiring new knowledge Sudden change of learning environment (social, ethnic, rural/urban minority groups) is also responsible for the learner’s unproductivity and passiveness (Phillips, 1997)

2.3.3 Psychological factor

Studies reveal that learners’ psychological reactions to learning activities, especially the ones involving speaking, are closely related to reticence Although students generally would like a variety of learning activities in class, they still have a preference for non-communicative activities rather than communicative activities (Rao, 2002) According to Rao, since the introduction of CLT approach in China in the 1980s, real-life lessons, as well as learner-centered teaching methods, have not shown considerable dominance over traditional learning approaches, which promote the teacher’s role and require the classroom a tranquil environment instead of a dynamic one Additionally, previous studies indicate that Chinese students prefer that the teacher give explanations (about rules regarding tenses, word forms, language use contexts, etc.) in English instead of Chinese It means that EFL learners are willing

to expose themselves to the target language, but psychologically, they are still inclined to learn the way they are familiar with

In a study on Taiwanese EFL learners’ attitudes towards communicative learning, Savignon and Wang (2003) address that despite the clear awareness that the ultimate purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to talk and interact with people, learners feel more comfortable and confident with form-focused, grammar, and translation tasks It can be inferred that it might take a great amount of time for Asian EFL learners to gradually familiarize themselves with communicative learning activities Until then, reticence in English speaking classes is not likely to be completely obliterated

Apart from the inclination to study foreign languages with traditional methods, personality is also a psychology-related element that affects the learners’ performance in the classroom Statistically, extroverted or sociable individuals are reported to be better FL learners as they are likely to participate in classroom activities such as games, roleplay, discussions voluntarily and actively (Cook, 2013) As a result, such gregarious learners benefit more from the lessons and progress more rapidly than introverted learners, who appear hesitant to express their ideas or spend

a trivial amount of time on practicing speaking skills with their peers (Zafar & Meenakshi, 2012)

2.3.4 Linguistic factor

The ability to produce language verbally is reportedly correlated with the learners’ self-esteem and degree of classroom participation From the results of the interviews on Japanese students at University of Edinburgh, Dwyer and Heller-Murphy (1996) suggest that besides the cultural factor, which includes the fear of making mistakes publicly and the urge to maintain harmony amongst people, another cause of reticence in Asian students in EFL classrooms may come from low English proficiency, inability to steadily follow native speakers’ teaching, and confusion of English conversation rules and norms Dwyer and Heller-Murphy’s inference was later advocated by Jones (1999)’ literature in his or her research on behavior in class

of Non-Native Students (NNS) in native English-speaking countries such as the U.K, Australia, or New Zealand Furthermore, low language proficiency also tends to gradually reduce learners’ confidence, enthusiasm and willingness to work harder The failure to properly express ideas in the target foreign language may predispose learners to the thought that they are not competent, hence the behavior of learning activity withdrawal This phenomenon is likely to manifest more frequently to learners with lower levels of proficiency, whose knowledge of pronunciation, vocabulary or grammar is relatively insufficient On the other hand, individuals who are more proficient at the target foreign language are reported to be more confident, eager, and active in classroom activities (Liu, 2005)

The indisputable importance of vocabulary in English learning is particularly highlighted in Nation’s study in 1990 Nation states that it is the richness in vocabulary that enables the learners to perform other language skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing competently In communicative English classes, in which content-based learning tasks are frequently applied, a verbally fluent learner is likely to gain tremendous advantages and perform better than their peers (Khan et al,

2018) In contrast, individuals that are unable to articulate their ideas because of the shortage of vocabulary may feel passive and anxious in an English-speaking environment

Another linguistic aspect that is of utter essence to ESL/EFL learners is pronunciation However, pronunciation skills are usually neglected in communicative classes (Harmer, 2001) Harmer explains that both the teacher and learners have the proclivity for concentrating on fluency and general understanding in an English conversation Accuracy in pronunciation is therefore regarded redundant and unnecessary Nonetheless, the learners tend to encounter acute difficulties in English classes due to their pronunciation errors, which lead to their apprehension and passiveness They may become nervous when the teacher shows confusion about their answers because of their mispronunciation (Schmid & Yeni-Komshian, 1999)

By the same token, the incorrect pronunciation causes the learners difficulties in listening and understanding the teacher’s questions, instructions, or explanations

2.4 The relationship between the learners’ foreign language proficiency and their reticence

The ESL/EFL learners’ reticence is greatly influenced by their level of language proficiency (Jackson, 2002) Many teachers associate their students’ anxiety and passiveness with their low proficiency level, in parallel with their insufficiency

of language knowledge (Tsui, 1996) In fact, the relationship between L2 learners’ anxiety and their learning progress was discussed in a model proposed by MacIntyre and Gardner (1989) MacIntyre and Gardner (1989) perceive reticence or anxiety as learned emotional response The development of language anxiety is generated by frequent negative L2 learning experiences It is expected that as the learners’ proficiency increases, their positive experiences might be able to gradually replace negative experiences, hence the reduction in the anxiety level

It is proven that high-level learners are reportedly more attentive, confident, and therefore contribute more to the lessons (Liu, 2005) Meanwhile, learners with

lower level of proficiency tend to be more anxious when speaking, withdraw from learning activities, and appear less confident than their peers Hamouda’s study in

2013 revealed that more than 75% of the participants agreed with the statement that their poor English proficiency causes them anxiety when speaking, and decreases their self-esteem and enthusiasm In another study, low proficiency level accounted for the most Asian learners’ reticence (more than 47%), higher than anticipated factors such as cultural beliefs (43%), or personality (39%) (Liu & Jackson, 2011)

With regards to the relationship between the learners’ level of foreign language proficiency and their reticence, Liu and Jackson (2009) drew a number of conclusions Firstly, most of the students highly regarded the importance of oral communication practice with their peers and teacher Secondly, pair work virtually boosted interest and confidence to the students of all levels of proficiency, but they were not very enthusiastic and active in answering the teacher’s questions individually Thirdly, the learners’ reticence can be mitigated with the increased quantity of speaking practice, and the supportive and welcoming learning environment, regardless of their proficiency level

2.5 Previous studies

2.5.1 Studies on reticence in international contexts

Research on reticence in ESL/EFL learners in Asia has attracted attention of the academia (Park & Oxford, 1998) As English has been recognized as a lingua franca (Jenkin, 2007), in the last few decades, Asian countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, etc have been revising and reforming pedagogical methodology of the English language in order for their citizens to communicate and work with foreign partners competently Studying the causes of passiveness and anxiety in learners has since become a major motivation for researchers so that Asian learners may be able

to overcome learning barriers and apply the English language knowledge in different communication contexts effectively and confidently

International previous studies reveal that generally, in comparison with ESL/EFL learners from other continents, Asian learners are reported to be more reticent and passive in classrooms (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996) In their study, 15 Western ESL teachers working in Chinese universities were interviewed about their views on Chinese students’ learning strategies The findings showed that Chinese students were actually disciplined, diligent, and hardworking EFL learners Nonetheless, Western teachers stated that Chinese students were not enthusiastic in group activities; they were shy and awkward when being asked to speak individually; and they were only relatively more active in whole-class activities Additionally, in a survey conducted in several universities in Hong Kong, Flowerdew and Miller (1995) found that foreign lecturers were concerned and confused by their students’ passiveness Specifically, during classes, Hong Kong ESL students were hesitant to raise their hand and express their opinions They also had a tendency to avoid eye contact during conversations, especially the ones involving the teacher per se Besides, results revealed that the learners only produced the most minimal answers

to the teacher’s questions The researchers inferred that the learners’ reticence may have been associated with the learning culture in Asia Lastly, the relationship between the learners’ language proficiency and anxiety or passiveness is highlighted

by Liu in his or her study in 2006 The study concludes that as the learners’ levels of proficiency increase, they tend to become less reticent and anxious, and engage in the lessons more frequently and attentively

2.5.2 Studies on reticence in Vietnamese context

A number of studies on reticence have also been conducted in EFL learning contexts in Vietnam From his survey data, Nguyen Van Tuyen (2017) reveals that a great proportion of the students (52%) have a tendency to remain silent and wait for the teacher to give the answer when they are not confident about theirs Nonetheless, even when they are certain that their answer is correct, approximately 36% of the students are reported to refuse to voluntarily express it Nguyen Van Tuyen also states

that Vietnamese students rarely ask their teacher for further explanation or clarification about the lesson The reason for such problems is that the students have been taught to remain silence while the teacher is speaking Also, they are afraid of misunderstanding and disrespecting their teacher if they forthrightly address their questions (Nguyen Tuong Hung, 2002) Similar to other Asian countries, the culture

of respecting the superiors or showing humility tends to remain its great influence to Vietnamese EFL learners on their foreign language learning process

A study conducted in 2018 by Ha Nam Khanh Giao and Doan Thi Thuy Hoa suggests some noteworthy effects of the learning environment on Vietnamese EFL learners From the results retrieved from the interviews regarding foreign language learning motivations, the researchers conclude that the learners may become anxious, passive, and inattentive when they are not comfortable or satisfied with the learning contents, classroom equipment, the teacher’s pedagogical techniques, and learning tasks In order to mitigate the learners’ passiveness and anxiety, the authors suggest that teachers receive feedback from their students, re-design the lessons in a more appropriate way, and subtly reward their students for their good behavior, effort, and hard work

Regarding the factor of psychology, Nguyen Hoang Tuan and Tran Ngoc Mai (2015) conclude that Vietnamese high school students encounter typical issues in English speaking classes For instance, they are generally inclined to translate their ideas from Vietnamese to English before they actually speak, which is extremely time-consuming, unnatural, and incorrect to a certain extent Besides, in their study, Nguyen Hoang Tuan and Tran Ngoc Mai emphasize that most of the students have a tendency to procrastinate due to the lack of motivation to practice speaking Specifically, high school students are only required to have good knowledge of grammar and vocabulary so they may be able to achieve good grades in exams Finally, a certain proportion of students are reported to refuse to participate in speaking activities because they are afraid of speaking in front of the class or being humiliated by their peers

Vietnamese EFL learners are also reported to be passive and anxious in the classroom because of difficulties related to linguistics According to Ha Cam Tam’s research (2005), a great number of Vietnamese people are able to speak English, but only a limited number of individuals have the decent pronunciation so that they can

be understood and maintain proper conversations with foreigners Ha Cam Tam implies that it is the methods of teaching pronunciation at schools and the unqualified ability of pronunciation of the teacher that cause such an issue Last but not least, the lack of vocabulary range for common speaking topics are also accountable for the Vietnamese students’ silence and passiveness

In short, from the previous studies, it can be inferred that reticence has been

an issue encountered in many ESL/EFL classrooms around the world In particular, the learners’ behavior of reticence is regarded as a major phenomenon in Asian countries, and Vietnam is no exception Many researchers address that Asian ESL/EFL learners are generally more passive, anxious, and inattentive in the lessons and learning activities, especially when oral communication is involved, compared to the learners from other ethnic groups While a number of Vietnamese researchers have conducted studies on reticence in conventional institutes, the shortage of research on the similar issue on the adult learners’ reticence in English centers is seen Thus, the present study was set to better explore the adult learners’ behavior of reticence in speaking classes in an English language center in Vietnam The factors that the researcher focused to investigate the learners’ reticence will be illustrated in the next section

In the Cultural factor, the main reasons for the learners’ reticence consisted of the fear of public embarrassment (Irwin, 1996; Watson, 1999), the inclination to show respect for authoritative figures (Liu, 2005), and the urge to show humility in socialization and avoid conflicts (Ho & Crookall, 1995; Miller & Aldred, 2000) In the Learning environment factor, the main reasons for the learners’ anxiety and passiveness were the lack of frequent practice (Liu & Jackson, 2008), the encounter with unfamiliar topics (Punthamsen, 2007), and the teachers’ application of inappropriate learning activities (Wei, 2008) In the Psychological factor, the reasons contributing to the learners’ reticence included the preference for traditional learning methods (Rao, 2002; Wang, 2003), and the learners’ shy or introverted personality (Cook, 2013) In the Linguistic factor, the reasons that caused the learners reticence were the learners’ lack of vocabulary for various topics (Dwyer & Heller-Murphy, 1996), and their pronunciation errors (Harmer, 2001)

Regarding the question of how the learners’ English proficiency levels affected their reticence in the classroom, it had been proven that higher-level learners were more confident, less passive, and tend to contribute more to the lesson (Liu, 2005) Meanwhile, lower level-learners were reportedly more passive and nervous when speaking English (Hamouda, 2013)

Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework of the factors contributing to the EFL adult learners’ reticence, and how the learners’ proficiency levels affect their reticence

EFL ADULT LEARNERS’

RETICENCE

IN SPEAKING CLASSES

Contribute less to the lesson

Contribute more to the lesson

Less passive, anxious

Cultural factor

Learning environm ent factor

Psycholog ical factor

Linguistic factor

level learners

Higher- level learners